Neurons & Nervous Systems · PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Nerves Somatic system Autonomic system. 3 Invertebrate Nervous Organization Hydras Nerve net composed of neurons in contact

Sylvia S. Mader

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PowerPoint® Lecture Slides are prepared by Dr. Isaac Barjis, Biology Instructor

BIOLOGY10th Edition

Neurons & Nervous Systems

Chapter 37: pp. 679 - 700

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

© Ulrich Baumgarten/Vario Images

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Outline EVOLUTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Gradual increase in the complexity of the nervous system All vertebrates have a well-developed brain

NERVOUS TISSUE Neurons Nerve impulse

BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD Spinal cord Cerebrum

Sensory input Motor control

Homeostasis Limbic system

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Nerves Somatic system Autonomic system

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Invertebrate Nervous Organization

Hydras Nerve net composed of neurons in contact with

one another Also in contact with contractile epitheliomuscular

cells Planarians

Ladderlike nervous system Cephalization - a concentration of ganglia and

sensory receptors in the head Annelids, Arthropods and Mollusks

Complex animals True nervous systems

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Evolution of the Nervous System

brainnerve

cerebralganglia

nerve net

a. Hydra b. Planarian c. Earthworm

transversenerves

lateralnervecords

ventral nervecord with ganglia

eyespot

auricle


d. Crab e. Squid f. Cat

brain

tentacle

hindbrain

eye

brain

thoracicganglion

giant nervefiber

cerebrumin forebrain

spinalcord

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Vertebrate Nervous Organization

Central nervous system Develops from an embryonic dorsal tubular

nerve cord Cephalization and bilateral symmetry result in

several paired sensory receptors Vertebrate brain is organized into three

areas Hindbrain Midbrain Forebrain

Organization of the Vertebrate Brain

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hindbrain

cerebellumthalamuscerebrum

pituitaryhypothalamus

olfactorybulb

opticlobe

spinalcord

medullaoblongata

midbrainforebrain


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Human Nervous System

Nervous system has three specific functions Receiving sensory input Performing integration Generating motor output

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Organization of the Human Nervous System

radial nervemedian nerve

ulnar nerve

a. b.

sciatic nerve

tibial nerve

spinal cord

cervical nerves

braincranial nerves

common fibularnerve

thoracicnerves

lumbarnerves

sacralnerves

Central NervousSystem brain and

spinal cord

Peripheral NervousSystem

autonomic motorfibers (to cardiac

and smoothmuscle, glands)

sympatheticdivision

parasympatheticdivision

visceral sensoryfibers (internal

organs)


somatic sensoryfibers (skin,

special senses)

somatic motorfibers (to skeletal

muscles)

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Human Nervous System

Division of Nervous System: Central nervous system (CNS)

Includes the brain and spinal cord Lies in the midline of the body

The peripheral nervous system (PNS)Contains cranial nerves and spinal nerves that:

Gather info from sensors and conduct decisions to effectors

Lies outside the CNS

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Nervous Tissue

Neurons Cell body contains nucleus

Dendrites receive signals from sensory receptors

Axon conducts nerve impulsesCovered by myelin sheath

Any long axon is also called a nerve fiber

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Types of Neurons

Motor Neurons Accept nerve impulses from the CNS Transmit them to muscles or glands

Sensory Neurons Accept impulses from sensory receptors Transmit them to the CNS

Interneurons Convey nerve impulses between various parts of

the CNS

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Neuron Anatomy

node of Ranvier

a. Motor neuron (multipolar)

c. Interneuron (multipolar)

axoncell body

cell body

cell body dendrite

b. Sensory neuron (unipolar)

axon

axon

axon

muscle

skin

dendrite

myelin sheath

directionof conduction

myelinsheath

axonterminal

direction ofconduction

sensoryreceptor


a: © M.B. Bunge/Biological Photo Service; c: © Manfred Kage/Peter Arnold, Inc.

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Nerve Impulses: Resting Potential

Resting Potential The membrane potential (voltage) when the

axon is not conducting an impulse The inside of a neuron is more negative than the

outside -65 mV Due in part to the action of the sodium-potassium

pump

Animation

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Action Potential

An action potential is generated only after a stimulus larger than the threshold

Gated channel proteins Suddenly allows sodium to pass through the

membrane Another allows potassium to pass through

other direction

Animation


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Resting and Action Potential of theAxonal Membrane

inside axon

outside axon

K+

Volta

ge (m

V)

threshold

+60

+40

+20

0

-20

-40

-60

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Na+

gated K+

channel

gated Na+

channel

a. Resting potential: more Na+ outside the axon and more K+

inside the axon causes polarization.

recordingelectrodeinside axon

axonalmembrane

+ + + + + + + + +- - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - -+ + + + + + + + + +

direction of impulse+ + - - - - - - - -- - + + + + + + + +

+ + - - - - - - - -- - + + + + + + + +

open Na+

channel

b. Action potential begins: depolarization occurs when Na+

gates open and Na+ moves to inside the axon.

open K+

channel

c. Action potential ends: repolarization occurs when K+ gatesopen and K+ moves to outside the axon.

- - + + + + + + + ++ + - - - - - - - -

- - + + + + + + + ++ + - - - - - - - -

Na+ movesto insideaxon

K+ movesto outsideaxon action

potential

restingpotential

Time (milliseconds)

d. An action potential can be visualized if voltage changes aregraphed over time.


referenceelectrodeoutside axon

direction of impulse

http://youtu.be/YP_P6bYvEjE

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Propagation of Action Potentials

In myelinated fibers, an action potential at one node causes an action potential at the next node Saltatory (jumping) Conduction

Conduction of a nerve impulse is an all-or-nothing event Intensity of signal is determined by how many

impulses are generated within a given time span

Animation


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Transmission Across a Synapse

A synapse is a region where neurons nearly touch

Small gap between neurons is the synaptic cleft

Transmission across a synapse is carried out by neurotransmitters Sudden rise in calcium at end of one neuron

Stimulates synaptic vesicles to merge with the presynaptic membrane

Neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synaptic cleft

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Synapse Structure and Functionpath of action potential

synaptic cleft

receptor

neurotransmitter

Na+

Ca2+

1. After anactionpotentialarrives at anaxon terminal,Ca2+ enters,and synapticvesicles fusewith thepresynapticmembrane.

cell body ofpostsynapticneuron

axonterminal

synaptic vesiclesenclose neuro-transmitter

2. Neuro-transmittermoleculesare releasedand bind toreceptorson thepostsynapticmembrane.

presynapticmembrane

postsynapticmembrane

3. When anexcitatoryneuro-transmitterbinds to areceptor,Na+ diffusesinto thepostsynapticneuron, andan actionpotentialbegins.

neuro-transmitter

postsynapticneuron


http://youtu.be/LT3VKAr4roo

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Synaptic Integration

A single neuron is on the receiving end of Many excitatory signals, and Many inhibitory signals

Integration The summing of signals from

Excitatory signals, and Inhibitory signals

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CNS: Brain and Spinal Cord

Spinal cord and brain are wrapped in three protective membranes, meninges Spaces between meninges are filled with

cerebrospinal fluid Fluid is continuous with that of central canal of

spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain

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Spinal Cord

The spinal cord has two main functions Center for many reflex actions

Means of communication between the brain and spinal nerves

The spinal cord is composed of gray matter and white matter Cell bodies and short unmyelinated fibers give the

gray matter its color

Myelinated long fibers of interneurons running in tracts give white matter its color

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The Brain

Cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain in humans Communicates with, and coordinates the

activities of, the other parts of the brain Longitudinal fissure divides into left and right

cerebral hemispheres

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The Human Brain

skull

meninges

third ventricle

pituitary gland

pineal gland

fourth ventricle

spinal cord

Diencephalon

Cerebellum

hypothalamus

midbrainpons

Brain stem

b. Cerebral hemispheresa. Parts of brain

Cerebrum(telencephalon)

corpuscallosum

medullaoblongata

opening to lateralventricle

thalamus(surrounds thethird ventricle)


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Cerebral Cortex

A thin but highly convoluted outer layer of gray matter

Covers the cerebral hemispheres Contains motor areas and sensory areas

as well as association areas Primary motor area is in the frontal lobe just

ventral to central sulcus Primary somatosensory area is just dorsal to

central sulcus

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The Lobes of a Cerebral Hemisphere

Frontal lobe

Occipital lobe

Parietal lobe

premotor area

trunkarm

handface

tongue

leg

primary motor area

motor speech(Broca’s) areaprefrontalarea

central sulcus

primary somatosensory areasomatosensoryassociation areaprimary taste area

general interpretation area

primaryvisual area

visualassociationarea

lateral sulcus

Temporal lobeauditory association area

primary auditory area

sensory speech (Wernicke’s) area


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Cerebrum

Rest of cerebrum is composed of white matter Descending tracts communicate with lower

brain centers Ascending tracts send sensory information to

primary somatosensory area Basal nuclei

Integrate motor commands Ensure that the proper muscle groups are either

activated or inhibited

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Diencephalon

A region encircling the third ventricle

Consists of hypothalamus and thalamus Hypothalamus forms floor of the third ventricle

Thalamus consists of two masses of gray matter located in the sides and roof of the third ventricle

Pineal gland Also located in the diencephalon

Secretes melatonin

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Cerebellum

Separated from the brain stem by the fourth ventricle

Receives sensory input from the eyes, ears, joints, and muscles

Sends motor impulses out the brain stem to the skeletal muscles

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Brain Stem

Contains the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata Midbrain

Acts as a relay station for tracts passing between The cerebrum, and The spinal cord or cerebellum

Pons Helps regulate breathing and head movements

Medulla oblongata Contains reflex centers for vomiting, coughing, sneezing,

hiccuping, and swallowing

The Reticular Activating System (RAS)

It is a complex network of: Nuclei (masses of gray matter) Nerve fibers that extend the length of the brain

stem The reticular formation is a major

component of RAS The RAS arouses the cerebrum via the

thalamus and causes a person to be alert

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The Reticular Activating System

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radiationsto cerebralcortex


thalamus

reticularformation

ascending sensorytracts (touch, pain,temperature)

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Limbic System

Complex network of tracts and “nuclei” Incorporates medial portions of

The cerebral lobes, The subcortical basal nuclei, and The dicenephalon

Integrates higher mental functions and primitive emotions Hippocampus Amygdala

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The Limbic System

corpus callosum

olfactory bulb

olfactory tract

hypothalamus

hippocampus

amygdala

thalamus


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Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic system Contains cranial nerves and spinal nerves

Gather info from sensors and conduct decisions to effectors

Controls the skeletal muscles

Conscious of its activity

Autonomic system Controls the smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands

Usually unaware of its actions

Divided into two divisions Sympathetic division

Parasympathetic division

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Cranial and Spinal Nerves

dorsal root

ventral root

vertebra

spinal cord

white matter

central canal

gray matter

frontal lobe

olfactory bulb

olfactory tract

optic chiasma

temporal lobe

optic nerve

cerebellum

medulla

gray matter

white matter

vertebrab.

c.

a.

dorsal rootganglion

spinalnerve


c: © Karl E. Deckart/Phototake

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A Reflex Arc Showing thePath of a Spinal Reflex

white matter

ventral root

axon of motor neuron

axon of sensory neuron

pin

dorsal root ganglion

interneuron

dendrites

dendrites Dorsal gray matter

central canal

ventral horn

sensoryreceptor(in skin)

cell body ofsensory neuron

cell body ofmotor neuron

effector(muscle)

Ventral

dorsalhorn


Animation


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Autonomic System

Regulates activity of cardiac and smooth muscle, and glands

Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions Function automatically and usually in an

involuntary manner Innervate all internal organs Utilize two neurons and one ganglion for each

impulse

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Autonomic System Structure and Function

ganglion

inhibits tears

inhibits salivation

stimulates tearsconstricts pupils

slows heart

ganglion

sympathetic ganglia

vagus nerve

Sympathetic Division Parasympathetic Division

dilatespupils

cranialnerves

stimulatessalivation

speedsheart

cervicalnerves

stimulates liver torelease glucose

dilates airpassages

stimulatesadrenalsecretion

stimulates gallbladderto release bile

constrictsbronchioles

increases activityof stomach andpancreas

increasesintestinalactivity

inhibits activityof kidneys,stomach, andpancreas

decreasesintestinal activity

inhibitsurination

stimulatesurination

causeserectionof genitals causes

orgasmiccontractions

sacralnerves

thoracicnerves

lumbarnerves

Acetylcholine is neurotransmitter.Norepinephrine is neurotransmitter.


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Sympathetic andParasympathetic Divisions

Sympathetic division Especially important during fight or flight

responses Accelerates heartbeat and dilates bronchi

Parasympathetic division Promotes all internal responses associated

with a relaxed state Promotes digestion and retards heartbeat

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Review EVOLUTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Gradual increase in the complexity of the nervous system All vertebrates have a well-developed brain

NERVOUS TISSUE Neurons Nerve impulse

BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD Spinal cord Cerebrum

Sensory input Motor control

Homeostasis Limbic system

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Nerves Somatic system Autonomic system

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Neurons & Nervous Systems · PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Nerves Somatic system Autonomic system. 3 Invertebrate Nervous Organization Hydras Nerve net composed of neurons in contact