ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPACTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPACTS OF HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION FROM THE HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION FROM THE

ZANDFONTEIN CEMETERY, ZANDFONTEIN CEMETERY, TSHWANETSHWANE

POLLUTION AS A RESULT OF BURIAL PRACTICESPOLLUTION AS A RESULT OF BURIAL PRACTICES

C Jonker and J OlivierC Jonker and J Olivier20120133

IERM May 2013IERM May 2013

Nelia Jonker

• Bsc, Hons ( Env Monitoring and Modelling ) Masters – UNISA

• PhD – WATERWATER ( Balneology)

• Research assistant : Prof J Olivier ( Emeritus UP, Extraordinarius Unisa)

• Water Research Commission projects – optimal use of thermal springs /fog water harvesting

• Workshops – article writing/ proposal writing/ conversion chapters from Masters/Thesis to articles

• Published articles- International Journal of Env Science and Public Health

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION • Cemeteries are not only the

final resting place to bodies but also to coffins and caskets used for the interment remains.

• The metals that are used in coffin-making may corrode or degrade due to bacteriological and/or environmental factors

• Harmful persistent toxic

heavy metals may be transported from the graves through seepage, leach into surrounding soils and ground water.

COFFIN CONSTRUCTION• Generally, most coffins are crafted out of wood and may only be adorned or

lined with elements of bronze, copper, lead or zinc

• Sometimes cheaper materials such as cardboard, plywood, MDF boards, supawood, chipboard or pressboard are used in coffin construction. With Aids/HIV pushing up the death rate, the demand for cheap coffins is booming in South Africa.

• Corrugated cardboard, printed and varnished to look like marble, pine, imbuia and other varieties of wood, lined with satin and finished with metal handles and decorative finishes (Baur, 2002).

• The material safety data sheets for Wolmanized® plywood and Eco-wood and lumber, that is used to construct coffins , indicates that it contains chromium, copper and arsenic.

• The plywood products contain chemicals known to cause cancer, birth defects or other reproductive harm to humans.

Chemicals that may be released to Chemicals that may be released to groundwater include substances such as groundwater include substances such as

::

•Arsenic and mercury which were Arsenic and mercury which were used in embalming and burial used in embalming and burial practices in the pastpractices in the past

•Copper, chromium in varnishes, Copper, chromium in varnishes, sealers and preservatives used on sealers and preservatives used on wooden coffins & in pressed woods wooden coffins & in pressed woods (Chromated copper arsenate (CCA), (Chromated copper arsenate (CCA), Copper Boron Azole (CBA)Copper Boron Azole (CBA))

•Lead, zinc, copper and steel from Lead, zinc, copper and steel from metal coffins, from handles, hinges metal coffins, from handles, hinges and for decorative purposesand for decorative purposes

The total number of burials / burial load may contribute to the load of chemicals that are released to soils and groundwater = 2 coffins 1 ash (6ft) / or 3 coffins (9ft)

Factors influence pollution potentialMultiple burial practice

Age of cemetery

Some of the older cemeteries may be contaminated with chemicals such as arsenic, mercury and heavy metal salts used for embalming in the past (military)

PLANNING OF CEMETERY

• Slope

• Depths of burials / Water table level

• Poorly cited

• Heavy rain water down slope into residential areas

• After raifall graves are logged with water ( slow down degration process)

• Overlay an aquifer ext. .

Humidity, temperature, rain, impurities and metal wet times have an effect on the corrosion rates –ACID RAIN

BULKING OF SOILSType of soil

• Clayery soils will trap possible pollution/

• The soil type (sand, silt or loam soil) and soil property such as soil pH may influence the metal concentration distributions in soils

Permeability • The bulking of soils caused by

excavation of the graves may result in some alteration to the surface soils- some top soil may return to the bottom of the hole and sub soil may end up on top

• The decay of the body can also alter the chemical composition of the surrounding soil.

Different infiltration and percolation rates

RATIONALERATIONALE

•Most previous studies on Most previous studies on cemetery contamination have cemetery contamination have been carried out on pathogens been carried out on pathogens (germs and viruses) that are (germs and viruses) that are generated during the process generated during the process of decay of decay

•Little is known about the Little is known about the products of degradation from products of degradation from coffins and their influence on coffins and their influence on humans and the environment. humans and the environment.

STUDY AREASTUDY AREA• City of Tshwane (CCTM) has a total City of Tshwane (CCTM) has a total

of 40 cemeteries and 1 crematorium of 40 cemeteries and 1 crematorium within the municipal boundary.within the municipal boundary.

• The Zandfontein cemetery: The Zandfontein cemetery: Established in 1958 Established in 1958

• N Pretoria: Suburbs that surround N Pretoria: Suburbs that surround the Zandfontein cemetery are the Zandfontein cemetery are Suiderberg, Booysens, Hercules, Suiderberg, Booysens, Hercules, Kirkney and Andeon A.H and Lady Kirkney and Andeon A.H and Lady Selborne. Selborne.

• Most of the small-holdings have Most of the small-holdings have water collection tanks that are filled water collection tanks that are filled with water from boreholes and this with water from boreholes and this water is also used for domestic water is also used for domestic consumption.consumption.

Aim: Aim: To determine whether Zandfontein To determine whether Zandfontein cemetery constitutes an environmental and cemetery constitutes an environmental and health hazardhealth hazard

•Estimate the amount of potentially toxic Estimate the amount of potentially toxic heavy metals that can be released from heavy metals that can be released from coffins. coffins.

•Quantify the concentrations of metals Quantify the concentrations of metals in soils and groundwater in soils and groundwater in areas in areas surrounding surrounding Zandfontein cemetery. Zandfontein cemetery.

•Calculate possible health risks if Calculate possible health risks if potentially toxic minerals are released potentially toxic minerals are released into groundwater. into groundwater.

Collection of samples Collection of samples

•23 soil samples in different blocks with depth 23 soil samples in different blocks with depth

•8 borehole samples (2008/2010)8 borehole samples (2008/2010)

COLLECTION OF DATACOLLECTION OF DATA

Record booksRecord books – DData on the burials loads in Zandfontein to ata on the burials loads in Zandfontein to estimate estimate the amount of potentially the amount of potentially toxic heavy metals that can be released from coffins.toxic heavy metals that can be released from coffins.

Estimation of metal pollution in Zandfontein

• 60 000 gravesites in Zandfontein

• Coffin handle = 180 gram zinc / alloy

• Amount of metals in the soils from coffin handles alone, is approximately 108 783 kg = 108.7 ton metal108 783 kg = 108.7 ton metal over the past 50 year (1958-2010).

• Metal deposit annually.

GGEOPHYSICAL DATA COLLECTEDEOPHYSICAL DATA COLLECTED• Two methods were used to map groundwater contaminant plumesTwo methods were used to map groundwater contaminant plumes & &

ground water flow directionground water flow direction..

–Frequency Domain Electromagnetic Method (EM34) Frequency Domain Electromagnetic Method (EM34) –Self Potential Method Self Potential Method

–SSelf Potential Methodelf Potential Method

–The Self Potential method involves measuring natural electrical The Self Potential method involves measuring natural electrical potential that is due to percolation of water in the ground potential that is due to percolation of water in the ground . .

–Self Potential is the only geophysical method that is sensitive to Self Potential is the only geophysical method that is sensitive to groundwater flow. groundwater flow.

LOCATION OF SURVEY LINESLOCATION OF SURVEY LINES

FFrequency Domain Electromagnetic Method (EM34)requency Domain Electromagnetic Method (EM34)

– involves the generation of an electromagnetic field . involves the generation of an electromagnetic field .

–By measuring this magnetic field, subsurface properties and features By measuring this magnetic field, subsurface properties and features can be deduced. can be deduced.

–The acquired data was downloaded onto a computer from the Geonics The acquired data was downloaded onto a computer from the Geonics EM34 polycorder using DUMP34W EM34 polycorder using DUMP34W and map and map

SUMMARY : DATA COLLECTION• HYDROCHEMISTRY

• Concentration heavy metals in soil ( inside cemetery and control sample outside )

• Concentration of heavy metals in borehole• pH

• Water table levels• Record books = know how much graves and the approximate amount of

metals in soil and where are multiple burials

• Geophysical data = map = areas with high conductivity and groundwater flow path

Cr Ni Cu ZnCr Ni Cu ZnAs Hg PbAs Hg Pb

Metal concentrations on- site vs off- siteMetal concentrations on- site vs off- site

MetalMetal Mean metal Mean metal concentrations concentrations on site (mg/kg)on site (mg/kg)

Background- Mean Background- Mean metal metal concentrations off- concentrations off- site (mg/kg) site (mg/kg)

Ratio on : off -Ratio on : off -sitesite

CrCr 321.07321.07 76.3476.34 4:14:1

NiNi 44.6344.63 5.295.29 8:18:1

CuCu 17.3917.39 3.733.73 5:15:1

ZnZn 7.767.76 5.935.93 1:11:1

AsAs 0.390.39 0.090.09 4:14:1

HgHg 0.020.02 0.010.01 2:12:1

PbPb 26.9226.92 11.8411.84 2:12:1

RESULTS – SOILRESULTS – SOIL

Zandfontein soils polluted with heavy metals

Groundwater qualityGroundwater quality

MineralMineral Sample numberSample number

μg/lμg/l Z1139 Z1139 Z1140Z1140 Z1141Z1141 Z1142Z1142 Z1143Z1143 Z1144Z1144 Z1145Z1145Higher Higher

alt alt

Z1146 Z1146 Higher altHigher alt

CrCr0.080.08 0.430.43 0.390.39 0.350.35 0.610.61 0.240.24 4.084.08 0.720.72

CuCu73.7273.72 12.4612.46 2.292.29 24.3024.30 0.910.91 13.3713.37 1.571.57 7.097.09

ZnZn86.8386.83 58.2758.27 206.8206.8 33.5833.58 0.000.00 49.6149.61 50.7750.77 540.2540.2

HgHg2.572.57 1.081.08 0.850.85 0.550.55 0.520.52 0.590.59 0.290.29 0.330.33

RESULTS – Groundwater qualityRESULTS – Groundwater quality

RESULTS – GEO PHYSICSRESULTS – GEO PHYSICS

Continued decanting of possibly contaminated water from cemeteries may have an impact on groundwater aquifer systems in the area

There is a high trending conductivity zone showing NW-SENW-SE groundwater flow path.

Electromagnetic conductivity coherence with blocks

Low conductivity values of 30-60  mS/m prevail more to the north western- part of cemetery -area consisting of less grave plots.

Metals seem to follow groundwater flow path

DRASTICZandfontein = DR*DW+RR*RW+AR*AW+SR*SW+TR*TW+IR*IW+CR*CW Where R = rating and W= weight

Geo- hydrological factors for aquifer vulnerability

FactorsAverage depth to water table ( m)Average depth to water table ( m)

Average rainfall (mm/ yr)Average rainfall (mm/ yr)

Average burial massAverage burial mass

Average soil pH Average soil pH

SlopeSlope

Average clay content of soilAverage clay content of soil

Permeability rate of soil (cm/sec)Permeability rate of soil (cm/sec)

RISKRISKEnvironmental health risk

H-DRASTIC model, were used to evaluate the relative groundwater pollution potential

and to evaluate the possible risk to the aquifer underlying Zandfontein cemetery.

Comparison with cemeteries in Korea and landfill sites shows that Zandfontein cemetery poses

greater environmental risk to aquifer

DRASTIC Geo-hydrological induce vulnerability index

05

10152025

cemeteries in Republicof Korea

landfill site in India Zandfontein cemetery

geo-hydrological induce

These toxic constituents, even at very low concentrations, can either have acute and/or chronic effects on human health; short term and long term health impacts; reversible to irreversible or recoverable to irrecoverable health impacts on consumers.

HEALTH RISK HEALTH RISK

CChronic non-carcinogenic health hazardhronic non-carcinogenic health hazard

Cu, Cr, Zn, Pb and HgCu, Cr, Zn, Pb and Hg

RESULTSRESULTS – C – Chronic non-carcinogenic health hronic non-carcinogenic health hazardhazard

GROUND WATER NEAR ZANDFONTEIN CEMETERY POSES A HEALTH HAZARDGROUND WATER NEAR ZANDFONTEIN CEMETERY POSES A HEALTH HAZARD

MetalMetal Target organ/ organismTarget organ/ organism(DWAF,1996)(DWAF,1996)

Toxicity Standards Toxicity Standards U.S. EPA(2002)U.S. EPA(2002)

Mean Mean concentrationsconcentrations(μg/l)(μg/l)

CrCr

HaematologicalHaematologicalHepaticHepaticRenalRenalNeurologicalNeurologicalTesticularTesticular

0.29 μg/l0.29 μg/l 0.8660.866

CuCuGastrointestinalGastrointestinalDisturbance and possible liver, Disturbance and possible liver, kidney and red blood cell damagekidney and red blood cell damage

2.0 μg/l2.0 μg/l 16.96616.966

ZnZn Haematological, RenalHaematological, Renal 30.0 μg/l30.0 μg/l 128.25128.25

HgHg Neurological CarcinogenicNeurological Carcinogenic 0.012 μg/l0.012 μg/l 0.8520.852

PbPb NeurologicalNeurological 1.0 1.0 –– 7.0 μg/l 7.0 μg/l 00

Riski = C*IRi * EFi.* EDi * SF* ADAFi *RPF

BWi * AT

EPA (2002) considers potential cancer risk as values exceeding 1E-6.

At present there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate a At present there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate a clear link between clear link between cancer cancer and exposure from cemeteries.and exposure from cemeteries.

The age dependent cancer risk model (ADCRM) (US EPA, 2009)

C = Concentration of the chemical in soil or water (mg/kg) or (mg/l)

IRi = Intake rate (litre/day)

BWi = Body weight (kg)

EFi = Exposure frequency over the course of a year

EDi = Exposure duration , exposure during a life time (years)

AT = Averaging time, for quantifying cancer risk life time exposure is 70 yr

SF = Cancer slope factor (mg/kg/day)

ADAF = Age dependent adjustment factor (unitless)

RPF = Relative potency factor for metal (0.001)

CANCER RISK Dose-response information such as the slope factor (i.e., human Dose-response information such as the slope factor (i.e., human

cancer risk per unit dose) was collect for selected metals from cancer risk per unit dose) was collect for selected metals from the IRIS (Integrated Risk Information System) data base, which the IRIS (Integrated Risk Information System) data base, which summarizes toxicity data for all chemical compounds summarizes toxicity data for all chemical compounds

For each age interval, the cancer risk of exposure was computed For each age interval, the cancer risk of exposure was computed manually and the individual age-dependent-risks were summed manually and the individual age-dependent-risks were summed to a risk factor across four age intervals, 0-2 years, 2-6 years, 6-to a risk factor across four age intervals, 0-2 years, 2-6 years, 6-16 years and 16-30 years of exposure 16 years and 16-30 years of exposure

Long term exposure to the contaminated groundwater may pose a Long term exposure to the contaminated groundwater may pose a carcinogenic riskcarcinogenic risk to residence in the Zandfontein area. ADCRM to residence in the Zandfontein area. ADCRM used to verify possible cancer risk depict that the highest used to verify possible cancer risk depict that the highest carcinogenic risk to humans was from carcinogenic risk to humans was from ZnZn, the metal used to , the metal used to construct coffin handles.construct coffin handles.

SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONSUMMARY & CONCLUSION 1. Metals used to construct coffins and coffin handles consists mainly of Metals used to construct coffins and coffin handles consists mainly of

Zn and Cu alloys. Zn and Cu alloys. 2. At Zandfontein there are 108 tons heavy metal2. At Zandfontein there are 108 tons heavy metal 3. Soils within cemetery are more polluted than soils outside cemetery3. Soils within cemetery are more polluted than soils outside cemetery

4. 4. None of the borehole water samples conformed to the U.S. EPA Toxicity None of the borehole water samples conformed to the U.S. EPA Toxicity Standards (2002) for metals in drinking water for any of the metals Standards (2002) for metals in drinking water for any of the metals

5. 5. Not only is the water toxic, but long term exposure to the contaminated Not only is the water toxic, but long term exposure to the contaminated groundwater may pose a carcinogenic risk to residence in the Zandfontein groundwater may pose a carcinogenic risk to residence in the Zandfontein area. area.

6. 6. Aquifer Vulnerability Index to pollution from the cemetery indicated Aquifer Vulnerability Index to pollution from the cemetery indicated higher values than that of a landfill site in India. higher values than that of a landfill site in India.

Cemeteries and burial practices as a source of pollution Cemeteries and burial practices as a source of pollution that has been neglected for many yearsthat has been neglected for many years

Results indicate that cemeteries has pollution potential Results indicate that cemeteries has pollution potential There is no monitoring program for groundwater quality There is no monitoring program for groundwater quality near cemeteries in South Africa. And thus the pollution near cemeteries in South Africa. And thus the pollution may go undetected for years (Tredoux may go undetected for years (Tredoux et al,et al, 2004) 2004)

RECOMMENDATION RECOMMENDATION 1. Monitoring of ground water

near cemeteries 2. Use DRASTIC and

Electromagnetic frequency domain model/ maps & compare and map areas with relative high aquifer vulnerability potential.

3. Access the possibility that residents in the vicinity of cemeteries may experience exposure to different potentially harmful substances.

4. Assessments for joint toxic action of chemical mixtures: carcinogenic effects- areas surrounding cemeteries

• To date only one study on this topic in South Africa

• First to use geophysical methods to trace metal contamination plume from cemeteries

• Generate new knowledge which can be used in future planning

• Enable municipal managers to determine which cemetery is potentially hazardous and which are safe to “recycle” = site identification new cemeteries / expansion

• Dissemination of information to residence – public concern

• Project could stimulate development of green burial practices

• Multidisciplinary project Multidisciplinary project may span geology, geographical sciences, health sciences, town and regional planning

PLANNINGPLANNINGIdentify cemeteries with high level of ground water Identify cemeteries with high level of ground water vulnerability or health risk – NUMBER OF “FIRSTS”vulnerability or health risk – NUMBER OF “FIRSTS”

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

CITY PLANNING

•IMPACT ASSESMENT -TYPE OF SOIL/MULTIPLE BURIALS/GROUNDWATER FLOW PATTERNS

HEALTH RISKS

AQIUFER POLLUTION POTENTIAL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

• Professor Jana Olivier as my mentor and strength

• Mr P Nyabeze from the Council of Geosciences

• Personnel at Zandfontein cemetery (CCTM)

• UNISA

THANK YOU Bartholomew I, the ‘green’ patriarch of Bartholomew I, the ‘green’ patriarch of orthodox Christian church declared that: orthodox Christian church declared that:

“…“… for humans to for humans to contaminate the earth’s contaminate the earth’s waters, its land, its air and its waters, its land, its air and its life with poisonous life with poisonous substances - these are sins”substances - these are sins” (quoted by Newsome 1999:15 cited Stowe et al., 2001).(quoted by Newsome 1999:15 cited Stowe et al., 2001).

Does our generation sin against Does our generation sin against nature in the way we tend to our nature in the way we tend to our dead?dead?

RESULTSRESULTS - - GROUND WATERGROUND WATER MEAN VALUE FOR METALS IN WATER AT ZANDFONTEIN (2008 AND 2010) MEAN VALUE FOR METALS IN WATER AT ZANDFONTEIN (2008 AND 2010)

FOR BOREHOLES Z1139 AND Z1146.FOR BOREHOLES Z1139 AND Z1146.

MetalMetal Mean Metal concentration 2008 Mean Metal concentration 2008 (μg/l)(μg/l)

Mean Metal concentration 2010 Mean Metal concentration 2010 (μg/l)(μg/l)

CrCr 0.11250.1125 0.40750.4075

CuCu 19.14519.145 40.4140.41

PbPb 0.0950.095 00

ZnZn 11.45511.455 313.52313.52

HgHg Not analysedNot analysed 1.451.45

RESULTS OF GROUNDWATER PH FOR ZANDFONTEINRESULTS OF GROUNDWATER PH FOR ZANDFONTEIN

pH in groundwater pH in groundwater –– Zandfontein cemetery Zandfontein cemetery

Site IDSite ID Z113Z11399

Z1140Z1140 Z1141Z1141 Z1142Z1142 Z1143Z1143 Z1144Z1144 Z1145Z1145 Z1146Z1146

pH 2008pH 2008 7.757.75 -- -- -- -- -- -- 7.057.05

pH 2010pH 2010 7.707.70 7.907.90 7.207.20 7.607.60 8.208.20 8.208.20 8.208.20 8.108.10