Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Nucleus 3 Diagrams.pdf · Nucleus Nuclear envelope Chromatin Nuclear pores Nucleolus Rough ER (b) ... Figure 3.13 Events and types of endocytosis. Extracellular

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Figure 3.1 Anatomy of the generalized animal cell nucleus.

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Plasma membrane

(a)

(b)

Rough ER

Nuclear pores

Nuclear envelope

Chromatin

Nucleolus Nucleus


Figure 3.1a Anatomy of the generalized animal cell nucleus.

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Plasma

membrane (a)


Figure 3.1b Anatomy of the generalized animal cell nucleus.

Nucleus

Nuclear envelope

Chromatin

Nuclear pores

Nucleolus

Rough ER

(b)


Figure 3.2 Structure of the plasma membrane.

Extracellular fluid (watery environment)

Sugar group

Polar heads of phospholipid molecules

Bimolecular lipid layer containing proteins

Nonpolar tails of phospholipid molecules

Glycoprotein

Proteins Filaments of cytoskeleton Cytoplasm

(watery environment)

Channel

Cholesterol

Glycolipid


Figure 3.3 Cell junctions.

Plasma membranes of adjacent cells

Desmosome (anchoring junction)

Tight (impermeable) junction

Microvilli

Gap (communicating) junction

Extracellular space between cells

Underlying basement membrane

Connexon


Figure 3.4 Structure of the generalized cell.

Ribosomes

Golgi apparatus

Secretion being released

from cell by exocytosis Microtubule

Centrioles

Mitochondrion

Lysosome

Cytosol

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Chromatin

Nucleolus

Nuclear envelope

Nucleus

Plasma membrane

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Intermediate

filaments

Peroxisome


The protein is packaged in a tiny

membranous sac called a transport vesicle.

In the cistern, the protein folds into its

functional shape. Short sugar chains may be attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).

The transport vesicle buds from the

rough ER and travels to the Golgi apparatus for further processing.

Figure 3.5 Synthesis and export of a protein by the rough ER.

3 2

1

Ribosome mRNA

Rough ER

Transport vesicle buds off

Protein inside transport vesicle

Protein

4

3

2

1

4

As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER cistern.


Figure 3.6 Role of the Golgi apparatus in packaging the products of the rough ER.

Golgi vesicle containing digestive enzymes becomes a lysosome

Pathway 3

Pathway 2

Secretory vesicles

Proteins

Secretion by exocytosis

Golgi vesicle containing proteins to be secreted becomes a secretory vesicle

Golgi apparatus

Pathway 1

Transport vesicle

Membrane

Proteins in cisterna Cisterna Rough ER

Lysosome fuses with ingested substances

Golgi vesicle containing membrane components fuses with the plasma membrane

Plasma membrane

Extracellular fluid


Figure 3.7 Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

(a) Microfilaments (b) Intermediate filaments (c) Microtubules

Actin subunit

7 nm 10 nm

Fibrous subunits Tubulin subunits

25 nm

Microfilaments form the blue network surrounding the pink nucleus.

Intermediate filaments form the purple batlike network.

Microtubules appear as gold networks surrounding the cells’ pink nuclei.


Figure 3.7a Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

(a) Microfilaments

Actin subunit

7 nm

Microfilaments form the blue network surrounding the pink nucleus.


Figure 3.7b Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

(b) Intermediate filaments

10 nm

Fibrous subunits

Intermediate filaments form the purple batlike network.


Figure 3.7c Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

(c) Microtubules

Tubulin subunits

25 nm

Microtubules appear as gold networks surrounding the cells’ pink nuclei.


Figure 3.8 Cell diversity.

Lysosomes

Macrophage

(e) Cell that fights disease

Pseudo pods

Processes

Rough ER

Nerve cell

Nucleus

Nucleus Flagellum

(f) Cell that gathers information and controls body functions

Sperm

(g) Cell of reproduction

Fibroblasts Rough ER and Golgi apparatus No organelles

Nucleus

Erythrocytes

(a) Cells that connect body parts

Epithelial cells

Nucleus

Intermediate filaments

(b) Cells that cover and line body organs

Skeletal muscle cell

Nuclei

Contractile filaments

Smooth muscle cells

(c) Cells that move organs and body parts

Fat cell Lipid droplet

(d) Cell that stores nutrients

Nucleus


Figure 3.8a Cell diversity.

Fibroblasts Rough ER and Golgi apparatus No organelles

Nucleus

Erythrocytes

(a) Cells that connect body parts


Figure 3.8b Cell diversity.

Epithelial cells

Nucleus

Intermediate filaments

(b) Cells that cover and line body organs


Figure 3.8c Cell diversity.

Skeletal muscle cell

Nuclei

Contractile filaments

Smooth muscle cells

(c) Cells that move organs and body parts


Figure 3.8d Cell diversity.

Fat cell Lipid droplet

(d) Cell that stores

nutrients

Nucleus


Figure 3.8e Cell diversity.

Lysosomes

Macrophage

(e) Cell that fights disease

Pseudo- pods


Figure 3.8f Cell diversity.

Processes

Rough ER

Nerve cell

Nucleus

(f) Cell that gathers information and controls body functions


Figure 3.8g Cell diversity.

Nucleus Flagellum

Sperm

(g) Cell of reproduction


Focus on Careers 3 Forensic Scientist


Figure 3.9 Diffusion.


Figure 3.10 Diffusion through the plasma membrane.

Cytoplasm

(a) Simple diffusion of fat-soluble molecules directly through the phospholipid bilayer

(b) Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion via protein carrier specific for one chemical; binding of substrate causes shape change in transport protein

(c) Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion through a channel protein; mostly ions selected on basis of size and charge

(d) Osmosis, diffusion of water through a specific channel protein (aquaporin) or through the lipid bilayer

Extracellular fluid

Lipid- soluble solutes

Lipid- insoluble solutes

Small lipid- insoluble solutes

Water molecules

Lipid bilayer


Figure 3.10a Diffusion through the plasma membrane.

Cytoplasm

(a) Simple diffusion of fat-soluble molecules directly through the phospholipid bilayer

Extracellular fluid

Lipid- soluble solutes


Figure 3.10b Diffusion through the plasma membrane.

(b) Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion via protein carrier specific for one chemical; binding of substrate causes shape change in transport protein

Lipid- insoluble solutes


Figure 3.10c Diffusion through the plasma membrane.

(c) Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion through a channel protein; mostly ions selected on basis of size and charge

Small lipid- insoluble solutes


Figure 3.10d Diffusion through the plasma membrane.

(d) Osmosis, diffusion of water through a specific channel protein (aquaporin) or through the lipid bilayer

Water molecules

Lipid bilayer


Figure 3.11 Operation of the sodium-potassium pump, a solute pump.


Vesicle contents are released to the cell exterior.

There, v-SNAREs bind with t-SNAREs, the vesicle and plasma membrane fuse, and a pore opens up.

Figure 3.12 Exocytosis. Extracellular fluid

Plasma membrane SNARE (t-SNARE)

Vesicle SNARE (v-SNARE)

Molecule to be secreted

Secretory

vesicle Cytoplasm

Fusion pore formed

Fused

SNAREs

(a) The process of exocytosis

(b) Electronmicrograph of a secretory vesicle

in exocytosis (100,000×)

The membrane- bound vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane.

1

2

3


Figure 3.12a Exocytosis. Extracellular fluid

Molecule to be secreted

Secretory vesicle Cytoplasm

Fusion pore formed

Fused

SNAREs

(a) The process of exocytosis

The membrane- bound vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane.

There, v-SNAREs bind with t-SNAREs, the vesicle and plasma membrane fuse, and a pore opens up.

Vesicle contents are released to the cell exterior.

3

2

1

Vesicle SNARE (v-SNARE)

Plasma membrane SNARE (t-SNARE)


Figure 3.12b Exocytosis.


Figure 3.13 Events and types of endocytosis.

Extracellular fluid

Vesicle fusing with lysosome for digestion

Ingested substance

Pit

(a)

Membranes and receptors (if present) recycled to plasma membrane

Detached vesicle containing ingested material

Transport to plasma membrane and exocytosis of vesicle contents

Release of contents to cytosol

Cytosol

Vesicle

Plasma membrane

(c)

(b)

Membrane receptor

Pseudopod

Bacterium or other particle

Cytoplasm Extracellular fluid

3

2

1 Lysosome


Figure 3.13a Events and types of endocytosis.

Extracellular fluid

Vesicle fusing with lysosome for digestion

Ingested substance

Pit

(a)

Membranes and receptors (if present) recycled to plasma membrane

Detached vesicle containing ingested material

Transport to plasma membrane and exocytosis of vesicle contents

Release of contents to cytosol

Cytosol Plasma membrane Lysosome

2

1

3

Vesicle


Figure 3.13b Events and types of endocytosis.

(b)

Pseudopod

Bacterium or other particle

Cytoplasm Extracellular fluid


Figure 3.13c Events and types of endocytosis.

(c)

Membrane receptor


Figure 3.14 Replication of the DNA molecule during interphase.

Key:

= Adenine

= Thymine

= Cytosine

= Guanine

Old (template)

strand

Newly synthesized strand

New strand forming

Old (template) strand

DNA of one chromatid

C G

T A

A

C G

T

G C

G C

A T

A T

G C

A

G

T

A

C

C

G

G

T T A

A

A

T

T

C G

T A

A

A

T

T

C G

T A

T A

G C

G C G

C

G C

A


Figure 3.15 Stages of mitosis.

Centrioles Chromatin

Forming mitotic spindle

Centrioles

Chromosome, consisting of two sister chromatids

Nuclear envelope

Plasma membrane

Interphase

Metaphase plate

Nucleolus

Early prophase

Fragments of nuclear envelope

Late prophase

Nucleolus forming

Spindle pole

Cleavage furrow

Nuclear envelope forming

Telophase and cytokinesis

Daughter chromosomes

Anaphase

Sister chromatids

Spindle

Metaphase

Spindle microtubules

Centromere

Centromere


Figure 3.15 Stages of mitosis (1 of 6).

Centrioles Chromatin

Nuclear envelope

Plasma membrane

Interphase

Nucleolus



Forming mitotic spindle

Centrioles

Chromosome, consisting of two sister chromatids

Centromere

Early prophase



Fragments of nuclear envelope

Late prophase

Spindle pole

Spindle microtubules

Centromere



Metaphase plate

Sister chromatids

Spindle

Metaphase



Daughter chromosomes

Anaphase



Nucleolus forming

Cleavage furrow

Nuclear envelope forming

Telophase and cytokinesis


A Closer Look 3.1 IV Therapy and Cellular “Tonics”


Figure 3.16 Protein synthesis. Nucleus (site of transcription)

mRNA

Nuclear pore

Nuclear membrane Correct amino acid attached to each species of tRNA by an enzyme

Amino acids

mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to ribosome, and translation begins.

mRNA specifying one polypeptide is made on DNA template.

Cytoplasm (site of translation)

Synthetase enzyme

Growing polypeptide chain

Incoming tRNA recognizes a complementary mRNA codon calling for its amino acid by binding via its anticodon to the codon.

tRNA “head” bearing anticodon

Large ribosomal subunit

Direction of ribosome advance; ribosome moves the mRNA strand along sequentially as each codon is read.

Small ribosomal subunit Portion of mRNA already translated

Released tRNA reenters the cytoplasmic pool, ready to be recharged with a new amino acid.

Peptide bond

As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, a new amino acid is added to the growing protein chain.

DNA

Codon

Ser

Met

Gly

Phe

Ala

lle

G C C A A U G U C

C G G

1

2

3

4

5


Figure 3.17 Classification and functions of epithelia. Apical surface

Basal surface

Simple

Apical surface

Basal surface Stratified

(a) Classification based on number of cell layers (b) Classification based on cell shape

Columnar

Cuboidal

Squamous

Number of layers

Cell shape

Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar

Transitional

Secretion and absorption; ciliated types propel mucus or reproductive cells

(c) Function of epithelial tissue related to tissue type

Secretion and absorption; ciliated types propel mucus or reproductive cells

Diffusion and filtration Secretion in serous membranes

One layer: simple epithelial tissues More than one layer: stratified epithelial tissues

Protection

Protection; these tissue types are rare in humans

Protection; stretching to accomodate distension of urinary structures


Figure 3.17a Classification and functions of epithelia.

Apical surface

Basal surface

Simple

Apical surface

Basal surface Stratified

(a) Classification based on number of cell layers


Figure 3.17b Classification and functions of epithelia.


Figure 3.17c Classification and functions of epithelia.


Figure 3.18a Types of epithelia and their common locations in the body.

Nucleus of squamous epithelial cell

Basement membrane

(a) Diagram: Simple squamous

Photomicrograph: Simple squamous epithelium forming part of the alveolar (air sac) walls (185×).

Nuclei of squamous epithelial cells

Air sacs of lungs


Figure 3.18b Types of epithelia and their common locations in the body.

(b) Diagram: Simple cuboidal

Nucleus of simple cuboidal epithelial cell

Photomicrograph: Simple cuboidal epithelium in kidney tubules (250×).

Basement membrane

Connective tissue

Basement membrane

Simple cuboidal epithelial cells


Figure 3.18c Types of epithelia and their common locations in the body.

Nucleus of simple columnar epithelial cell

Connective tissue

Photomicrograph: Simple columnar epithelium of the small intestine (430×).

Basement membrane

(c) Diagram: Simple columnar

Basement membrane

Goblet cell

Simple columnar epithelial cell


Figure 3.18d Types of epithelia and their common locations in the body.

Pseudo- stratified epithelial layer

Basement membrane

(d) Diagram: Pseudostratified (ciliated) columnar

Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium lining the human trachea (430×).

Pseudo- stratified epithelial layer

Basement membrane

Connective tissue

Cilia


Figure 3.18e Types of epithelia and their common locations in the body.

Stratified squamous epithelium

Basement membrane

(e) Diagram: Stratified squamous

Photomicrograph: Stratified squamous epithelium lining of the esophagus (140×).

Connective tissue

Stratified squamous epithelium

Nuclei

Basement membrane


Figure 3.18f Types of epithelia and their common locations in the body.

Transi- tional epithelium

Basement membrane

Photomicrograph: Transitional epithelium lining of the bladder, relaxed state (215×); surface rounded cells flatten and elongate when the bladder fills with urine. (f) Diagram: Transitional

Connective tissue

Transitional epithelium

Basement membrane


Figure 3.19a Connective tissues and their common body locations.

Bone cells in lacunae

(a) Diagram: Bone Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional view of ground bone (300×).

Lamella

Lacunae

Central canal


Figure 3.19b Connective tissues and their common body locations.

Chondrocyte (Cartilage cell)

Lacunae

(b) Diagram: Hyaline cartilage Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage from the trachea (500×).

Matrix

Chondrocyte in lacuna


Figure 3.19c Connective tissues and their common body locations.

Chondro- cites in lacunae

Collagen fibers

(c) Diagram: Fibrocartilage Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of an intervertebral disc (110×).

Collagen fiber

Chondrocytes in lacunae


Figure 3.19d Connective tissues and their common body locations.

Ligament

Tendon

Collagen fibers

Nuclei of fibroblasts

(d) Diagram: Dense fibrous Photomicrograph: Dense fibrous connective tissue from a tendon (500×).


Collagen fibers


Figure 3.19e Connective tissues and their common body locations.

Mucosa epithelium

Lamina propria

Fibers of matrix


(e) Diagram: Areolar Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue, a soft packaging tissue of the body (300×).

Fibroblast nuclei

Collagen fibers

Elastic fibers


Figure 3.19f Connective tissues and their common body locations.

Nuclei of fat cells

Vacuole containing fat droplet

(f) Diagram: Adipose Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from the subcutaneous layer beneath the skin (430×).

Vacuole containing fat droplet

Nuclei of fat cells


Figure 3.19g Connective tissues and their common body locations.

Spleen

Reticular cell

Reticular fibers

Blood cell

(g) Diagram: Reticular Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network of reticular connective tissue (430×).

White blood cell (lymphocyte)

Reticular fibers


Figure 3.19h Connective tissues and their common body locations.

Neutrophil (white blood cell)

Red blood cells

Monocyte (white blood cell)

Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood (1300×) (h) Diagram: Blood

White blood cell

Red blood cells

Blood cells in capillary


Figure 3.20a Types of muscle tissue and their common locations in the body.

Nuclei

Part of muscle fiber

(a) Diagram: Skeletal muscle Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle (approx. 300×).


Figure 3.20b Types of muscle tissue and their common locations in the body.

Intercalated discs

Nucleus

(b) Diagram: Cardiac muscle Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle (430×).


Figure 3.20c Types of muscle tissue and their common locations in the body.

Smooth muscle cell

Nuclei

(c) Diagram: Smooth muscle Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth muscle (approx. 300×).


Figure 3.21 Nervous tissue.

Brain

Spinal cord

Nuclei of supporting cells

Cell body of neuron

Neuron processes

Diagram: Nervous tissue Photomicrograph: Neurons (150×)

Nuclei of supporting cells

Cell body of neuron

Neuron processes


Figure 3.22 Summary of the major functions and body locations of the four tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle,

and nervous tissues.

• Brain, spinal cord, and nerves Nervous tissue: Internal communication

Muscle tissue: Contracts to cause movement • Muscles attached to bones (skeletal) • Muscles of heart (cardiac) • Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth)

Epithelial tissue: Forms boundaries between different environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters • Lining of GI tract organs and other hollow organs • Skin surface (epidermis)

Connective tissue: Supports, protects, binds other tissues together • Bones • Tendons • Fat and other soft padding tissue


A Closer Look 3.2 Cancer—The Intimate Enemy

Chromosomes

Normal

cell

(a) Accumulation of mutations in the development of a cancer cell.

Cellular

changes:

Increased

cell division Growth of polyp Growth of malignant

tumor (carcinoma)

mutation mutations mutations mutations

1 2 3 4

Malignant

cell

Colon wall

DNA

changes:

Oncogene

activated

Tumor suppressor

gene inactivated

Second tumor suppres-

sor gene inactivated

(b) Stepwise development of a typical colon cancer.

1 2 3


A Closer Look 3.2a Cancer—The Intimate Enemy


A Closer Look 3.2b Cancer—The Intimate Enemy

Cellular

changes:

Increased

cell division

Growth of polyp Growth of malignant

tumor (carcinoma)

DNA

changes:

Oncogene

activated

Tumor suppressor

gene inactivated

Second tumor suppres-

sor gene inactivated

(b) Stepwise development of a typical colon cancer.

1 2 3

Colon wall

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Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Nucleus 3 Diagrams.pdf · Nucleus Nuclear envelope Chromatin Nuclear pores Nucleolus Rough ER (b) ... Figure 3.13 Events and types of endocytosis. Extracellular