Notes PREFACE

1 Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitude and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton University Press, 1963) p. 5.

2 Lucian Pye and Sidney Verba (eds), Political Culture and Political Development (Princeton University Press, 1965) p. 7.

3 Barrington Moore Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (London: Allen Lane, 1966).

4 Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (Yale University Press, 1968).

5 S. M. Lipset, The First New Nation (New York: Basic Books, 1963). 6 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Alfred Knopf,

English trans., 1883).

NOTES TO CHAPTER ONE: POLITICAL SOCIETY IN THE WEST

See in this connection my Democratic Process in A Developing Sociery, especially the chapter on 'An Emerging Political Society' (London: Macmillan, 1979) pp. 12~5.

2 See in this connection John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, a critical edition with an introduction and apparatus criticus by Peter Laslett (Cambridge University Press, 1960) p. 351.

3 De Tocq ueville, Democracy in America (N ew York: Alfred Knopf, 1883) vol. I

passim, pp. 299-305. Such an approach is different from the 'macro­sociological' approach of Edward W. Lehman's Political Sociery: A Macro­sociology of Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977).

4 See in this connection Ernest Barker, The Politics of Aristotle (Oxford University Press, 1969) p. Ii.

5 Ibid., Book IV, p. 155. 6 John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, p. 351. 7 Ibid., p. 356. 8 Ibid., p. 365. 9 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America. Harold Laski said ofthis book,

'It is perhaps the greatest work ever on one country by the citizen of another.' Quoted in the introduction by Phillip Bradley, p. i.

10 Ibid., pp. 299-300. 11 Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, edited and with an

186

Notes 187

introduction by Talcott Parsons (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1944) p. 12. 12 Ibid., p. 80. 13 See in this connection R. H. Tawney's classic foreword to Max Weber's The

Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, translated by Talcott Parson~ (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1958) p. 10.

14 See in this connection my The Political Theory of John Dewey (New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1968).

15 John Rawls, The Theory of Justice (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972) pp. vii-viii.

16 Ibid., p. 6. 17 'Consensus or Elite Domination: The Case of Business', by J. P. Nettl, in

Studies in British Politics: A Reader in Political Sociology, edited by Richard Rose (London: Macmillan, 1969) pp. 291-316.

18 See in this connection a highly readable work by T. A. Critchley, The Conquest of Violence: Order and Liberty in Britain (London: Constable, 1970) pp. 1-2.

19 I'bid., pp. 5--6. 20 A. H. Birch, Representative and Responsible Government: Essays on the British

Constitution (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1964) p. 21. 21 Ibid., pp. 91-2. 22 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, vol. I, p. 297. 23 Ibid., vol. II, p. 3. 24 Seymour Martin Lipset, The First New Nation (New York: Basic Books,

1963) p. 208. Also see in this connection the controversy between Lipset, Riesman and Whyte on values as causal factors or as by-products of different kinds of economy and polity with reference to the United States, p. 106.

25 Ralph H. Gabriel, American Value: Community and Change (London: Green­wood Press, 1974) pp. 4-5.

26 In 1837, in his address to Harvard College, Ralph Waldo Emerson said, 'We have listened too long to the courtly muses of Europe' , and now 'we will walk on our own feet; we will work with our hands; we will speak our own minds'. Quoted by R. H. Gabriel, American Value: Community and Change, p.6.

27 S. M. Lipset, The First New Nation, pp. 19-21. 28 See in this connection W. C. Mitchell, The American Polity: A Social and

Cultural Interpretation (New York: The Free Press, 1970) p. 115. 29 See in this connection Theodore Zeldin (ed.), Conflicts in French Society:

Anticlericism, Education and Morals in the Nineteenth Century (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1970) pp. 10-11.

30 Ibid., p. 229. 31 R. D. Anderson, France 1870-1914: Politics and Society (London: Routledge &

Kegan Paul, 1977). 32 David Thompson, Democracy in France Since 1870 (Oxford University Press,

1964) p. 10. 33 Ibid. 34 Theodore Zeldin,France: 1848-1945, vol. II (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977)

p.793. 35 See Jack Hayward, 'Dissentient France: The Counter Political Culture' in

188 Notes

Conflict and Consensus in France, edited by Vincent Wright (London: Frank Cass, 1979).

36 Ibid., p. 65. 37 See 'Conclusion: The Impact of the Fifth Republic on France' by Stanley

Hoffman in William G. Andrews and Stanley Hoffman (eds), The Fifth Republic at Twenty (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981) pp. 450-96.

NOTES TO CHAPTER TWO: POLITICAL SOCIETY IN INDIA

Gandhi had said, 'I feel that our progress towards the goal will be in exact proportion to the purity of means.' Quoted by Raghavan N. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973) p. 362. But once the use of proper means was established, Gandhi was very determined on the type of social and political consequences he wanted from the use of such means.

2 M. K. Gandhi, Satyagraha (Allahabad: All India Congress Committee, 1935) p. 37.

3 Erik Erikson, Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Non- Violence (London: Faber & Faber, 1970).

4 Erik Erikson has called Gandhi 'a religious actualist' who was drawn to action by the highest normative considerations which often make people withdrawn. See in this connection his Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Non- Violence, p. 396.

5 Gandhi wrote in 1920, 'I have found Englishmen amenable to reason and persuasion, and as they always wish to appear just, it is easier to shame them than others in doing the right thing.' Quoted by B. R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi: A Biography (Boston: Beacon Press, 1958) p. 516. The technique which he developed against the British did not work against the Portuguese on the question of Goa where unarmed freedom fighters used to be mowed down by Portugese machineguns. In this connection Morarji Desai is reported to have said that it was Gandhi's genius to have discovered what would work against the British: non-violence and moral embarrassment.

6 Ibid., p. 211. 7 See in this connection, 'Mahatma Gandhi and Civil Disobedience' by Paul

F. Power in Meaning of Gandhi, ed. Paul F. Power (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1971).

8 Jawaharial Nehru, The Discovery of India (London: Meridian Books, 1946) p. II.

9 Ibid., p. 44. 10 Ibid., pp. 433-4. II Michael Brecher, Nehru: A Political Biography (Boston: Beacon Press, 1962)

p.233. 12 See in this connection M. N. Das, The Political Philosophy of Jawaharlal Nehru

(New York: John Day, 1961). 13 Ibid., p. 21. 14 Ibid., p. 99.

Notes 189

15 See for an extensive discussion of the peculiarities of the growth of political capacity, and factors inhibiting it in various countries, my Political Capacity in Developing Societies (London: Macmillan, 1981).

16 Quoted by M. N. Das, Political Philosophy of Jawaharlal Nehru, p. 167. 17 Geoffrey Tyson has put this appropriately: 'he knew that the vast

amorphous mass which is India could only be governed and held together by a series of compromises; a concession here, a special exception there'. Nehru: The Years of Power (London: Pall Mall Press, 1966) p. 188.

18 One of the finest expressions of this view came from the Balwatray Mehta Committee Report on democratic decentralisation. In that Nehru was quoted as follows: 'to build the community and the individual and to make the latter the builder of his own village centres and ofIndia in a larger sense of the term'. Quoted by Balwatray Mehta Committee Report: Report of the Team for the Study of Community Projects and National Extension Service (New Delhi, 1957) p. 3.

19 See in this connection D. V. Tahmankar, Sardar Patel (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1970).

20 A. R. H. Copley, The Political Career if C. Rajagopalachari: A Moralist in Politics (Delhi: Macmillan, 1978) p. 4.

21 Quoted by R. C. Gupta, Lalbahadur Shastri: The Man and His Ideas (Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1966) pp. 51-2.

22 See in this connection J ayaprakash Narayan, A Plea for Reconstruction of Indian Polity (Rajghat: Kashi, Akhil Bharat Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan) p. 3.

23 Ibid., p. 12. 24 Ibid., p. 23. 25 Socialism, Sarvodaya and Democracy: Selected Works if Jayaprakash Narayan, ed.

Bimla Prasad (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1964) p. ix. 26 Ajit Bhattacharjea,jayaprakash Narayan: A Political Biography (Delhi: Vikas,

1975) p. vii.

NOTES TO CHAPTER THREE: NORMATIVE-PRAGMATIC CONSIDERA TIONS

In the 1960s, in a rural community ofGujarat, in western India, a number of definitions of what the lokshahi (democracy) was all about, emerged. Some of these were recorded by me. See in this connection my Democracy and Political Change in Village India (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1971).

2 In this respect India did not experience the threat of rival ethical notions implicit in political liberalism, which in turn are themselves rooted in the Judeo-Christian ethical system. Hinduism, being a belief system with emphasis on inclusion, synthesis and relativism, did not feel threatened by rival ethical imperatives. On the contrary, educated Hindus were deeply fascinated by the values implicit in political liberalism. They even welcomed its egalitarian and participatory emphasis which appeared to be a much-needed corrective to the hierarchical notions of their own social organisation. Political liberalism, therefore, was welcomed by them to fight the deeply institutionalised inequality in their social system.

190 Notes

3 F. G. Bailey, Politics and Social Change: Orissa in 1959 (California University Press, 1963) p. 220.

4 See in this connection Lloyd and Susanne Rudolph, The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India (Chicago University Press, 1967) pp. 24-8.

5 See for the details of this process my Democracy and Political Change in Village India. See also for the urban scene, Brian Howe's fascinating work, 'Intellectuals and Democratic Development: The Case of Modern India' (Simon Fraser University, unpublished MA Thesis, 1981).

6 For an extended study of this community, particularly how the democratic process induced changes in it, see my Democratic Process in A Developing Society.

7 Details of this are noted in my 'Social Mobility and Tensions Among the Patidars of Kaira' in Contributions to Asian Studies, vol. 12 (1979).

8 See in this connection my 'Social Cohesion and Political Clientilism in the Kshatriyas of Gujarat' in Asian Survey (August 1981).

9 In this connection see my 'Caste and the Decline of Political Homogeneity', American Political Science Review (1973).

10 See in this connection my 'Implications For Equality in Hinduism' in Nomos, vol. on Equality, vol. IX (1967).

II For a detailed discussion of this process see my 'Party Linkages and Strife-Accommodation in Democratic India' in Kay Lawson (ed.), Political Parties and Linkage (Yale University Press, 1980).

12 Also see my 'Social Perspectives on Political Corruption in India', Political Science Review Oan.-Dec. 1974).

13 M. K. Gandhi, 'Last Will and Testament' in Pyrelal, Mahatma Gandhi, The Last Phase (Ahmedabad: Navjivan Press House, 1956) vol. II, pp. 819--20. This document was prepared by Gandhi a week before he was assassinated. In it he had expressed grave reservations over a national movement, like the Congress, converting itself into a party organisation. He was certain that men in it would abuse their position by using political office for personal gain.

14 M. K. Gandhi, Satyagraha (191O-1935) (Allahabad: All India Congress Committee, 1935) p. 2.

15 Ibid., p. 10. 16 Ibid., p. 3. 17 K. Santhanam, Satyagraha and the State (London: Asia Publishing House,

1960) with a preface by B. P. Sinha, the then Chief Justice ofIndia. 18 Ibid., p. viii. I q Jayaprakash Narayan, Towards Total Revolution, edited and introduced by

Brahmanand (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1978),JP's preface vol. I, p. x (my italics).

20 "'Nehru Socialism' in Narayan, Towards Total Revolution, vol. II, p. 189. 21 Ibid., vol. II, p. 193. 22 Ghanshyam Shah, Protest Movements in Two Indian States: A Study of the Gujarat

and Bihar Movements (Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1977) p. viii. 23 Narayan, Towards Total Revolution, vol. IV, p. 36. 24 To JP political resistance to authority, together with punishment for the

breach oflaw, is a dimension that Mahatma Gandhi added to democracy. To Mahatma Gandhi as well as toJP, 'the citizen has an inalienable right to

Notes 191

civil disobedience'. See in this connectionJayprakash Narayan, 'Testament of Protest', Far Eastern Economic Review (20 Feb. 1976).

25 JP exhorted the police as follows: 'do your duty but do not act against your conscience'. Towards Total Revolution, vol. IV, p. 101. And his message to the army consisted of the following reminder: 'it is the duty of the army, to defend the Constitution of the country from authoritarian threats. If any party government or party leader intends to use the army as a means to further their party interests, it is the clear duty, to my mind, of the army, not to be so used.' Ibid., p. 146.

26 See in this connection Marcus Franda, Radical Politics in West Bengal (MIT Press, 1971).

NOTES TO CHAPTER FOUR: PROBLEMS OF POLITICAL SOCIETY

'The creation of an Islamic state in South Asia ... was not the work of clerics and religious divines but rather the determined effort by informed, westernized, materially conditioned elements .. .' Lawrence Ziring, Paki­stan: The Enigma rif Political Development (Folkestone: Dawson Westview, 1980) p. 24. Also see Khaleed B. Sayeed, Pakistan, The Formative Phase (London: Oxford University Press, 1968, second edn) for a view on 'nationality based on religion', p. 12.

2 Ziring, Pakistan: The Enigma of Political Development, p. 19. 3 Quoted by RounaqJ ahan, Pakistan: Failure in National Integration (Columbia

University Press, 1972) p. 109. Also see Lawrence Ziring, The Ayub Khan Era: Politics in Pakistan, 1958-1969 (Syracuse University Press, 1971); Karl von Vorys, Political Development in Pakistan (Princeton University Press, 1965); and Wayne A. Wilcox, Pakistan: The Consolidation rif a Nation (Columbia University Press, 1963).

4 Ziring, Pakistan: The Enigma of Political Development, p. 72. 5 'The secularization of state politics in western societies, although real and

profound by comparative standards, has hardly eliminated religion.' See in this connection Elbaki Hermassi, The Third World Reassessed (California University Press, 1980) p. 106.

6 Parveen Feroze Hassan, The Political Philosophy of Iqbal (Lahore: Publishers United, 1970) p. 257.

7 Asaf Hussein, Elite Politics in an Ideological State: The Case rif Pakistan (Folkestone: Dawson, 1979) pp. 113-14.

8 Ibid., p. 123. 9 'Bureaucracy in Authoritarian Political System' by C. P. Bhambhri and M.

Bhaskaran Nair in S. P. Varma and Virendra N arain (eds), Pakistan Political System in Crisis Oaipur: Rajasthan University Press, 1972) p. 81.

10 'The increased power derived from these new functions supported by substantial American aid enables the bureaucracy not only to pressure itself but to proliferate its power and diffuse its own attitude and ideology.' Ralph Braibanti, Research on the Bureaucracy in Pakistan (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1966) p. 342.

II 'During its rule the BE [Bureaucratic elite] had capitalized on the

192 Notes

disorganization of other elite groups by using the colonial philosophy of divide and rule. It made no effort to develop political institutions but through its generalist role-expansion kept other elite groups (except military) dependent on itself.' Hussein, Elite Politics in an Ideological State, p. 73.

12 Ibid., p. 126. 13 Ibid.,p.127. 14 E. Beeri maintained in his Army Officers in Arab Politics and Society that 'Islam

endows army with prestige and authority of an institution meriting divine blessing and its heritage paves the way for military intervention which is to be regarded most fitting and proper in the eyes of God and man'. Quoted by Hussein, Elite Politics in an Ideological State, p. 127.

15 Jahan, Pakistan: Failure in National Integration, pp. 149--56. 16 'Bangladesh in 1977: Dilemmas of the Military Rulers', by M. Rashiduz­

zaman, Asian Survry (Feb. 1978) pp. 126-30. 17 Azizul Haque, 'Bangladesh 1979: Cry For a Sovereign Parliament', Asian

Survry, vol. xx (1980). Also Mohammad Mohabat Khan and Habib Mohammad Zafarullah, '1979 Parliamentary Elections in Bangladesh', Asian Survry, vol. 19 (1978); Kamal Hossain, 'Political Development in Bangladesh: Promise and Reality' in A. H. Somjee (ed.), 'Rethinking in Political Development', Contributions to Asian Studies, vol. 14 (1979).

18 Tushar Kanti Baru, Political Elite in Bangladesh: A Socio-Anthropological and Historical Ana{ysis of the Processes of Their Formation (Bern: Peter Lang, 1978) pp. 22-4, 29 and 44.

19 Ibid.,pp.190-3. 20 See for a historical background of Muslim elite A. K. Nazmul Karim, The

Dynamics of Bangladesh Society (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1980). 21 A. J eyaratnam Wilson, Politics in Sri Lanka: 1947-1973 (London: Macmillan,

1973) p. 12. 22 Urmila Phadnis, Religion and Politics in Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Manohar,

1976) p. 5. 23 Ibid., p. 24. 24 Ibid., p. 119. 25 Ibid., p. 169. 26 Ibid., p. 244. 27 Janice Jiggins, Caste and Fami{y in the Politics of the Sinhalese (Cambridge

University Press, 1979) p. 147. 28 Ibid., p. 19. 29 Ibid., p. 27. 30 Ibid., p. 127. 31 Ibid., p. 96. 32 Ibid., p. 118. 33 Robert N. Kearney, 'Language and the Rise of Tamil Separatism in Sri

Lanka', Asian Survry, vol. XVIII (1978) p. 528. 34 Ibid., p. 529. 35 W. I. Siriweera, 'Recent Developments in Sinhala-Tamil Relations', Asian

Survry, vol. xx (Sept. 1980) pp. 906-7. 36 W. A. Wiswa Warnapala, 'Sri Lanka's New Constitution', Asian Survry, vol.

xx (Sept. 1980) p. 924.

Notes 193

37 According to A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, the cardinal principles of Buddhism provide 'a foundation for the advocacy of peace and compromise and a middle-path solution to vexed problems', Politics in Sri Lanka: 1947-1973, p. 59.

38 W. Howard Wriggins, Ceylon: Dilemmas rif a New Nation (Princeton University Press, 1960) p. 460. Also see Norman D. Palmer, Elections and Political Development: The South Asian Experience (Durham: Duke University Press, 1975) pp. 190--8.

39 Muhammad Asad, The Principles rif State and Government in Islam (California University Press, 1961).

40 Majid Khadduri, Political Trends in the Arab World (London: Johns Hopkins Press, 1970) p. ix.

41 Ibid., p. 213. 42 Elbaki Hermassi, The Third World Reassessed (California University Press,

1980) p. 109. 43 Serif Mardin, 'Opposition and Control in Turkey', Government and Opposi­

tion, vol. 3 (1966) pp. 380--1. 44 Hermassi, The Third World Reassessed, pp. 96-9. 45 Ibid., p. 107. Also see James A. Bill and Carl Leiden, Politics in the Middle

East (Toronto: Little, Brown and Co., 1979). Within 'Quran's truth [there] is a prescription for regulating the political and social affairs of man. Islam makes no distinction between the state and realm of believers. In theory at least there is nothing to render unto Caesar' (p. 41).

46 See in this connection Robert Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion in the Post-Traditional World (New York: Harper and Row, 1970) p. 153. My italics. Also P. J. Vatikiotis's remark that 'the Arabs have not yet experienced a political revolution under nationalism, i.e., a fundamental change that produced a new principle of authority, political organization and style of political life', Conflict in the Middle East (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1971) p. 25.

47 Robert Bellah, Beyond Belief, p. 152. 48 C. H. Moore has maintained that 'Islam, unlike Christianity, was never

effectively institutionalized. Islam has never provided a counterbalance to arbitrary rulers nor checked their ambition by imposing a clearly delin­eated, theoretical guideline to circumscribe the exercise of secular power'. Quoted by George Lenczowski (ed.), Political Elite in the Middle East (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute For Public Policy Research, 1975) p. II.

49 Quoted in Hermassi, Third World Reassessed, p. 114. 50 J. A. Bill and Carl Leiden, Politics in the Middle East, p. 135. 51 Manfred W. Wenner, 'Saudi Arabia: Survival of Traditional Elite' in Frank

Tachau (ed.), Political Elite and Political Development in the Middle East (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975) p. 163. Also see in this connection Marlene R. Hancock, 'The Role of the Elite in Political Development: The Case of Saudi Arabia' (unpublished MA thesis: Simon Fraser University, 1982).

52 Manfred Wenner in Frank Tachau (ed.), Political Elite and Political Development in the Middle East, p. 168.

53 It is said that there are now (l980s) more American-trained PhDs in the

194 Notes

Saudi cabinet than in the cabinet of the President of the United States, Bill and Leiden, Politics in the Middle East.

54 Wenner, 'Saudi Arabia', p. 173. 55 Ibid., p. In 56 Frederick W. Frey, 'Patterns of Elite Politics in Turkey' in Political Elite in the

Middle East, ed. George Lenczowski (Washington, DC, 1975) p. 4. 57 Joseph S. Szyliowiez, 'Elites and Modernization in Turkey' in Political Elites

and Political Development in the Middle East, ed. Frank Tachau (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975) p. 25.

58 Frey, 'Patterns of Elite Politics', p. 50. 59 Serif Mardin, 'Opposition and Control in Turkey', Government and Opposi-

tion, vol. 3 (1966) p. 380. My italics. 60 Frey, 'Patterns of Elite Politics', p. 66. 61 Mardin, 'Opposition and Control in Turkey', p. 380. 62 See for the background of elections in Turkey, Michael Steed and Neriman

Abadan, 'Four Elections of 1965', Government and Opposition (1965) and Dogu Ergil, 'Turkey', in Electoral Politics in the Middle East, ed. Jacob M. Landau, Erg-un Ozbudun and Frank Tachau (Stanford University Press, 1980).

63 Manfred Halpern, The Politics rif Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa (Princeton University Press, 1963) p. 130.

64 Ibid., p. 130. 65 James A. Bill and Carl Leiden, Politics in the Middle East, p. 4. 66 George Bennett, Kenya, A Political History. The Colonial Period (London:

Oxford University Press, 1963). 67 Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya: The Tribal Life of the Kikuyu (London:

Seeker and Warburg, 1953). 68 Ibid., pp. 13-4. 69 Carl G. Roseberg Jr. and John Nottingham, The Myth of 'Mau Mau'

Nationalism in Kenya (London: Pall Mall Press, 1966) p. xvi. 70 Such a sentiment was effectively summarised by Jomo Kenyatta in the

preface to his book: He said, 'I am well aware that I could not do justice to the subject [of Kikuyu social life and problems] without offending those "professional friends of the Africans" who are prepared to maintain their friendship for eternity as a sacred duty, provided only that the African will continue to play the part of an ignorant savage so that they can monopolise the office of interpreting his mind and speaking for him. To such people, who writes a study of this kind is encroaching on their preserve. He is a rabbit turned poacher.' Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, p. xviii.

71 See for a detailed account of this H. E. Lambert, Kikuyu Social and Political Institutions (London: Oxford University Press, 1956).

72 Donald Rothchild, Racial Bargaining in Independent Kenya (London: Oxford _ University Press, 1973) p. 62. 73 Ibid., p. III. 74 Colin Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya (London: Heinemann, 1975) p. 170. 75 Oginga Odinga, Not Yet Uhuru (freedom) with an introduction by Kwame

Nkrumah (London: Heinemann, 1967). 76 Donald Rothchild, Racial Bargaining in Independent Kenya, p. 16l. 77 G. O. Olusanya, Second World War and Politics in Nigeria: 1939-1953 (Lagos:

University of Lagos, Evans Brothers, 1973) p. Il.

Notes 195

78 K. W. J. Post, The Nigerian Federal Election of 1959 (London: Oxford University Press, 1963) p. 13.

79 Ibid., p. 36. 80 See in this connection John N. Paden's 'Urban Pluralism, Integration, and

Adaptation of Communal Identity of Kano' in From Tribe to Nation in Africa: Studies in Incorporation Process, ed. Ronald Cohen and John Middleton (Scranton, Pennsylvania: Chandler Publishing, 1970).

81 D. R. Smock and Swamenda and Bentsi-Enchill (eds), TheSearchfor National Integration in Africa (New York: Free Press, 1975) p. vii.

82 H. O. Davies, QC, Nigeria: Prospectsfor Democracy (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1961) p. 24.

83 See James O'Connell, 'Authority and Community in Nigeria' in Robert Melson and Howard Walpole (eds), Nigeria: Modernization and Politics of Communication (Michigan State University Press, 1971).

84 See in this connection Claudio Veliz, The Centralist Tradition of Latin America (Princeton University Press, 1980) p. 3.

85 Charles Anderson quoted by Robert F. Adie and Guy E. Poitras, Latin America: The Politics of Immobility (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1974).

86 Ibid., pp. 25CHI. 87 See in this connection a highly perceptive group of essays by Howard J.

Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder, Colorado: West View Press, 1981) p. 353.

88 Ibid., p. 52. 89 Ibid., p. 69. There is a considerable divergence of views on corporatism

among scholars; Anderson views it as a general pattern of Latin American polity; Wiard a as something which is influenced by other policy and ideological strands; Collier, Erikson, Glade, Kaufman, Malloy, Purcell, Stevens and Weinstein view it as a flexible structure; and O'Donnell and Schmitter as something of an authoritarian-bureaucratic pheno­menon.

90 Ibid., p. 214. 91 Ibid., p. 215-16. 92 See in this connection Guillermo A. O'Donnell, 'Corporatism and the

Question of the State' in Authoritarianism and Corporatism in Latin America, ed. James M. Malloy (University of Pittsburg Press, 1977) pp. 52-77.

93 See Chalmers, 'The Politicized State in Latin America', ibid., p. 25. 94 See in this connection Frank Bonilla, 'A National Ideology for Develop­

ment: Brazil' in K. H. Silvert (ed.), Expectant Peoples: Nationalism and Development (New York: Random House, 1963) p. 232.

95 Ibid., p. 233. 96 Juan]. Linz, The Future of Authoritarian Situation on the Institutional­

ization of an Authoritarian Regime: The Case of Brazil' in Alfred Stepan (ed.), Authoritarian Brazil: Origins, Policies, Future (Yale University Press, 1973) p. 235.

97 Stepan, 'The New Professionalism of Internal Warfare and Military Role Expansion', ibid., p. 50.

98 See in this connection Riordan Roett, Brazil: Politics in a Patrimonial Society (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1978) p. IOI.

196 Notes

99 Eul-Soo Pang, 'Abertura in Brazil: A Road to Chaos?', Current History (1981).

100 See in this connection Philippe C. Schmitter, Interest, Conflict and Political Change in Brazil (Stanford University Press, 1971) p. 366.

101 Peter G. Snow, Political Forces in Argentina (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1979) p. I.

102 Carlos A. Astiz's foreword to Alberto Ciria's Parties and Power in Modern Argentina (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1974) p. xi.

103 Ibid., p. 287. 104 Snow, Political Forces in Argentina, p. 60. Also see in this connection, Jeanne

Kirkpatrick, Leader and Vanguard in Mass Society (MIT Press, 1971). 105 Snow, Political Forces in Argentina, p. 98. 106 Ibid., pp. 99-112. 107 Martin C. Needler, Politics and Society in Mexico (Albuquerque: University of

New Mexico Press, 1971) p. 5. 108 Robert E. Scott, 'Mexico: The Established Revolution' in Political Culture

and Political Development, ed. Lucian Pye and Sidney Verba (Princeton University Press, 1965) p. 379.

109 See in this connection Susan Kaufman-Purcell, The Mexican Prrifit-Sharing Decisions: Politics in an Authoritarian Regime (California University Press, 1975).

110 Ibid., p. 4. III Ibid., p. 8. 112 See in this connection, Pablo Gonzales Casanova, Democracy in Mexico (New

York: Oxford University Press, 1970) pp. 71-84. 113 Ibid., p. 120. 114 See in this connection Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic

Culture (Princeton University Press, 1963). 115 Ibid., pp. 20~16. 116 Ibid., p. 217.

Index Abadan, Neriman, 194n Abbasids, 153 Abertura, 174 Adie, Robert F., 195n Almohades, 153 Almond, Gabriel, viii, 179, 186n,

196n Almoravids, 153 AMUL,65 Anand

ethnic group perspectives, 94-9 notions of fair and unfair, 103-5 urban-rural community, 93-4

Anderson, Charles, 195n Anderson, R. D., 187n Andrews, William G., 188n Anglo-Saxon, 169, 180 Aristotle, 6 ARMCO,154 ashraf, 142 ashrams, 49 Asoka, 145 Assad, Muhammad, 150, 193n Astiz, Carlos A., 196n

Bailey, F. G., 87, 190n Baluchistan, 131 Bandaranayake, S. W. R., 145 bandh, 122 Batgan, 146, 147 Baru, Tushar Kanti, 192n Beeri, E., 192n Bellah, Robert, 193n Bennett, George, 194n Bentsi-Enchill, 195n bhadralok, 142 Bhambhri, C. P., 191n Bhattacharjea, Ajit, 189n Bhave, Vinoba, 70, 73

Bhikkus, 145-6 Bhutto, 127, 132, 133, 136 Bill, James A., 158, 193n, 194n biradari, 38 Birch, A. H., 14, 187n Bolivia, 172 Bonilla, Frank, 195n Brahminism, 143 Braibanti, Ralph, 191n Burgher, 144

cartesian arguments, 23 Casanova, Pablo Gonzales, 196n Chalmers, 195n Chola rulers, 143 Christianity, 144, 145 Ciria, Alberto, 175, 196n civic culture, viii Cohen, Ronald, 195n Cold War, 55 Columbia, 169 Communist and Marxist Parties, 123 Congress Party; Lahore, 55; Karachi,

55,66 Congress Socialist Party, 55 Copley, A. R. H., 189n Corea, 147 Costa Rica, 169 Cripps, Sir Stafford, 15 Critchley, T. A., 14, 187n Crozier, Michel, 25 Cuba, 172 Cunliffe, Marcus, 21

Daridranarayan, 59 Das, M. N., 188n, 189n Davies, H. 0., 195n Desai, Morarji, 62, 65, 188n Dewey,John, 10,21

197

198 Index

dharma, 45 democratic dharma, 70 situational dharma, 45 social dharma, 45

duragraha, 50 Durava, 146, 147 Diishman, 157

Egypt, 148; 151 Emergency, 75 Emerson, R. W., 21 Ergil, Dogu, 194n Erikson, Erik, 42, 188n

Fabian Socialism, 58 Franda, Marcus, 191n Frey, Frederick W., 194n

Gabriel, Ralph H., 20, 178n Gandhi, Indira

hounding of critics, 105 legacy in the making, 74-5 pursuit of political power, 75

Gandhi, Mahatma authority as an aberration, 48 choice of means, 41 concern for social and political

consequences, 43-4 democratic process, 57-8 legacy, 47-51 non-violence and suffering for

moral cause, 41 normative direction, 81 normative-pragmatic

continuum, 41-2 racialism, 42 respect for human dignity, 42-3 satyagraha, 48-51 social dimension of moral obliga­

tion,40 social problems raised to ethical

level,43-4 socially concerned saint, 44-7 South Africa, 42 tapas, 41 untouchability, 42-3

Gandhi, M. K., 188n, 190n Geertz, Clifford, 153 gha;:i, 138

Goyigama, 146, 147 Gujarat accountability movement,

120-1 Gupta, R. C., 189n

Halpern, Manfred, 194n Hancock, Marlene R., 193n Haq ue, Azizul, 192n Hassan, Parveen F eroze, 191 n Hausa/Fulani, 165, 166 Hayward, Jack, 25, 187n Hena, 146 Hermassi, Elbaki, 191n, 193n Hinduism, 144, 145 Hoffman, Stanley, 25, 188n Hossain, Kemal, 192n Howe, Brian, 190n Huna, 146 Huntington, Samuel, ix, 173, 186n Hussein, Asaf, 191n

Iberic-Latin tradition, 169, 177, 180 lbo, 165, 166 India

democratic direction in cities and rural communities, 82-93

normative-pragmatic guidance, 79-81; agents of change, 105-10; grass-roots perspectives, 82-93; obligations and constraints, 93-9; political mobilisation, 99-105; social reformers, 81

seven political legacies, 41-75; range of normative-pragmatic mix, 36-7, 75-7; traditional emphasis on duty, 38-40

theory and practice of political resistance, 110-13; Gandhi on political resistance, 113-15; Gandhians and Jurists, 116-17; JP on political resistance, 117-22; satyagrahic resistance, 111-16; violent political resistance, 122-4

Iq bal, notions of genuine democracy, 134-5

Iran, 158

Index 199

Islam, 126, 127, 128, 129, 145 Islamic fundamentalism, 150 Iyer, Raghavan N., 188n

Jahan, Rounaq, 191n, 192n Jainism, 143 Janata,66 jihad, 138 Jiggins, Janice, 192n Jinnah, 127, 128, 130, 131, 133, 137 Judeo-Christian values, 127, 134

Kaira District, 64 KANU,163 Karamsad, 64 Karava, 146, 147 Karim, A. K. Nazmul, 192n karuna, 148 Kaufman-Purcell, Susan, 196n Kearney, Robert N., 192n Kemal, Mustafa, 156, 157 Kenyatta,Jomo, 160, 162, 163, 194n Kerala, 123 Khadduri, Majid, 151, 193n Khan, Ayub, 129, 132, 136, 137 Khan, Liaquat Ali, 127, 129, 131,

133,136,137 Khan, Mohmmad Mohabat, 192n Khan, Yahya, 129, 137 Kikuyu, 160, 161, 162 Kirkpatrick,J.,196n

Ladinos, 178 Lambert, H. E., 194n Landau, Jacob M., 194n Laski, H., 15 Lawson, Kay, 190n Leiden, Karl, 158, 193n, 194 Lenczowski, George, 193n, 194n Lerner, 158 Leys, Colin, 194n liberalism, 58 Linz,JuanJ.,195n Lipset, S. M., ix, 21, 158, 181, 186n,

187n Locke, John, 3-4,7-8,58, 186n toksaMa, 58

Mackenzie, W.J. M., 16 Mahavasma, 145

Malinowski, B., 160 Malloy, James M., 195n Mardin, Serif, 193n, 194n Marx, K., 171 Mau Mau, 160 Mboya, Lou, 162 Mehta, Balwantray, 189n Melson, Robert, 195n Mestizos, 178 meUa, 148 Mexico, 172 Middleton, John, 195n Mitchell, W. C., 22, 187n Moghul army, 138 Moor, 144 Moore, Barrington, ix, 186n Mujib, 140-2

Nair, Bhaskaran M., 191n Nanda, B. R., 188n N aoroji, Dadabhai, 39 Narain, Virendra, 191n Narayan, Jayaprakash, 40, 189n,

190n concept of freedom, 70-1 critic of liberal democracy, 68-70 explorations into means, 71-3 high normative expectations of

public life, 68 importance of pane hay at, 69-70 influence of Gandhi, 68-70 JP and Indira, 71 legacy, 73-4 problems of representative

democracy, 120-2 sarvodaya, bhoodan andjeevandan,

71-3 with Bhave, 70

Nasser, A. K., 55 Naxalbari District, 123 NCNC,165 Needler, Martin C., 196n Nehru, Jawaharlal, 40, 188n

classical Indian civilisation and modernisation, 56

commitment to democratic process, 57-9

on democracy, 57-9 differences with Gandhi, 52-5

200

Nehru, Jawaharlal- continued dilemma over Kashmir plebiscite,

54-5 legacy, 5~63 proteges, 62 pragmatic adaptability, 5~60 persuasion and accommodation,

61-2 political ideals and political

practice, 5&-7 normative-pragmatic balance,

51-5 non-alignment, 55 socialism, 58-9 Western ideologies in Indian

conditions, 55-6 modernisation, science and

technology, 60-3 Nehru andJP, 117-19 Nettl, J. P., 187n Nixon, Richard, 105 North West Frontier Province, 131 Nottingham, John, 194n

O'Connell, James, 195n Odinga, 0., 162, 194n O'Donnell, Guillermo A., 195n Olusanya, G. 0., 194n operational imperatives, x-xi Ottaman, 157 Ozbudun, Ergun, 194n

Paden, John, 195n Palmer, Norman D., 193n panchayat, 57: learning ofdos and

don'ts in panchayats, 88-93 Pang, Eul-Soo, 196n Parsons, T., 171, 187n Patel, Sardar Vallabhbhai, 40

goals as target, 65 integrations of princely states, 63 normative-pragmatic realism,

63-4 political realism, 64-5

Patel, T. K., 65 Patidars, 64 pelantiya, 147 Peron, 175, 176 Phadnis, U rmila, 192n

Index

Poitras, Guy E., 195n political culture, viii political society

Argentina: army, labour and church, 175-6; problems of political society, 174-5

Bangladesh: problems of political society, 13~42

Brazil: peculiarities of authoritarianism, 173-4

Britain: consensual limits of politics, 12-14; conquest of violence, 14; political parties, 15-16; representative and accountable government, 14-15

France: anomic politics, 25-6; democracy in practice, 24-5; recurring problems, 23-4

Kenya: multiracial society, 161-2; problems of political society, 15~63

Latin America: corporative system, 170-1; problems of political society, 16~72

Mexico: problems of political society, 177-8; political values, 178-9

The Middle East: informal political process, 153; problems of political society, 14~53; role of religion, 150-2

Nigeria: Biafran cessationist movement, 164; legacies, 164-6; problems of political society, 163-4, 16&-9

Pakistan: distortion of political process, 12~33; intellectuals, bureaucrats and army, 135-9; Islam as a source of norms and ideals, 12&-7, 139; Islamic notions of state, 12&-9; legacy of Islam, 133-5; problems of political society, 12&-9

Saudi Arabia: consultative decision-making process, 154-5

Sri Lanka: Buddhism, 145-6;

Index 201

political society Sri Lanka: Buddhism - continued

language and separatism, 147-9; problems of political society, 143-4; religion, ethnicity, family and politics, 144-7

Turkey: problems of political opposition, 156--7; role of Young Turks, 156

United States: democracy as an article offaith, 20-1; party formation, 21-2; perfectability of man, 17-18; political access, 19-20; public and private 'fit', I B-19

Post, K. W.j., 195n Power, Paul F., 188n Prasad, Bimla, 189n PRI, 177, 178 Punjab,131 Pye, Lucian, viii, 186n

Quran, 150

Radical Party, 175 Rajagopalachari, C., 40

ascetic life-style, 65 demanding intellect, 65 personal morality and flexible

public policy, 6.'r6 pragmatic philosophy, 66 Swatantra Party, 66

Ram, J agjivan, 62 Ranade,39 Rashiduzzaman, M., 192n Rawls,John, 10-11, 187n Rodiya, 146 Roet, Riordan, 195n Roseberg, Carl G., 194n Rothchild, Donald, 194n Roy, Raja Rammohun, 39, 81 Rudolph, Lloyd and Susanne, 88,

190n

sadhus,46 Salagama, 146--7 Santhanam, K., 190n sarvodaya,44

satyagraha, 46, 49,114-17,121 satyagrahis, 49 Sayeed, Khaleed B., 191n Schmitter, Phillipe C., 196n Scott, Robert E., 196n Senanayake, 145, 147 Shah, Ghanshyam, 190n shaheed, 138 Shaivism, 143 sharia, 134, 158 Shastri, Lalbahadur, 40

effective combination of normative-pragmatic mix, 66--8

humble social origin and realistic approach, 68

Indo- Pakistan conflict, 68 primary emphasis on agriculture,

67 Silvert, K. H., 195n Sind, 131 Singh, Charan, 62 Singhalese, 144 Sinha, B. P., 190n Siriweera, W. I., 192n SLFP, 144, 147 Smock, D. R., 195n Snow, Peter G., 196n social and secular obligations, 3B-40 Socialism, 58, 59 Somjee, A. H., 177n, 186n, 189n,

190n, 192n Steed, Michael, 194n Stepan, Alfred, 173, 195n Sudanese, Mahdiyya, 153 Sukarno,55 Sunnah, 150 Swamenda, 195n Szyliowicz, Joseph S., 194n

Tachau,Frank,193n Tahmankar, D. V., 189n Tamil, 144, 147, 148 TAMIL EELAM, 148 Tashkent, 68 Tawney, R. H., 187n Telangana, 123 Thompson, David, 187n Tilak,39

202 Index

Tito,55 de Tocqueville, ix, 4, ~9, 186n, 187n TULF,148 Tunisia, 149

ulema, 128, 151, 154 UNP, 144, 147 upeka,148

Vahumpara, 146, 147 Vargas Revolution, 173 Varma, S. P., 191n Varnaashram dharma, 104 Veliz, Claudio, 195n Venezuela, 169 Verba, Sidney, viii, 179, 186n, 196n Vitikiotis, P.]., 193n Vorys, Karl von, 191 n

Wahhabis, 153 Wahhabism, 154 Walpole, Howard, 195n

Warnapala, W. A. Wishwa, 192n Washington, George, 21 Webb, S. and B., 15 Weber, Max, 9-10,171, 186n, 187n Wenner, Manfred, 193n West Bengal, 123 Wiarda, Howard]., 195n Wickremsinghe, 147 Wijewardhene, 147 Wilcox, Wayne A., 191n, 193n Wilson, A. ]eyaratnam, 192n Wriggins, Howard, 193n Wright, Vincent, 188n

Yoruba, 165, 166

Zafarullah, Habbib Mohmmad, 192n Zeldin, Theodore, 187n zero-sum game, 105, 168 Ziaur Rahman, 141 Ziring, Lawrence, 191n