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EV
ALU
AT
ING
SO
VIE
T L
UN
AR
SC
IEN
CE
IN C
OLD
WA
R A
ME
RIC
A23
9
By
Ron
ald
E. D
oer
In th
is e
ssay
I e
xam
ine
the
effo
rts
of G
erar
d Pe
ter
Kui
per
(190
5-1973), director
of th
e Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald
obse
rvat
orie
s of
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
hica
go, t
o ev
alua
teK
ozyr
evs
clai
ms
of d
isco
very
bet
wee
n 19
58 a
nd 1
961.
The
ava
ilabl
e ar
chiv
also
urce
s lim
it m
y tr
eatm
ent t
o A
mer
ican
per
cept
ions
of
the
Koz
yrev
con
trov
ersy
,bu
t thi
s as
pect
of
the
epis
ode
mak
es a
n ex
celle
nt c
ase
stud
y in
inte
rnat
iona
l rel
a-tio
ns in
sci
ence
dur
ing
the
Col
d W
ar, a
them
e th
at h
as r
ecei
ved
little
atte
ntio
nfr
om h
isto
rian
s. S
ovie
t sci
ence
hel
d an
intr
insi
c fa
scin
atio
n fo
r A
mer
ican
re-
sear
cher
s at
this
tim
e, in
par
t bec
ause
com
mun
icat
ions
bet
wee
n th
ese
lead
ing
na-
tions of science were ex
trem
ely
limite
d, in part because interpreting Soviet
adva
nces
and
set
back
s ac
cura
tely
had
bot
h sc
ient
ific
and
str
ateg
ic v
alue
. Lik
e a
wel
l-pl
aced
mir
ror,
the
Koz
yrev
con
trov
ersy
rev
eals
pro
blem
s th
at A
mer
ican
sci
-en
tists
had
with
mai
ntai
ning
inte
rnat
iona
l sci
ence
dur
ing
the
Col
d W
ar.
In h
is e
ffor
ts to
eva
luat
e K
ozyr
evs
clai
m a
nd th
e w
ork
of o
ther
Sov
iet a
stro
no-
mer
s, K
uipe
r fo
und
him
self
sim
ulta
neou
sly
fillin
g several roles: active scientist
lead
er in
sol
ar s
yste
m a
stro
nom
y, a
dmin
istr
ator
of
a m
ajor
ast
rono
mic
al o
bser
va-
tory
, and
inte
rpre
ter
of S
ovie
t sci
entif
ic r
esea
rch
to h
is g
over
nmen
t pat
rons
.O
ften
thes
e ro
les
clas
hed:
Kui
per
s ev
alua
tions
, far
fro
m r
efle
ctin
g an
idea
listic
view of science, w
ere
base
d on
pol
itica
l con
side
ratio
ns a
s w
ell a
s th
e ne
ed to
mai
ntai
n a
com
petit
ive
edge
for
his
inst
itutio
n. T
he c
onfl
ict b
etw
een
thes
e ro
les
was
cha
ract
eris
tic o
f A
mer
ican
sci
ence
in th
e 19
50s,
and
it is
a c
entr
al th
eme
ofthis essay.
Eva
luat
ing
Sovi
et L
unar
Sci
ence
inC
old
War
Am
eric
a
HE
LA
UN
CH
OF
SPU
TN
IK in
Oct
ober
195
7 m
arke
d a
pivo
tal m
omen
t in
the
grow
th o
f A
mer
ican
ast
rono
my.
In
the
mid
195
0s a
stro
nom
y w
as th
esm
alle
st o
f th
e ph
ysic
al s
cien
ces
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
, with
und
er th
ree
hund
red
active researchers, a
lthou
gh it
was
alr
eady
exp
erie
ncin
g un
prec
eden
ted
grow
thw
hen
Spu
tnik
's a
scen
t int
o or
bit i
nten
sifi
ed C
old
War
riv
alri
es a
nd r
elea
sed
afl
ood
of n
ew f
undi
ng f
or s
cien
ce. A
s ab
unda
nt n
ew f
eder
al s
uppo
rt s
uppl
ante
dpr
ivat
e fu
nds,
fur
ther
sig
nifi
cant
cha
nges
occ
urre
d in
the
prac
tice
and
adm
inis
-tr
atio
n of
cen
ters
of
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
y. O
bser
vato
ry d
irec
tors
wer
e in
crea
s-in
gly
pres
sure
d to
ser
ve a
s en
trep
rene
urs
as w
ell a
s ad
min
istr
ator
s, k
eenl
y aw
are
that
obt
aini
ng n
ew p
atro
nage
and
inst
rum
ents
was
a k
ey strategy in the height-
ened
com
petit
ion
for
facu
lty a
nd g
radu
ate
stud
ents
. The
y no
long
er e
xpec
ted
, as
coul
d ob
serv
ator
y di
rect
ors
appo
inte
d in
the
early
twen
tieth
cen
tury
, tha
t the
yhe
ld li
felo
ng te
nure
in th
eir
jobs
.A
n ep
isod
e th
at s
erve
s to
bri
ng th
ese
com
petit
ive
prac
tices
into
foc
us o
ccur
red
in N
ovem
ber
1958
, whe
n N
ikol
ai A
. Koz
yrev
, an
astr
ophy
sici
st a
t the
Pul
kovo
Obs
erva
tory
in L
enin
grad
, ann
ounc
ed th
at h
e ha
d ob
tain
ed s
pect
rosc
opic
pro
ofof
act
ive
luna
r vo
lcan
ism
. The
cla
im a
ston
ishe
d A
mer
ican
luna
r sc
ient
ists
, mos
t
of w
hom
bel
ieve
d th
at th
e M
oon
had
died
geo
logi
cally
bili
ons
of y
ears
bef
ore.
It
also
wor
ried
off
cial
s of
the
new
ly f
orm
ed N
atio
nal A
eron
autic
s an
d Sp
ace
Ad-
min
istr
atio
n (N
ASA
), a
lrea
dy p
rom
otin
g lu
nar
expl
orat
ion
as th
e ar
ena
whe
reA
mer
ican
s co
uld
win
the
emer
ging
rac
e fo
r te
chno
logi
cal s
uper
iori
ty w
ith th
e So
-vi
et U
nion
. It f
orce
d m
any
obse
rvat
ory
dire
ctor
s to
dec
ide
whe
ther
to in
vest
val
-ua
ble
tele
scop
e tim
e in
the
hope
of
conf
irm
ing
the
obse
rvat
ion.
In
this
cas
e th
epr
oble
m o
f ev
alua
ting
scie
ntif
ic r
esul
ts, a
mat
ter
alw
ays
invo
lvin
g pe
rson
al a
ndso
cial
as
wel
l as
inte
llect
ual i
nflu
ence
s, w
as e
norm
ousl
y co
mpl
icat
ed b
y C
old
War
tens
ions
. The
way
in w
hich
this
con
trov
ersy
was
res
olve
d ho
lds
impo
rtan
t im
pli-
catio
ns fo
r th
e so
ciol
ogy
of s
cien
ce, i
llust
ratin
g th
e si
gnifi
canc
e of
phe
nom
eno-
logi
cal c
onst
rain
ts.
I. L
UN
AR
ST
UD
IES
. Cen
ter
for
His
tory
of
Phys
ics,
Am
eric
an I
nstit
ute
of P
hysi
cs, 3
35 E
ast 4
5th
Stre
et, N
ew Y
ork
, New
Yor
k 10
017.
I wou
ld li
ke to
than
k D
avid
DeV
orki
n, K
atha
rine
Doe
l, L
oren
R. G
raha
m, M
icha
el N
eufe
ld, J
osep
h
Tat
arew
icz,
Spe
ncer
R. W
eart
and
esp
ecia
lly J
ohn
Lan
kfor
d"fo
r ad
vice
and
cri
ticis
m.
I R
icha
rd B
eren
dzen
and
Mar
y T
rein
en M
osle
n
, "
Man
pow
er a
nd E
mpl
oym
ent i
n A
mer
ican
Ast
ron-
omy,
fl Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,
1972
, 198
:46-
65; D
avid
H. D
eVor
kin
, "
Bac
k to
the
Futu
re: T
he R
espo
nse
of A
stro
nom
ers
to th
e Pr
ospe
ct o
f G
over
nmen
t Fun
ding
for
Res
earc
h in
the
Dec
ade
Follo
win
g W
orld
War
II
fl in
Science and the Federal Patron,
ed, D
avid
van
Keu
ren
and
Nat
han
Rei
ngol
d (f
orth
com
ing)
(I
than
k D
eVor
kin
for
prov
idin
g an
adv
ance
cop
y); a
nd A
llan
A.
Nee
dell
, "
The
Car
negi
e In
stitu
tion
of W
ashi
ngto
n an
d R
adio
Ast
rono
my:
Pre
lude
to a
n A
mer
ican
Na-
tiona
l Obs
erva
tory
,fl Journal for the History of Astronomy,
1991
, 22:
55-6
7.
Inte
rest
in th
e M
oon
rose
am
ong
mili
tary
pla
nner
s in
the
mid
and
late
195
0s.
But
not u
ntil
the
dram
atic
laun
ch o
f Sp
utni
k I
on 4
Oct
ober
195
7, w
ith it
s pa
infu
l po-
litic
al r
eper
cuss
ions
, did
rea
chin
g th
e M
oon
beco
me
a cl
ear
targ
et o
f A
mer
ican
of-
fici
als.
In
late
195
7 an
d ea
rly
1958
var
ious
age
ncie
s an
d ae
rosp
ace
corp
orat
ions
that
wer
e he
avily
inve
sted
in r
ocke
t tec
hnol
ogy,
incl
udin
g th
e Je
t Pro
puls
ion
Lab-
orat
ory
(JPL
) in
Pas
aden
a, C
alifo
rnia
, beg
an s
ubm
ittin
g pr
opos
als
for
send
ing
rock
ets
to th
e M
oon.
Ini
tially
mem
bers
of
Pres
iden
t Dw
ight
D. E
isen
how
ers
cab-
inet
and
his
mos
t inf
luen
tial s
cien
ce a
dvis
ors,
incl
udin
g th
ose
in th
e Pr
esid
ent's
Scie
nce
Adv
isor
y C
omm
ittee
, opp
osed
suc
h pl
ans
, fee
ling
that
luna
r pr
obes
wer
egi
mm
icks
rat
her
than
thou
ghtf
ul r
espo
nses
to th
e So
viet
cha
lleng
e. R
isin
g po
pu-
lar
hyst
eria
ove
r th
e Sp
utni
k la
unch
ings
and
the
perc
eptio
n of
U.S
. vul
nera
bilit
yan
d un
dera
chie
vem
ent s
oon
soft
ened
suc
h op
posi
tion.
On
27 M
arch
195
8 N
eil
McE
lroy
, the
Am
eric
an s
ecre
tary
of
defe
nse,
exp
ress
ed th
e E
isen
how
er a
dmin
i-st
ratio
ns
dete
rmin
atio
n no
t onl
y to
exp
lore
Ear
th f
rom
orb
it, b
ut a
lso
"to
dete
r-m
ine
our
capa
bilit
y of
exp
lori
ng s
pace
in th
e vi
cini
ty o
f th
e M
oon
, to
obta
inus
eful
dat
a co
ncer
ning
the
Moo
n, a
nd p
rovi
de a
clo
se lo
ok a
t the
Moo
n.
2 F
or b
ackg
roun
d on
the
polit
ical
and
soc
ial d
imen
sion
s of
the
Am
eric
an s
pace
pro
gram
and
its
fore
-
runn
ers,
see
Wal
ter
McD
ouga
ll
, -..
the
Hea
vens
and
the
Ear
th: A
Pol
itica
l His
tory
of
the
Spac
e A
ge(N
ew Y
ork:
Bas
ic B
ooks
, 198
5), p
p. 1
41-1
94; C
layt
on R
. Kop
pes
JPL
and
the
Am
eric
an S
pace
Pro
-gram: A History of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(New
Hav
en: Y
ale
Uni
v. P
ress
, 198
2), p
p. 6
2-13
3;and Joseph N. Tatarewicz
Space Technology and Planetary Astronomy
(Blo
omin
gton
: Ind
iana
Uni
v.Pr
ess,
199
0).
3 D
anie
l J. K
evle
sThe Physicists (
New
Yor
k: V
inta
ge, (
979)
, pp.
386
-387
; Cra
ig B
. Waf
f, "
A H
is-
tory
of
the
Dee
p Sp
ace
Net
wor
kfl
draf
t (19
90),
Ch.
I, p
. I (
I th
ank
Waf
ffor
pro
vidi
ng a
dra
ft c
opy)
;an
d K
oppe
sJPL and the American Space Program
(cit.
n. 2
).
OSI
RIS
, 2nd
ser
ies,
199
2, 7
: 23
8-26
423
8
240
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
241
The
dec
isio
n to
exp
lore
the
Moo
n m
eant
that
vir
tual
ly a
ll av
aila
ble
data
abo
utth
at b
ody
s m
otio
n, s
urfa
ce, a
nd e
nvir
onm
ent b
ecam
e a
mat
ter
of s
igni
fica
nce
for
spac
ecra
ft de
sign
ers.
Sci
entis
ts a
nd e
ngin
eers
at J
PL
, for
exa
mpl
e, n
eede
d to
know
whe
ther
the
Moo
n re
tain
ed e
ven
a tin
y re
sidu
al a
tmos
pher
e, a
pos
sibi
lity
not e
ntir
ely
rule
d ou
t in
stud
ies
by A
mer
ican
and
Fre
nch
astr
onom
ers
in th
e m
id1940s. Even an extremely tenuous lunar atmosphere could cause an appreciable
drag
on
the
mov
emen
t of
artif
icia
l sat
ellit
es th
roug
h th
e m
ediu
m, a
s in
vest
iga-
tions
of E
arth
's fi
rst a
rtifi
cial
sat
ellit
es h
ad s
how
n. F
ew a
stro
nom
ers
belie
ved
that
a lu
nar
atm
osph
ere
of th
is k
ind
wou
ld b
e fo
und.
Thu
s ph
otog
raph
s sh
owin
g w
hat
som
e as
tron
omer
s in
terp
rete
d as
haz
es c
over
ing
the
floo
rs o
f lu
nar
crat
ers,
and
Koz
yrev
s la
te 1
958
anno
unce
men
t of
volc
anic
out
gass
ing,
aro
used
con
side
rabl
ein
tere
st a
nd c
onst
erna
tion
amon
g JP
L s
cien
tists
.V
ario
us a
genc
ies
bega
n fu
ndin
g w
ork
in lu
nar
and
plan
etar
y sc
ienc
e lib
eral
ly.
Som
e gr
ants
wen
t to
a sm
all b
ut g
row
ing
num
ber
of A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s w
ithin
tere
sts
in s
olar
sys
tem
phe
nom
ena.
Whi
le o
ther
fac
ilitie
s sp
ecia
lized
in r
esea
rch
on m
eteo
rs o
r pl
anet
ary
atm
osph
eres
, lun
ar s
tudi
es w
ere
a m
ain
focu
s of
res
earc
hat
the
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d ob
serv
ator
ies
of th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Chi
cago
, aft
er 1
957
under the direction of Gerard P. Kuiper.
Kui
per
was
not
the
first
ast
rono
mer
at Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald
to tu
rn to
sol
ar s
ys-
tem
ast
rono
my,
but
he
was
with
out a
dou
bt th
e m
ost i
nflu
entia
l. B
orn
in H
olla
ndK
uipe
r st
udie
d as
tron
omy
at th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Lei
den
in th
e la
te 1
920s
und
erEjnar Hertzsprung, Jan Woltjer, a
nd W
illem
de
Sitte
r. W
ith a
Ph.
D. t
hesi
s in
hand
on
the
stru
ctur
e of
bin
ary
star
s, a
fir
m c
omm
and
of E
nglis
h, a
nd e
xtra
ordi
-na
ry s
tam
ina
for
obse
rvat
iona
l wor
k, K
uipe
r tr
avel
ed to
the
Lic
k O
bser
vato
ry in
Cal
ifor
nia
in 1
933.
Fin
ding
per
man
ent a
ppoi
ntm
ent t
here
blo
cked
by
rese
ntm
ent
agai
nst f
orei
gner
s, K
uipe
r m
oved
to a
pos
ition
at H
arva
rd U
nive
rsity
in 1
935
be-
fore
acc
eptin
g an
invi
tatio
n to
join
the
staf
f of
the
new
McD
onal
d O
bser
vato
ry,
loca
ted
in T
exas
. Lik
e m
ost m
embe
rs o
f th
ese
join
tly a
dmin
iste
red
obse
rvat
orie
sK
uipe
r m
ade
his
hom
e in
Will
iam
s B
ay, W
isco
nsin
(w
here
the
Yer
kes
Obs
erva
-to
ry is
loca
ted)
, com
mut
ing
once
or
twic
e a
year
to T
exas
for
his
sch
edul
ed ti
me
on th
e M
cDon
ald
tele
scop
e.
Vir
tual
ly a
ll of
Kui
per
s re
sear
ch b
etw
een
1933
and
194
5 de
alt w
ith s
tella
r ph
e-no
men
a. H
e fi
rst m
oved
tow
ards
sol
ar s
yste
m a
stro
nom
y, a
n ea
rlie
r in
tere
st b
uton
e di
ffcu
lt to
pur
sue,
in 1
944
, whe
n he
dis
cove
red
that
Tita
n, a
larg
e sa
telli
te o
fSa
turn
, pos
sess
es a
met
hane
-ric
h at
mos
pher
e. T
his
was
a s
urpr
isin
g di
scov
ery,
lade
n w
ith w
hat m
any
scie
ntis
ts r
egar
ded
as im
port
ant i
mpl
icat
ions
for
cos
mog
-on
y. F
or a
sho
rt ti
me
the
disc
over
y pu
t him
in a
qua
ndar
y: T
itan
s at
mos
pher
epo
sed
enou
gh q
uest
ions
to s
ugge
st a
ric
h lin
e of
res
earc
h in
sol
ar s
yste
m a
stro
n-om
y, b
ut p
ursu
ing
them
wou
ld r
equi
re h
im to
aba
ndon
oth
er p
rom
isin
g av
enue
sof
ste
llar
astr
onom
y in
whi
ch h
e w
as d
eepl
y in
vest
ed. T
he d
ilem
ma
was
res
olve
d
whe
n he
was
off
ered
Nav
y fu
nds
in 1
946
to m
ake
infr
ared
stu
dies
of
the
atm
os-
pher
es o
f E
arth
and
oth
er p
lane
ts, u
sing
inst
rum
enta
l adv
ance
s de
velo
ped
duri
ngW
orld
War
II.
Kui
per
chos
e th
e ou
tsid
e fu
nds.
The
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d ob
serv
ato-
ries
had
com
e th
roug
h th
e w
ar w
eake
ned
, par
ticul
arly
in c
ontr
ast t
o ph
ysic
s at
Chi
cago
, who
se s
tatu
re a
nd f
inan
cial
sec
urity
wer
e en
hanc
ed b
y pa
rtic
ipat
ion
inth
e M
anha
ttan
Proj
ect.
Otto
Str
uve ,
Kui
pers superior at Yerkes, h
ad w
orrie
dth
roug
hout
the
war
that
lack
of
fund
s or
res
earc
hers
mig
ht f
orce
the
obse
rvat
orie
sto
clo
se, w
ithou
t suf
fcie
nt w
ar-r
elat
ed s
uppo
rt. S
imila
r fe
ars
still
gui
ded
rem
arks
he m
ade
in 1
947.
Dec
larin
g th
at th
e G
erm
an V
- 2 r
ocke
t , in
frar
ed d
etec
tor
cells
mic
row
ave
and
radi
o de
tect
ors
, and
adv
ance
s in
ele
ctro
nics
pro
mis
ed to
rev
olu-
tioni
ze A
mer
ican
ast
rono
my,
he
adde
d a
cave
at: "
It is
cle
ar th
at w
e m
ust r
eorie
ntou
rsel
ves
to ta
ke a
ccou
nt o
f th
ese
chan
ges.
A n
ew p
lan
mus
t be
devi
sed
and
a ne
wpo
licy
mus
t be
adop
ted
if th
e Y
erke
s O
bser
vato
ry is
to r
etai
n its
pla
ce a
mon
g th
ele
adin
g re
sear
ch c
ente
rs o
f th
e U
nite
d St
ates
."7
Fort
unat
ely
for
Kui
per ,
sola
r sy
s-te
m r
esea
rch
fit t
he b
ill.
Kui
per
dem
onst
rate
d bo
th a
kee
n un
ders
tand
ing
of p
hysi
cal p
robl
ems
rela
ted
to s
olar
sys
tem
res
earc
h an
d st
rong
ent
repr
eneu
rial
ski
ls in
sec
urin
g fe
dera
l pa-
tron
age
for
this
wor
k. B
etw
een
1946
and
194
8, w
ith th
e st
rong
sup
port
of S
truv
eK
uipe
r bu
ilt a
pro
mis
ing
prog
ram
for
the
stud
y of
pla
neta
ry a
tmos
pher
es a
t the
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d fa
cilit
ies
, inv
olvi
ng n
early
a q
uart
er o
f the
sta
ff pa
rt-
or fu
ll-time. This program collapsed in 1948
, lar
gely
bec
ause
the
infr
ared
spe
ctro
met
erK
uipe
r ha
d de
sign
ed h
ad li
mite
d se
nsiti
vity
, and
bec
ause
Ger
hard
Her
zber
g, a
tale
nted
Ger
man
-bor
n sp
ectr
osco
pist
who
m S
truv
e ha
d hi
red
to r
evita
lize
the
Yer
kes
spec
tros
copi
c la
bora
tory
, res
igne
d. (
Her
zber
g ha
d id
entif
ied
man
y of
the
atm
osph
eric
abs
orpt
ion
lines
that
Kui
pers instrument detected.) Afterwards
Kui
per
turn
ed h
is a
ttent
ion
to s
olid
bod
ies
in th
e so
lar
syst
em. W
ith f
unds
fro
mth
e O
ffce
of
Nav
al R
esea
rch
, the
Air
For
ce, a
nd th
e N
atio
nal S
cien
ce F
ound
a-tio
n, h
e la
unch
ed a
maj
or s
tudy
of
aste
roid
s an
d be
gan
editi
ng a
n in
tern
atio
nally
auth
ored
com
pend
ium
of
sola
r sy
stem
res
earc
h. H
e al
so s
tart
ed tr
aini
ng g
radu
ate
stud
ents
in th
e fie
ld.
Thi
s re
sear
ch o
n as
tero
ids
led
Kui
per
to h
is in
tere
st in
the
Moo
n. A
maj
or q
ues-
tion
that
con
fron
ted
both
ast
rono
mer
s an
d ge
oche
mis
ts in
the
1950
s w
as d
eter
-m
inin
g th
e ab
solu
te a
bund
ance
s of
the
elem
ents
, sin
ce m
any
scie
ntis
ts th
ough
tth
at th
e co
ncen
trat
ion
of r
adio
activ
e po
tass
ium
, ura
nium
, and
thor
ium
wou
ld in
-di
cate
whe
ther
suf
fcie
nt h
eat e
xist
ed w
ithin
pla
neta
ry in
teri
ors
to c
ause
cor
e fo
r-m
atio
n an
d gl
obal
mel
ting.
The
Moo
n, E
arth
' s n
eare
st c
eles
tial n
eigh
bor,
was
seen
as
a te
st c
ase
for
this
idea
. Aft
er in
vest
igat
ing
the
luna
r su
rfac
e th
orou
ghly
with
the
larg
e 82
-inc
h te
lesc
ope
at M
cDon
ald
, Kui
per
anno
unce
d in
195
4 th
at it
show
ed e
vide
nce
of s
uch
mel
ting.
His
fin
ding
s dr
ew f
ire
from
Har
old
C. U
rey,
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
hica
go c
hem
ist a
nd N
obel
laur
eate
, who
had
turn
ed h
is a
ttent
ion
4 E
. P. M
art t
o G
. P. K
uipe
r, 12
Nov
. 196
0, a
nd K
uipe
r to
Mar
tz, 2
3 N
ov. 1
960
, bot
h B
ox 1
8Gerard P. Kuiper papers, U
nive
rsity
of
Ari
zona
Lib
rary
, Tuc
son
(her
eaft
er K
uipe
r pa
pers
); a
ndD
insm
ore
Alte
r, "
Sci
entif
ic A
spec
ts o
f the
Lun
ar S
urfa
cePr
ocee
ding
s oJ
the
Lun
ar a
nd P
lane
tary
Ex-
ploration Colloquium,
1958
1(1)
:3-1
0., H
enry
Nor
rs R
usse
ll to
Ann
in O
. Leu
schn
er, 2
5 F
eb. 1
935
, Box
28
, Dep
artm
ent o
f Ast
rono
my
re-
cord
s, B
ancr
oft L
ibra
ry, B
erke
ley;
and
Dal
e P.
Cru
iksh
ank
, "
Ger
ard
Pete
r K
uipe
r, 19
05-1
973"
(dr
aft
for
Biographical Memoirs oJthe National Academy oJSciences,
1992
62; I
than
k C
ruik
shan
k fo
r pr
o-viding an advance copy).
, Cru
iksh
ank, "
Kui
per"
(ci
t. no
. 5);
Ron
ald
E. D
oel
Inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y R
esea
rch
and
Sola
r Sy
stem
As-
tron
omy,
192
0-19
60
(New
Yor
k: C
ambr
idge
Uni
v. P
ress
, for
thco
min
g); a
nd K
uipe
r to
Sub
ram
anya
nC
hand
rase
khar, 16 Jan. 1941
, Box
28
, and
Ger
ard
P. K
uipe
r, "
Mem
oran
dum
to D
ean
Bar
tky
in r
eN
avy
Con
trac
ts" 20 June 1946
, Box
29
, bot
h in
Kui
per
pape
rs.
7 O
tto S
truv
e, "
The Story of an Observatory," Popular Astronomy,
1947
55:2
83-2
94, o
n p.
291
; and
Dav
id H
. DeV
orki
n
, "
The
Mai
nten
ance
ofa
Sci
entif
ic In
stitu
tion:
Otto
Str
uve
, the
Yer
kes
Obs
erva
-to
ry, a
nd It
s O
ptic
al B
urea
u du
ring
the
Sec
ond
Wor
ld W
arM
iner
va19
80, 1
8:59
5-62
3.. D
oel
Solar System Astronomy
(cit.
n. 6
); a
nd "
Gen
eral
Con
trac
t Inf
onna
tion
" B
ox 3
3, K
uipe
rpa
pers
.
242
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
243
to p
lane
tary
evo
lutio
n in
195
0. T
heir
dis
pute
wid
ened
into
a r
ift t
hat w
as n
ever
agai
n br
idge
d. K
uipe
r ha
d ho
ped
that
Ure
y w
ould
lead
col
labo
rativ
e, i
nter
disc
i-pl
inar
y w
ork
invo
lvin
g pl
anet
ary
geoc
hem
istr
y; th
eir
brea
k, i
nvol
ving
pro
fes-
sion
al a
s w
ell a
s m
etho
dolo
gica
l and
dis
cipl
inar
y is
sues
, ins
tead
esc
alat
ed to
one
of th
e m
ost p
ainf
ul a
nd s
igni
fican
t con
trov
ersi
es in
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
y in
the
mid
- tw
entie
th c
entu
ry. K
uipe
r em
erge
d fr
om th
e di
sput
e m
ore
conv
ince
d th
anever that astronomical, rather than geochemical, e
vide
nce
was
par
amou
nt in
solv
ing
the
ridd
le o
f th
e so
lar
syst
ems
orig
in, a
nd th
at th
e lu
nar
surf
ace
was
a k
eypi
ece
to it
s so
lutio
n.A
n eq
ually
sig
nifi
cant
fac
tor
in K
uipe
rs
inte
rest
in th
e M
oon
was
the
pros
pect
of g
reat
ly in
crea
sed
patr
onag
e fo
r lu
nar
rese
arch
. As
dire
ctor
of
one
of th
e na
-tio
ns
larg
est o
bser
vato
ries
, Kui
per
saw
him
self
in a
str
ong
posi
tion
to h
elp
dire
ctsu
ch p
rogr
ams
and
to o
btai
n fu
nds
need
ed to
mai
ntai
n th
e co
mpe
titiv
e st
andi
ngof
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d. A
lthou
gh n
ot a
s in
volv
ed in
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Geo
phys
ical
Yea
r (I
GY
) as
ast
rono
mer
s en
gage
d in
upp
er a
tmos
pher
ic r
esea
rch
or s
olar
phy
s-ic
s , h
e w
as w
ell a
war
e be
fore
the
laun
ch o
f Sp
utni
k th
at g
over
nmen
t and
mili
tary
plan
s w
ere
conv
ergi
ng o
n th
e M
oon.
In
1955
he
had
pers
uade
d m
embe
rs o
f th
epl
anet
ary
com
mis
sion
of
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Ast
rono
mic
al U
nion
to e
ndor
se h
ispr
opos
al to
dev
elop
a p
hoto
grap
hic
luna
r at
las ,
exp
lain
ing
that
suc
h an
atla
sw
ould
ben
efit
futu
re s
pace
act
iviti
es a
nd lu
nar
astr
onom
y. I
n hi
s le
tters
to o
ther
astr
onom
ers
Kui
per
dem
onst
rate
d a
keen
app
reci
atio
n th
at a
stro
nom
y w
ould
burg
eon
once
pla
nned
sat
ellit
es w
ere
laun
ched
dur
ing
the
IGY
. Whe
n Sp
utni
k I
bega
n ci
rclin
g th
e E
arth
in O
ctob
er 1
957
, he
seem
ed le
ss s
urpr
ised
than
man
y of
his
colle
ague
s th
at th
e pu
blic
and
the
gove
rnm
ent c
lam
ored
for
spa
ce r
esea
rch
and
plan
etar
y ex
plor
atio
n.K
uipe
r sa
w tw
o pa
rtic
ular
adv
anta
ges
in b
ring
ing
larg
e gr
ants
for
sol
ar s
yste
mas
tron
omy
to Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald.
The
82-
inch
tele
scop
e of
McD
onal
d ha
d be
enth
e se
cond
larg
est a
stro
nom
ical
inst
rum
ent i
n th
e U
nite
d St
ates
aft
er W
orld
War
but t
he c
ompl
etio
n of
the
200-
inch
Pal
omar
tele
scop
e , o
pera
ted
by th
e C
alif
or-
nia
Inst
itute
of T
echn
olog
y, a
nd s
ever
al o
ther
maj
or u
nive
rsity
inst
rum
ents
had
eroded Chicago
s in
stru
men
tal e
dge.
Kui
per
pres
sed
this
poi
nt in
com
mun
ica-
tions
to U
nive
rsity
of C
hica
go o
ffci
als.
War
ning
that
"a
revo
lutio
nary
pac
e is
sweeping astronomy,
" he
arg
ued
that
"w
ithou
t con
stan
t add
ition
s of
maj
or a
ndex
pens
ive
equi
pmen
t , a
stro
nom
ers
get b
ehin
d so
fas
t and
so
far
as to
bec
ome
rap-
idly
obs
olet
e an
d in
effe
ctiv
e. .
. . (
TJh
ey a
re w
atch
ing
eage
rly
and
som
etim
es a
nx-
ious
ly f
or b
reak
thro
ughs
or
maj
or p
rogr
ess
at r
ival
inst
itutio
ns."
Kui
per
also
rais
ed th
e sp
ecte
r of
inte
rnat
iona
l com
petit
ion.
The
"present race
" he
dec
lare
dw
as a
ccel
erat
ed b
y th
e ne
ed to
mak
e pr
ogre
ss "
vis
a vi
s th
e U
SS
R."
II I
ncre
asin
gly
he lo
oked
to s
uch
patr
ons
as th
e N
atio
nal S
cien
ce F
ound
atio
n an
d th
e A
ir F
orce
Cam
brid
ge R
esea
rch
Cen
ter
to p
rovi
de n
ew, s
peci
aliz
ed te
lesc
opes
for
the
Chi
-ca
go a
stro
nom
ers.
He
also
rec
ogni
zed
that
man
y of
his
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d co
l-
Figu
re
1.
Ger
ard
P. K
uipe
rat the 40-in
ch r
efra
ctin
gtelescope of Yerkes Observa-
tory
, Uni
vers
ity o
f C
hica
goci
rca
1955
. Courtesy of
Stephen Lewellyn and the
Uni
vers
ity o
f Ariz
ona
Library Special
Col
lect
ions
.
9 D
oelSolar SyslemAslronomy.
On
Ure
ys
luna
r re
sear
ch s
ee, e
., S
teph
en B
rush
, "
Nic
kel f
or Y
our
Tho
ught
s: U
rey
and
the
Orig
in o
f the
Moo
nSc
ienc
e19
8821
7:89
1-89
8.10
"Pr
ojec
t: A
tlas
of th
e M
oon,
" 22
Oct
. 195
6 , B
ox 1
4; K
uipe
r to
E. C
. Abe
rnda
non
, 20
Feb
. 195
6B
ox 1
0; a
nd K
uipe
r to
Ger
ard
Van
Dor
en, 3
Oct
. 195
7, B
ox 1
4; a
ll in
Kui
per
pape
rs.
II K
uipe
r to
Law
renc
e K
impt
on, I
Nov
. 195
9; a
nd K
uipe
r to
R. W
ende
ll (P
atJ
Har
riso
n, 1
6 A
pril
1960; both Box 18
ibid
,
leag
ues
wer
e pr
inci
pally
inte
rest
ed in
ste
llar
and
gala
ctic
ast
rono
my
and
rese
nted
the
incr
easi
ng d
evot
ion
of s
hop
faci
litie
s an
d te
lesc
ope
time
to s
olar
sys
tem
re-
sear
ch. L
arge
gra
nts-
and
the
poss
ibili
ty, n
ever
rea
lized
, of b
uild
ing
a di
stin
ct in
-st
itute
of
plan
etar
y st
udie
s w
ithin
the
obse
rvat
ory-
wer
e th
e to
ols
Kui
per
soug
htto
kee
p hi
s fi
eld
both
com
petit
ive
with
in th
e di
scip
line
and
secu
re w
ithin
the
con-
fine
s of
his
ow
n in
stitu
tion.
Sola
r sy
stem
ast
rono
my
flou
rish
ed a
t Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d un
der
Kui
per
s le
ader
-sh
ip in
the
late
195
0s. A
n in
fusi
on o
f new
NS
F a
nd A
ir F
orce
fund
s (f
ive
times
the
amou
nt r
ecei
ved
befo
re th
e la
unch
of
Sput
nik)
mad
e po
ssib
le in
tens
ifie
d Ju
nar-
map
ping
stu
dies
, and
Kui
per
recr
uite
d to
Yerkes a core group of cartograp
ers
and geodicists-an unprecedented in
terd
isci
plin
ary
arra
ngem
ent a
t Am
enca
nob
serv
ator
ies-
to s
uper
vise
the
wor
k. T
he Y
erke
s gr
oup
bega
n w
orki
ng o
n lu
nar
map
s on
a s
cale
of I
: I ,
000
000
, em
ploy
ed th
e Y
erke
s 40
-inc
h re
frac
tor
to d
eter
-m
ine
the
Moo
ns
mom
ents
of
iner
tia, a
nd la
unch
ed s
yste
mat
ic a
ttem
pts
to in
ter-
pret
the
orig
ins
of lu
nar
surf
ace
feat
ures
. Kui
per
pers
uade
d L
awre
nce
Kim
pton
chan
cello
r of
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
hica
go, t
o fo
rmal
ize
the
hybr
id m
arri
age
of a
s-tr
onom
y an
d ge
olog
y by
aw
ardi
ng jo
int P
h.s
from
thes
e de
part
men
ts. (
Geo
-ch
emis
try,
bec
ause
of
his
rupt
ure
with
Ure
y, w
as o
ut.)
Des
pite
his
wor
ry th
at th
eY
erke
s-M
cDon
ald
prog
ram
s w
ere
built
on
the
shif
ting
sand
s of
tem
pora
ry r
e-
12 K
uipe
r, "
Pro
posa
l (to
NS
FI f
or a
'Cen
ter'
or '
Inst
itute
' of
Plan
etar
y an
d L
unar
Stu
dies
" July
1958
, Box
13
ibid
.
244
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
245
sear
ch c
ontr
acts
rat
her
than
on
endo
wed
fun
ds, K
uipe
r re
aliz
ed th
at h
is r
esea
rch
ambi
tions
wer
e cl
osel
y lin
ked
with
the
new
, em
ergi
ng f
eder
al a
nd m
ilita
ry p
atro
nsof
the
field
.E
ach
of K
uipe
rs
prog
ram
s pr
omis
ed to
pro
vide
gov
ernm
ent a
nd m
ilita
ry a
gen-
cies
cri
tical
info
rmat
ion
need
ed to
dev
elop
spa
cecr
aft e
xped
ition
s. Y
et K
uipe
rqu
ickl
y ca
me
to u
nder
stan
d th
at th
e go
vern
men
t lun
ar e
ffor
t, d
rive
n by
pol
itica
lex
igen
cies
and
the
desi
re to
sco
re tr
ium
phs
agai
nst t
he S
ovie
ts in
the
shor
test
pos
-si
ble
time,
req
uire
d kn
owle
dgea
ble
scie
ntis
ts to
rev
iew
and
coo
rdin
ate
wor
k at
Am
eric
an in
stitu
tions
as
muc
h as
it d
id h
ard
data
. Spa
ce r
esea
rch
, inc
ludi
nglunar science, w
as f
ar la
rger
than
the
capa
city
of
any
sing
le in
stitu
tion
to p
rovi
deit.
By
the
late
195
0s th
e pr
ospe
ct o
f ob
tain
ing
larg
e gr
ants
insp
ired
ast
rono
mer
sat many academic centers-
Har
vard
, Cal
tech
, and
Joh
ns H
opki
ns U
nive
rsity
among them-
to ta
ilor
exis
ting
rese
arch
pro
gram
s in
way
s to
gai
n gr
ants
fro
mN
ASA
and
fro
m th
e A
ir F
orce
. Whi
le m
any
ofth
ese
prop
osal
s w
ere
solid
ly d
evel
-op
ed, a
few
wer
e ev
iden
tly d
esig
ned
to p
ry lo
ose
fund
ing
from
gen
erou
s re
view
panels. 14
Aw
are
that
man
y le
ader
s of
the
emer
ging
U.S
. spa
ce p
rogr
am w
ere
engi
neer
s by
trai
ning
or
scie
ntis
ts tr
aine
d in
fie
lds
othe
r th
an a
stro
nom
y, K
uipe
r so
ught
tose
rve
as a
n ad
viso
r on
ast
rono
mic
al r
esea
rch
in s
uppo
rt o
f ro
cket
-bas
ed lu
nar
missions. For him such advice giving was a golden op
port
unity
to p
rom
ote
his
sci-
entif
ic r
esea
rch.
It w
ould
als
o he
lp a
llay
his
anxi
etie
s ab
out m
aint
aini
ng p
rofe
s-si
onal
sta
ndar
ds in
this
bro
adly
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y, r
apid
ly e
xpan
ding
fiel
d.
Incr
easi
ngly
Kui
per
com
plai
ned
that
the
sudd
en f
lood
of
fund
s fo
r so
lar
syst
emre
sear
ch m
ade
the
fiel
d a
"hap
py h
untin
g gr
ound
" fo
r re
sear
cher
s di
ssat
isfi
edwith their own areas of work.
Des
pite
his
eag
erne
ss to
rec
ruit
new
con
trac
ts, K
uipe
r di
d no
t wav
e th
e fl
ag o
fA
mer
ican
-Sov
iet c
ompe
titio
n in
sol
ar s
yste
m r
esea
rch
mor
e th
an h
is c
olle
ague
s.H
e di
sagr
eed
with
Don
ald
E. M
enze
l, d
irec
tor
of th
e H
arva
rd C
olle
ge O
bser
va-
tory
, who
dec
lare
d to
pat
rons
that
mor
e as
tron
omer
s w
ere
enga
ged
in lu
nar
and
plan
etar
y st
udie
s in
the
Sovi
et U
nion
than
any
oth
er c
ount
ry, i
ncluding the
Uni
ted
Stat
es; K
uipe
r pu
t the
ir r
anks
at a
bout
equ
al. N
ever
thel
ess
he d
id f
eel t
hat
Sovi
et r
esea
rche
rs h
ad m
ade
larg
e st
ride
s in
the
fiel
d. H
e w
ishe
d to
eva
luat
e th
eir
rese
arch
res
ults
in o
rder
to g
uide
his
ow
n in
vest
igat
ions
.It
was
in th
is c
onte
xt th
at K
uipe
r fi
rst l
earn
ed o
f th
e co
ntro
vers
ial c
laim
by
Koz
yrev
, one
of
near
ly 1
25 a
stro
nom
ers
empl
oyed
at t
he P
ulko
vo O
bser
vato
ry in
Len
ingr
ad, t
hat h
e ha
d ob
tain
ed s
pect
rogr
aphi
c ev
iden
ce f
or a
n ac
tive
volc
ano
onth
e M
oon.
Kui
per
belie
ved
that
the
find
ing,
if a
ccur
ate,
wou
ld h
ave
sign
ific
ant
impl
icat
ions
for
the
desi
gn a
nd c
onst
ruct
ion
oflu
nar
spac
ecra
ft, a
nd r
equi
re n
ew
kind
s of
sys
tem
atic
luna
r ob
serv
atio
ns. I
t wou
ld a
lso
serv
e as
a w
indo
w in
to a
fiel
d of
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
y th
at h
ad in
tens
e in
tere
st to
sci
entis
ts a
s w
ell a
s to
na-
tiona
l pol
icym
aker
s. K
uipe
r w
ell u
nder
stoo
d th
e co
mpe
titiv
e va
lue
of k
now
ing
whe
ther
to c
once
ntra
te r
esou
rces
on
this
que
stio
n in
the
hope
of
mak
ing
furt
her
impo
rtan
t dis
cove
ries
, or to steer clear of an unfruitful path. Evaluating
Koz
yrev
s cl
aim
bec
ame
one
of K
uipe
rs
maj
or g
oals
.
II. E
VA
LU
AT
ING
TH
E E
VID
EN
CE
: EM
ER
GIN
G C
ON
TR
OV
ER
SY
Koz
yrev
s cl
aim
that
the
Moo
n w
as v
olca
nica
lly a
ctiv
e to
ok m
any
Am
eric
an a
s-tr
onom
ers
by s
urpr
ise.
By
the
late
195
0s m
ost'A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s ha
d co
me
to a
ccep
t tha
t mos
t lun
ar c
rate
rs a
nd th
e fa
r la
rger
luna
r "s
eas"
res
ulte
d fr
om im
-
pact
s by
met
eori
tes
at h
igh
velo
city
, aba
ndon
ing
the
idea
that
they
wer
e ca
used
by
larg
e vo
lcan
ic e
xplo
sion
s, w
hich
had
bee
n th
e le
adin
g vi
ew a
mon
g A
mer
ican
as-
tron
omer
s in
the
earl
y tw
entie
th c
entu
ry. T
his
shif
t in
cons
ensu
s ca
n la
rgel
y tr
aced
to th
e pu
blic
atio
n by
the
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
er R
alph
B. B
aldw
in in
194
9of
The Face of the Moon.
In th
is w
ork
Bal
dwin
gav
e a
pain
stak
ing
anal
ysis
of
the
dept
h-ve
rsus
-dia
met
er m
easu
rem
ents
of c
rate
rs p
rodu
ced
by b
omb
shel
ls d
urin
gW
orld
War
II,
then
ext
rapo
late
d th
e cu
rve
to la
rge-
scal
e fe
atur
es th
e si
ze o
flun
arcr
ater
s.l?
A fe
w W
este
rn a
stro
nom
ers
(join
ed b
y m
any
geol
ogis
ts)
reje
cted
this
in-
terp
reta
tion
, arg
uing
that
mor
phol
ogic
al s
imila
ritie
s be
twee
n vo
lcan
ic c
alde
ras
and lunar craters suggested that the lunar su
rfac
e w
as m
olde
d pr
inci
pally
by
volc
anis
m. M
any
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ers
also
rej
ecte
d B
aldw
ins
argu
men
ts. A
t the
Len
ingr
ad U
nive
rsity
the
Sovi
et s
choo
l led
by
the
astr
onom
ers
V. V
. Sha
rono
v
and
N. N
. Syt
insk
aya
argu
ed th
at n
onra
ndom
dis
trib
utio
n of
cra
ters
was
con
trar
yto
the
impa
ct h
ypot
hesi
s, a
nd th
at p
olar
izat
ion
mea
sure
men
ts o
f th
e M
oon
s su
r-
face
str
ongl
y in
dica
ted
lava
flow
s. T
his
diffe
renc
e in
opi
nion
was
wel
l kno
wn
toA
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s. E
ven
so, v
irtu
ally
all
luna
r sc
ient
ists
had
agr
eed
that
the
luna
r la
ndsc
ape
was
anc
ient
; eve
n ad
voca
tes
of th
e vo
lcan
ic th
eory
had
not
pre
-di
cted
con
tem
pora
ry e
rupt
ions
. W
hat a
lso
surp
rised
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
ers
(alth
ough
the
nove
lty o
f fin
ding
the
new
s th
ere
was
rap
idly
fad
ing)
was
that
fir
st r
epor
ts o
f K
ozyr
evs
disc
over
y ap
-
pear
ed in
the
popu
lar
pres
s ra
ther
than
in e
stab
lishe
d sc
ient
ific
jour
nals
. The
firs
tne
ws
of K
ozyr
evs
repo
rted
dis
cove
ry w
as m
oved
out
on
the
wire
s of
the
Sov
iet
new
s ag
ency
TA
SS o
n 12
Nov
embe
r 19
58; i
t was
sub
sequ
ently
car
ried
in s
ever
alAmerican newspapers, including the
New York Times,
whi
ch f
eatu
red
it on
pag
e
one.
Ini
tial d
etai
ls w
ere
sket
chy.
The
TA
SS
rep
ort n
oted
onl
y th
at K
ozyr
ev, w
hile
obse
rvin
g at
the
Cri
mea
n A
stro
phys
ical
Obs
erva
tory
on
the
nigh
t of
3 N
ovem
ber
had
foun
d th
e sp
ectr
ogra
phic
sig
natu
re o
f vo
lcan
ic a
ctiv
ity w
ithin
the
luna
r cr
a-te
r A
lpho
nsus
, a c
ircu
lar
depr
essi
on a
bout
six
ty m
iles
in d
iam
eter
nea
r th
e ce
nter
of th
e M
oon
s vi
sibl
e di
sk. K
ozyr
ev w
as q
uote
d as
dec
lari
ng th
at h
is d
isco
very
re-
13 K
uipe
r, "
Prop
osal
" (c
it. n
. 12)
; and
Kui
per
to J
an O
ort, I July 1958, Box 13
ibid
.14
Kui
per
to A
. R. H
ibbs
, 21
Nov
. 196
0; a
nd K
uipe
r, "
Rev
iew
of
JPL
Tec
hnic
al M
emo
33-
" I
Mar. 1961; both Box 18
ibid
.IS
Kui
per
to H
ibbs
, 21
Nov
. 196
0, p
. 2; a
nd K
uipe
r to
Ale
ksan
dr M
ikha
ilov
24 A
pr. 1
960
Box
II
ibid
.16
Don
ald
E. M
enze
l and
Ger
ard
de V
auco
uleu
rs to
E. R
. Dye
r, Jr
., 2
Dec
. 195
9, p
. 2, B
ox 3
2, P
aper
s
of th
e D
irec
tor,
Har
vard
Col
lege
Obs
erva
tory
, Har
vard
Uni
vers
ity A
rchi
ves
(her
eaft
er H
CO
dir
ecor
pape
rs);
and
Kui
per
to C
entr
al In
telli
genc
e A
genc
y, 1
0 A
pril
1959
, Box
33
, Kui
per
pape
rs.
17 F
red
L. W
hipp
le to
Ral
ph B
. Bal
dwin
, I S
ept.
1949
, Box
I, F
red
L. W
hipp
le C
olle
ctio
n, H
arva
rd
Uni
vers
ity A
rchi
ves;
Don
ald
E. M
enze
l to
Zde
nek
Kop
al, I
I A
pril
1960
, Box 41
, HC
O d
irec
tor
s pa
-
pers
; and
Ral
ph B
. Bal
dwin
, int
ervi
ew b
y R
onal
d D
oel,
25 O
ct. 1
989
, pp.
34-
, Nie
ls B
ohr
Lib
rary
,
Am
eric
an I
nstit
ute
of P
hysi
cs, N
ew Y
ork
(her
eaft
er A
lP).
IS O
Uo
Str
uve
to H
arol
d C
. Ure
y, 7
Jan
. 195
3, B
ox 8
7, H
arol
d C
. Ure
y pa
pers
, Cen
tral
Uni
vers
ityL
ibra
ry, M
ande
vile
Dep
artm
ent o
f Sp
ecia
l Col
lect
ions
, Uni
vers
ity o
f C
alif
orni
a at
San
Die
go (
here
-
afte
r U
rey
pape
rs).
For
Am
eric
an r
esea
rch
invo
lvin
g im
pact
cra
ters
see
Wili
am G
rave
s H
oyt
Coo
n
Mountain Controversies: Meteor Crater and the Development of Impact Theory
(Tuc
son:
Uni
v. A
ri-
zona
Pre
ss, 1
987)
; and
Kat
hlee
n M
ark
Meteorite Craters
(Tuc
son:
Uni
v. A
rizo
na P
ress
, 198
7). F
or
Sovi
et v
iew
s se
e A
. V. M
arko
v, e
d.The Moon: A Russian View
(Chi
cago
: Uni
v. C
hica
go P
ress
, 196
2).
246
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
247
fute
d th
e id
ea th
at th
e M
oon
was
"a
dead
cel
estia
l bod
y."
The
rep
ort a
lso
quot
edA
leks
andr
A. M
ikha
ilov ,
dire
ctor
of t
he P
ulko
vo O
bser
vato
ry a
nd w
ell k
now
n by
repu
tatio
n to
man
y A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s , to
the
effe
ct th
at K
ozyr
evs
obse
rva-
tion
was
of
grea
t im
port
ance
in s
how
ing
that
the
impa
ct th
eory
was
"en
tirel
y er
ro-
neou
s"
and
that
vol
cani
sm r
emai
ned
an a
ctiv
e ge
olog
ic p
roce
ss o
n th
e M
oon.
Dir
ect c
omm
unic
atio
ns b
etw
een
Am
eric
an a
nd S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
s w
ere
con-
stra
ined
by
the
Col
d W
ar, n
ot to
men
tion
lingu
istic
bar
rier
s an
d ve
ry r
ealli
mita
-tions on mail and telephone calls-bo
th d
irec
t reg
ulat
ions
and
the
less
ove
rt f
ear
of g
over
nmen
tal n
otic
e. A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s th
us tr
ied
to g
auge
the
subs
tanc
ean
d si
gnif
ican
ce o
f th
e re
port
muc
h as
they
had
new
s of
the
laun
ch o
f Sp
utni
k I
one
year
ear
lier ,
thro
ugh
info
rmal
con
tact
s w
ith o
ne a
noth
er. T
he f
irst
sub
stan
tial
deta
ils c
ame
from
a C
zech
oslo
vaki
an a
stro
nom
er th
en w
orki
ng in
Man
ches
ter
Eng
land
: Zde
nek
Kop
al. K
opal
suc
ceed
ed in
pla
cing
a lo
ng- d
ista
nce
tele
phon
ecall to Mikhailov. Reporting on the conversation in the British journal
New
Sci
en-
list,
Kop
al w
rote
that
Koz
yrev
, usi
ng th
e C
rim
ean
50-i
nch
tele
scop
e, h
ad s
potte
da
redd
ish
glow
in A
lpho
nsus
whi
le m
akin
g sp
ectr
ogra
phic
stu
dies
of t
he M
oon
and
had
imm
edia
tely
beg
un a
new
pla
te, t
hen
expo
sed
a th
ird
plat
e on
ce th
e vi
s-ua
l act
ivity
sub
side
d. T
he s
econ
d pl
ate
appe
ared
to s
how
inte
nse
emis
sion
s at
737 angstroms
, cha
ract
eris
tic o
f th
e Sw
an b
ands
of
mol
ecul
ar c
arbo
n, a
t the
poin
t whe
re th
e sl
it of
the
spec
trog
raph
had
inte
rsec
ted
the
crat
ers
cent
ral p
eak.
With
in tw
o m
onth
s ad
ditio
nal d
etai
ls w
ere
pres
ente
d in
an
artic
le K
ozyr
ev s
ub-
mitted to
Sky
and
Tel
esco
pe,
a se
mi p
opul
ar m
agaz
ine
wid
ely
read
by
Am
eric
anas
tron
omer
s.A
lthou
gh m
ost A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s be
lieve
d th
e im
pact
theo
ry o
flun
ar c
ra-
ters
to b
e co
rrec
t , a
num
ber
of th
em th
ough
t tha
t con
tem
pora
ry v
olca
nic
erup
-tio
ns w
ere
poss
ible
. By
earl
y 19
59 s
ever
al A
mer
ican
and
Eur
opea
n re
sear
cher
sin
clud
ing
Kop
al, v
oice
d su
ppor
t for
Koz
yrev
s ev
iden
ce a
nd in
terp
reta
tion.
Ure
ys
new
mod
el o
f th
e lu
nar
inte
rior
, whi
ch p
ostu
late
d in
hom
ogen
eous
com
po-
sitio
n of
the
luna
r in
teri
or a
s th
e m
ost p
rom
isin
g m
eans
of
expl
aini
ng th
e M
oon
eart
h-facing bulge, c
ould
acc
omm
odat
e lo
cal v
olca
nic
erup
tions
, and
Ure
ypo
inte
d to
Koz
yrev
s ob
serv
atio
n as
impo
rtan
t evi
denc
e fo
r hi
s th
eory
in a
195
9pa
per.
Din
smor
e A
lter ,
dire
ctor
of
the
Gri
ffth
Obs
erva
tory
and
Pla
neta
rium
inL
os A
ngel
es, w
ho h
ad in
itiat
ed lu
nar
surf
ace
stud
ies
in th
e ea
rly
1950
s , a
lso
sup-
port
ed K
ozyr
evs
inte
rpre
tatio
n an
d w
ante
d to
use
the
larg
e te
lesc
opes
at M
ount
Wils
on, w
here
he
enjo
yed
gues
t obs
erve
r pr
ivile
ges
, to
sear
ch f
or a
dditi
onal
in-
stan
ces.
Oth
er a
stro
nom
ers
cons
ider
ed la
unch
ing
sim
ilar
prog
ram
s. A
lthou
ghm
any
wis
hed
to e
valu
ate
a fu
ll-le
ngth
jour
nal p
ublic
atio
n de
scri
bing
the
disc
ov-
ery
(Koz
yrev
s ar
ticle
incl
uded
a p
hoto
grap
h co
py o
f the
pla
te b
ut fe
w te
chni
cal
deta
ils),
ther
e w
as g
ener
al a
war
enes
s th
at th
e in
tens
e co
mpe
titio
n of the space
race
bro
ught
gre
at p
ress
ures
on
rese
arch
ers
to a
nnou
nce
prel
imin
ary
resu
lts
whi
le a
ful
l rep
ort m
ight
be
dela
yed
for
mon
ths,
pos
sibl
y fo
r re
ason
s of
nat
iona
lad vantage. 22
Kui
per
perc
eive
d K
ozyr
evs
anno
unce
d di
scov
ery
as a
mat
ter
of c
onsi
dera
ble
prof
essi
onal
impo
rtan
ce, w
ith c
lear
impl
icat
ions
for
his
luna
r re
sear
ch p
rogr
ams
at Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald.
Unl
ike
Ure
y an
d A
lter,
Kui
per
soon
took
a d
im v
iew
of t
heac
cura
cy o
f th
e ev
iden
ce th
at K
ozyr
ev h
ad p
rovi
ded.
Kui
per
s im
pres
sion
s w
ere
part
ly s
hape
d by
his
com
mitm
ent t
o th
e m
olte
n-m
oon
hypo
thes
is h
e ha
d de
vel-
oped
in th
e m
id 1
950s
, whi
ch a
rgue
d th
at th
e M
oon
had
beco
me
mol
ten
thro
ugh
radi
oact
ive
heat
ing
earl
y in
its
hist
ory
and
then
rap
idly
coo
led
, mak
ing
inst
ance
sof
con
tem
pora
ry a
ctiv
e vo
lcan
ism
mos
t unl
ikel
y. B
ut h
e al
so d
istr
uste
d ph
oto-
grap
hic
obse
rvat
ions
that
Alte
r ha
d m
ade
of th
e M
oon
at d
iffe
rent
wav
elen
gths
,w
hich
Alte
r be
lieve
d sh
owed
the
exis
tenc
e of
luna
r ha
zes.
To
Kui
per,
Alte
rpl
ates
indi
cate
d no
mor
e th
an c
hang
ed c
ondi
tions
in E
arth
's a
tmos
pher
e du
ring
thei
r ex
posu
re. P
artic
ular
ly ir
rita
ting
to K
uipe
r w
as th
at K
ozyr
ev h
ad a
ckno
wl-
edge
d th
e in
flue
nce
of A
lter
s ob
serv
atio
ns o
n hi
s ow
n w
ork.
Kuiper worried
that
blin
d ac
cept
ance
ofK
ozyr
evs
findi
ngs
(if u
nsub
stan
tiate
d) w
ould
lead
Am
er-
ican
ast
rono
mer
s on
a w
ild g
oose
cha
se a
nd ta
rnis
h th
e re
puta
tions
and
inst
itu-
tiona
l am
bitio
ns o
f so
lar
syst
em a
stro
nom
ers
in th
e ey
es o
f th
eir
chie
f pa
tron
s.
layi
ng h
is c
laim
s be
fore
the
gene
ral p
ublic
, Koz
yrev
, in
Kui
per
s vi
ew, h
ad c
om-
mitt
ed a
bre
ach
of d
isci
plin
ary
stan
dard
s.K
uipe
r co
nfid
ed h
is d
oubt
s ab
out t
he a
ccur
acy
of K
ozyr
evs
repo
rt in
a s
erie
s of
conf
iden
tial l
ette
rs to
Jos
eph
Ash
broo
k, an editor of
Sky and Telescope
and
a pr
o-fe
ssio
nal a
stro
nom
er b
y tr
aini
ng. I
n la
te J
anua
ry 1
959
Ash
broo
k se
nt K
uipe
r th
eph
otog
raph
ic p
rint
of
the
spec
trum
that
Koz
yrev
had
pro
vide
d to
acc
ompa
ny h
isar
ticle
, pre
pare
d fr
om h
is o
rigi
nal p
late
. Sho
rtly
aft
erw
ard
, Kui
per
used
one
of
his
assigned nights on the 82-in
ch te
lesc
ope
at M
cDon
ald
to e
xpos
e tw
enty
-fiv
e
plat
es o
f A
lpho
nsus
with
a s
pect
rogr
aphi
c re
solu
tion
of 5
0 an
gstr
oms
per
mili
-m
eter
, the
sam
e th
at K
ozyr
ev h
ad r
epor
ted.
The
res
ults
wer
e fr
ustr
atin
gly
inco
n-cl
usiv
e: K
uipe
r be
lieve
d th
at th
e ap
pare
nt e
mis
sion
line
s m
ight
hav
e be
en c
ause
dby
fau
lty g
uidi
ng o
f th
e So
viet
tele
scop
e, b
ut th
e re
solu
tion
was
too
low
for
cer-
tain
ty. R
elat
ed s
pect
ral l
ines
that
Kui
per
expe
cted
to f
ind-
assu
min
g th
at th
ebr
ight
fea
ture
nea
r 4
700
angs
trom
s w
as in
deed
the
Swan
ban
ds o
f ca
rbon
-did
not a
ppea
r. B
ut p
erha
ps th
ey w
ere
sim
ply
buri
ed in
the
nois
e of
the
copy
. "O
nly
insp
ectio
n of
the
orig
inal
pla
te w
il te
ll"
Kui
per
wro
te. O
ther
ast
rono
mer
s w
hoex
amin
ed th
e co
py c
ame
to s
hare
this
vie
w.24
Koz
yrev
s pl
ate
was
not
onl
y a
sin-
gular event (the observation could not be repeated) but geographically isolated
as w
ell.
How
then
wer
e A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s to
judg
e its
val
ue?
For
Kui
per,
the
mat
-te
r in
volv
ed a
num
ber
of c
onsi
dera
tions
, ind
udin
g th
e ch
arac
ter
of th
e ob
serv
er.
19 "Eruption ofa Volcano on Moon Reported by Russian Scientist,"
New York Times,
13 N
ov. 1
958
pp. A
-, A
-12.
20 Z
dene
k K
opal
, "
Volcano on the Moon?"
New
Sci
entis
t19
58, 4
: 136
2-1
364;
and
N. A
. Koz
yrev
Observation of a Volcanic Process on the Moon,"
Sky and Telescope,
1959
18:1
84-1
86. O
ne m
ea-
sure
of
the
sign
ific
ance
of
the
cont
rove
rsy
is th
e nu
mbe
r of
pub
licat
ions
it in
spir
ed: t
hirt
y-si
x ar
ticle
sdevoted to lunar volcanism were reported in the
Astronomischer Jahresbericht
in 1959
, mor
e th
anth
ree
times
the
num
ber
devo
ted
to th
e to
pic
betw
een
1956
and
195
8.21
H. C
. Ure
y, W
. M. E
lsas
ser ,
and
M. G
. Roc
hest
er
, "
Not
e on
the
Inte
rnal
Str
uctu
re o
f the
Moo
n,"
Astrophysics Journal,
1959
, 129
:842
-848
.
22 D
insm
ore
Alte
r to
Ira
S. B
owen
, 17
Nov
. 195
8, A
lter
to B
owen
, 24
Nov
. 195
8, a
nd A
lter, "
Prop
o-sa
l for
Lun
ar P
hoto
grap
hy,"
cov
er le
tter
23 D
ec. 1
958
, all
in B
ox 3
9, I
ra S
. Bow
en p
aper
s, H
untin
gton
Lib
rary
, San
Mar
ino
, Cal
ifor
nia;
and
Fre
d L
. Whi
pple
to H
arol
d C
. Ure
y, 8
Jul
y 19
59, a
nd U
rey,
"R
e-
port
of C
omm
issi
on I
" Sp
ace
Scie
nce
Boa
rd, N
atio
nal A
cade
my
of S
cien
ces,
ca.
Aug
. 195
8, B
ox 6
7
Fol
der
I, b
oth
in U
rey
pap
ers.
23 G
. P. K
uipe
r "T
he Moon,"
Journal of Geophysical Research.
1959
64:1
713-
1719
.24 Kuiper to Jo
eph
Ash
broo
k, 3
1 Ja
n., 1
2 F
eb. 1
959,
"D
epar
tmen
tal C
omm
unic
atio
ns, 1
957-
59"
fold
er, w
. W. M
orga
n pa
pers
, unp
roce
ssed
col
lect
ion
, Yer
kes
Obs
erva
tory
; and
Din
smor
e A
lter, "
The
Koz
yrev
Obs
erva
tion
of Alphonsus," draft ca. 1959
, Box
3, F
olde
r 6
, Ure
y pa
pers
. I th
ank
Judy
Bau
sch
for
faci
litat
ing
my
acce
ss to
the
Mor
gan
pape
rs.
248
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
249
II. E
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
SC
IEN
CE
1930
s. M
any
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ers,
par
ticul
arly
at L
enin
grad
-inc
ludi
ng K
ozyr
ev
then
a y
oung
ast
roph
ysic
ist a
t Pul
kovo
-sub
sequ
ently
foun
d th
emse
lves
eith
er in
conc
entr
atio
n ca
mps
or
befo
re e
xecu
tion
squa
ds.27
Alth
ough
a b
rief
thaw
in 1
945
and
1946
allo
wed
del
egat
ions
of
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ers
to v
isit
obse
rvat
orie
s in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es (
Kui
per
had
help
ed s
pons
or o
ne s
uch
grou
p at
the
McD
onal
d O
b-se
rvat
ory)
, by
1947
the
deep
enin
g C
old
War
was
lim
iting
per
sona
l con
tact
s an
ddi
srup
ting
plan
s fo
r in
tern
atio
nal m
eetin
gs. T
he g
ener
al m
eetin
gs o
f th
e ln
erna
-
tiona
l Ast
rono
mic
al U
nion
, or
IAU
(th
e on
ly in
tern
atio
nal s
cien
tific
um
on to
whi
ch th
e So
viet
Uni
on b
elon
ged
in th
e 19
50s)
wer
e tw
ice
post
pone
d be
caus
e of
supe
rpow
er c
onfl
icts
, inc
ludi
ng th
e ou
tbre
ak o
f the
Kor
ean
War
. Am
eric
an s
cien
-
tists
atte
ndin
g th
e m
eetin
gs a
ctua
lly h
eld
freq
uent
ly c
ompl
aine
d th
at th
ey a
l-lo
wed
too
few
opp
ortu
nitie
s fo
r ex
tend
ed c
onve
rsat
ions
with
Sov
iet r
esea
rche
rs.
Kui
per
s pr
edec
esso
r at
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d, S
truv
e, and other leading
eric
astronomers were angered, t
orm
ente
d, a
nd b
affe
d by
pol
emic
al a
ttack
s m
Sov
I
publ
icat
ions
on
thei
r ch
arac
ter
and
scie
ntif
ic th
eori
es, w
ritte
n by
equ
ally
pro
mi-
nent
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ers
such
as
Vik
tor
Am
bart
sum
ian
and Pavel Parenago.
Fres
h ba
rrie
rs w
ere
rais
ed in
the
late
195
0s a
s of
fcia
ls in
Mos
cow
and
Was
hing
ton
wra
pped
spa
ce s
cien
ce a
nd lu
nar
rese
arch
in th
e m
antle
s of
nat
iona
l sity
and
national prestige. Although scientists found wider personal contacts
1 m
ev
uatin
g ne
w o
r co
ntro
vers
ial s
cien
tific
res
ults
from
out
side
thei
r ow
mtI
mat
e c
cle,
suc
h ne
twor
ks w
ere
diff
cult
to e
stab
lish
with
cou
nter
part
s m
the
Sovi
et
Uni
on.
By
the
19 5
0s K
uipe
r w
as d
eepl
y in
volv
ed, i
ndee
d ob
sess
ed, w
ith th
e pr
oble
m o
f
eval
uatin
g fo
reig
n sc
ienc
e. A
s an
adu
lt im
mig
rant
to th
e U
nite
d St
ates
who
had
abso
rbed
muc
h of
the
inte
rnat
iona
list c
ultu
ral t
radi
tions
that
Hol
land
had
toof
fer
Kui
per
was
cle
arly
mor
e fa
mili
ar w
ith th
e personalities, structures, a
nd
styl
eof
Eur
opea
n sc
ienc
e th
an w
ere
man
y of
his
Am
eric
an-
rn c
olle
ague
s. B
ut
his
desi
re to
com
mun
icat
e hi
s vi
ews
to c
olle
ague
s an
d to
out
side
pat
rons
tapp
edde
eper
roo
ts. D
urin
g 19
44 a
nd 19
45 Kuiper served as a
embe
r of
.Am
eric
ALSOS mission a ci
vilia
n-sc
ient
ific
team
dep
loye
d be
hmd
adva
ncm
g A
llied
troo
ps to
inte
rie
w A
xis
scie
ntis
ts a
nd e
ngin
eers
abo
ut th
eir
prog
ress
in w
epo
ns
rese
arch
, par
ticul
arly
ato
mic
bom
bs. K
uipe
r ha
d be
en a
ssig
ned
the
task
of
mte
r-viewing astrophysicists in liberated Holland,
nce,
and
Ger
man
y .a
?out
Ger
man
adv
ance
s in
sol
ar a
stro
nom
y, a
fie
ld c
ntlc
al to
long
-ran
ge m
ilita
ry
com
mun
icat
ions
. App
alle
d by
the
dest
ruct
ion
wro
ught
by
the
Ger
man
war
ma-
chin
e in
his
hom
elan
d, K
uipe
r be
gan
a pe
rson
al c
rusa
de a
gain
st N
azi c
oll
bora
-
tors after World War
mix
ing
cred
ible
inte
llige
nce
with
hea
rsay
rep
orts
m th
eoc
casi
onal
con
dem
natio
ns th
at h
e pr
ovid
ed, o
ften
on
requ
est,
to c
olle
ague
s an
d
to A
llied
occ
upat
ion
offc
ials
.K
uipe
rs
role
in e
valu
atin
g E
urop
ean
scie
nce
was
He
belie
ved
that
sta
tistic
al p
roba
bilit
y di
d no
t sup
port
Koz
yrev
s cl
aim
that
by
good
for
tune
he
had
caug
ht a
n ac
tive
luna
r er
uptio
n in
the
slit
of h
is s
pect
rogr
aph
sinc
e a
cent
ury
of in
tens
e vi
sual
insp
ectio
n ha
d yi
elde
d fe
w r
epor
ts o
f tr
ansi
ent
activ
ity. K
uipe
r pu
t the
odd
s at
no
bette
r th
an o
ne in
a th
ousa
nd. T
he p
robl
emth
us b
ecam
e to
det
erm
ine
the
likel
ihoo
d th
at K
ozyr
ev h
ad e
rred
or
fals
ified
his
evid
ence
. Com
plic
atin
g th
e pi
ctur
e w
ere
the
inte
nse
popu
lar
and
scie
ntif
ic in
ter-
est i
n th
e di
scov
ery,
and
the
rapi
d el
evat
ion
of th
e M
oon
as a
targ
et fo
r sc
ient
ific
expl
orat
ion
and
natio
nal p
rest
ige.
As
an a
dmin
istr
ator
Kui
per
reco
gniz
ed th
atde
cisi
ons
mad
e ab
out t
he d
isco
very
s si
gnif
ican
ce w
ould
aff
ect w
hich
inst
itutio
nsw
ould
con
trol
luna
r re
sear
ch.
Mor
eove
r, th
e st
rong
sup
port
that
Ure
y vo
iced
for
Koz
yrev
s w
ork
left
Kui
per
won
deri
ng w
heth
er n
ew r
esou
rces
for
luna
r re
sear
ch w
ould
go
prin
cipa
lly to
as-
tron
omer
s or
inst
ead
to s
cien
tists
in o
ther
dis
cipl
ines
. By
the
late
195
0s U
rey
was
activ
ely
prom
otin
g hi
s ow
n bl
uepr
int f
or s
cien
tific
exp
lora
tions
of t
he M
oon
and
had
forg
ed s
tron
g lin
ks w
ith a
eros
pace
con
trac
ting
firm
s, th
e Sp
ace
Scie
nce
Boa
rdof
the
Nat
iona
l Aca
dem
y of
Sci
ence
s, a
nd N
AS
A (
who
se W
orki
ng G
roup
on
Lun
ar E
xplo
ratio
n w
as c
ompo
sed
entir
ely
of g
eoch
emis
ts a
nd g
eoph
ysic
ists
).K
uipe
r w
as a
cute
ly a
war
e th
at U
rey,
aft
er th
eir
inte
nse
cont
rove
rsy
in 1
955
, had
atte
mpt
ed to
dis
rupt
his
acc
ess
to N
SF p
atro
nage
.Pe
rson
al, i
nstit
utio
nal,
pro
-
fess
iona
l, a
nd d
isci
plin
ary
fact
ors
wer
e al
l tig
htly
inte
rwov
en in
the
issu
e of
eva
lu-
atin
g K
ozyr
evs
evid
ence
.B
y ea
rly
1959
Kui
per
had
reac
hed
no f
irm
con
clus
ions
abo
ut K
ozyr
evs
find
ing.
Fro
m h
is in
spec
tion
of A
shbr
ook'
s pl
ate
copy
, Kui
per
was
fai
rly
cert
ain
that
itsh
owed
no
unam
bigu
ous
evid
ence
of
emis
sion
. But
he
was
not
rea
dy to
rul
e it
out
and
the
sign
ifica
nce
of th
e pl
ate
, if
genu
ine,
mea
nt th
at a
sur
vey
prog
ram
of t
heM
oon
coul
d yi
eld
a br
eakt
hrou
gh f
or Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald.
Wha
t com
plic
ated
the
pict
ure
for
Kui
per
was
his
wor
ry th
at K
ozyr
ev, w
hose
pre
viou
s w
ork
was
not
wel
lkn
own
but s
eem
ed to
him
mar
gina
l in
qual
ity, m
ight
hav
e re
leas
ed p
relim
inar
y or
even
mis
lead
ing
resu
lts to
gai
n st
andi
ng w
ithin
the
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ical
com
mu-
nity
. Sho
rt o
f vi
sitin
g th
e Pu
lkov
o O
bser
vato
ry d
irec
tly to
exa
min
e th
e or
igin
alpl
ate-
then
an
unlik
ely
prop
ositi
on-K
uipe
r ju
dged
that
he
need
ed a
dvic
e fr
omS
ovie
t col
leag
ues
on K
ozyr
evs
char
acte
r as
an
obse
rver
and
his
sta
ndin
g in
So-
viet
ast
rono
my.
Bet
wee
n 19
59 a
nd 1
960
Kui
per
devo
ted
cons
ider
able
ene
rgy
tore
view
ing
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
y.
The
pro
blem
of
eval
uatin
g So
viet
sci
entif
ic r
esul
ts c
onfr
onte
d m
any
Am
eric
ansc
ient
ists
dur
ing
the
heig
ht o
f th
e C
old
War
. Whi
le s
ome
rese
arch
ers
wor
ried
abou
t the
ext
ent o
f L
ysen
ko-s
tyle
intr
usio
ns in
to S
ovie
t res
earc
h co
mm
uniti
esof
mor
e ge
nera
l con
cern
wer
e th
e lim
ited
num
ber
of S
ovie
t per
iodi
cals
ava
ilabl
ein
tran
slat
ion
(few
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
ers
read
Rus
sian
) an
d th
e eq
ually
lim
ited
oppo
rtun
ities
for
info
rmal
inte
ract
ions
with
Sov
iet c
olle
ague
s. C
onta
ct be
twee
n
Am
eric
an a
nd S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
s be
cam
e vi
rtua
lly n
onex
iste
nt a
fter
the
purg
e of
Sovi
et in
telle
ctua
ls d
urin
g th
e G
reat
Ter
ror
orde
red
by J
osep
h St
alin
in th
e m
id
25 T
atar
ewic
zSpace Technology
(cit.
n. 2
), p
. 29;
Doe
lSolar System Astronomy
(cit.
n. 6
); a
nd W
. p,
Bid
e1m
an to
Har
old
C. U
rey,
8 J
uly
1959
, Box
10
, Ure
y pa
pers
.26
Kui
per
to A
shbr
ook,
31
Jan.
195
9 (c
it. n
. 24)
, p. 3
.
27 O
n th
e hi
stor
y of
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
y du
ring
the
1930
s se
e, e.
ren
R. G
raha
mSc
ienc
e, P
hilo
so
phy, and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union
(New
Yor
k: C
olum
bia
Um
. Pre
ss, 1
987)
, pp.
380
-403
Rob
ert A
McC
utch
eon
"The 1936-1937 Purge of Soviet Astronomers,
SlavIc RevIew, Spnng 1991
50(1
):10
0-11
7; a
nd M
cCut
cheo
n
, "
The
Pur
ge o
f Sov
iet A
stronomy, 1936-37" (M.
A. t
heSI
,
Georgetown University, 1985). .
28 O
tto S
truv
e, "
Com
men
ts a
nd C
omm
unic
atio
ns: A
stro
nom
y In
the
Man
ner
of 1
984
SCIe
nce,
1952
116:
206-20
7. .
29 K
arl H
ufba
uerExploring the Sun: Solar Science Since Gailleo
(Bal
tlmre
: Joh
ns H
pkin
S U
mv.
Pres
s, 1
991)
, pp.
119
-159
; and
Ger
ard
P. K
uipe
r, "
Ger
man
Ast
rono
my
dunn
g th
e W
arPopular As-
tron
omy,
19
46, 5
4:26
3-28
3. O
n K
uipe
rs
role
in A
LSo
s se
e M
ark
Wal
ker
Ger
man
NaC
lona
l Soc
lalz
sm
250
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
251
view
ed p
ositi
vely
by
man
y co
lleag
ues.
It w
as in
par
t his
ext
ensi
ve c
onta
cts
with
scie
ntis
ts in
Eur
ope
that
gai
ned
him
the
pres
iden
cy o
f th
e pl
anet
ary
scie
nces
com
-m
issi
on o
f th
e IA
U, a
nd o
nce
he w
as in
the
post
(w
hich
he
held
for
two
term
sfrom 1952 to 19
58),
his
dea
lings
with
sci
entis
ts o
utsi
de th
e U
nite
d St
ates
in-
creased substantially. As director of the Yerkes-M
cDon
ald
Obs
erva
tory
in th
ela
te 1
950s
Kui
per
rem
aine
d in
con
tact
, by
lette
r an
d th
roug
h oc
casi
onal
per
sona
lvi
sits
, with
a la
rge
num
ber
of E
urop
ean
astr
onom
ers.
Alth
ough
Kui
per
beca
me
som
ewha
t mor
e co
nser
vativ
e as
he
aged
, he
was
a li
b-er
al b
y A
mer
ican
pol
itica
l sta
ndar
ds, w
ith n
o ap
pare
nt p
oliti
cal a
x to
gri
nd w
iththe Soviet Union. In 1950 he distanced himself from the pro-
Com
mun
ist
writings of his former instructor at Leiden, H
ertz
spru
ng, c
ompl
aini
ng th
atH
ertz
spru
ng s
eem
ed "
anno
y(ed
J w
ith th
e W
este
rn w
orld
aro
und
him
."30
He
mad
elit
tle r
efer
ence
in h
is c
orre
spon
denc
e to
the
diff
culti
es o
f A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
sen
snar
ed in
the
web
of
the
Hou
se U
n-A
mer
ican
Act
iviti
es C
omm
ittee
in th
e19
50s,
who
se v
ictim
s in
clud
ed H
arlo
w Shapley, until 1952 the director of the
Har
vard
Col
lege
Obs
erva
tory
, and
the
circ
le o
f ast
rono
mer
s w
ho h
ad jo
ined
Shap
ley
in s
uppo
rtin
g in
tern
atio
nalis
t cau
ses
duri
ng W
orld
War
II.
On
the
othe
rha
nd, h
e m
ade
no e
ffort
, as
did
Ira
S. B
owen
, dir
ecto
r of
the
Mou
nt W
ilson
and
Palo
mar
Obs
erva
tori
es, t
o al
ert p
rosp
ectiv
e ac
adem
ic o
r in
stitu
tiona
l em
ploy
ers
to th
e na
mes
of
astr
onom
ers
calle
d to
Was
hing
ton
to te
stif
y to
the
com
mitt
ee.
The
issu
e th
at a
ppea
red
to tr
oubl
e hi
m m
ost d
eepl
y w
as th
e in
flue
nce
of th
eM
cCar
ran-
Wal
ters
Act
, pas
sed
by C
ongr
ess
in 1
952
, whi
ch s
erve
d to
lim
it m
eet-
ings
and
info
rmal
con
tact
s am
ong
inte
rnat
iona
l sci
entis
ts. T
he la
w p
reve
nted
blac
klis
ted
fore
ign
scie
ntis
ts f
rom
vis
iting
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es a
nd o
utsp
oken
ly li
b-er
al A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts f
rom
usi
ng th
eir
pass
port
s to
trav
el a
broa
d. "Perhaps the
McC
arra
n A
ct w
il be
cha
nged
whe
n al
l pro
min
ent E
urop
eans
hav
e be
en in
Rus
-si
a"
thus
pre
vent
ing
them
all
from
trav
elin
g to
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es, K
uipe
r la
-m
ente
d to
Str
uve.
"W
e ne
ed m
ore
, not
less
, con
tact
with
the
Rus
sian
s , b
ecau
set?
e vi
rtue
s w
hich
all
hum
an b
eing
s po
sses
s , a
t lea
st to
som
e de
gree
, wil
help
our
slde
."32
The
lack
of
rout
ine
cont
acts
bet
wee
n So
viet
and
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
ers
clea
rly
hind
ered
Kui
per
s at
tem
pts
to e
valu
ate
Koz
yrev
s st
andi
ng w
ithin
his
loca
l com
-m
unity
. Koz
yrev
was
not
ent
irely
unk
now
n to
Kui
per
at th
e tim
e th
e di
scov
ery
anno
unce
men
t was
mad
e. H
e ha
d ap
pare
ntly
lear
ned
deta
ils o
f K
ozyr
evs
arre
stan
d ex
ile in
Sib
eria
fro
m 1
936
to 1
948
, as
wel
l as
his
subs
eque
nt r
esto
ratio
n to
the
staf
f of
Pul
kovo
, fro
m S
ubra
man
yan
Cha
ndra
sekh
ar, a
Yer
kes
colle
ague
who
had
met
with
Koz
yrev
and
oth
er S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
s at
Pul
kovo
in 1
934.
Kui
per
had
him
self
met
Koz
yrev
, alb
eit b
riefly
, in
a co
rrid
or e
ncou
nter
at t
he 1
958
mee
ting
ofthe IAU in Moscow. Their co
nver
satio
n di
d no
t lea
ve a
pos
itive
impr
essi
on in
Kui
per
s m
ind.
Koz
yrev
had
see
med
"a
nerv
ous
and
brok
en m
an"
as a
res
ult o
f
his
year
s in
the
gula
g, K
uipe
r ad
vise
d co
lleag
ues.
Thi
s im
pres
son
pr?
babl
con-
trib
uted
to h
is d
istr
ust o
f Koz
yrev
s ea
rlier
pla
neta
ry fi
ndm
gs, m
clud
mg
aclaim-supported by Urey and se
vera
l oth
er A
mer
ican
res
earc
hers
-to
have
de-
tect
ed a
uror
ae in
the
atm
osph
ere
of V
enus
. Mor
eove
r, th
e sp
ecta
cula
r na
ture
of
the
new
dis
cove
ries
dis
turb
ed K
uipe
r, a
s di
d re
port
s th
at K
ozyr
ev w
as a
t wor
k on
a ph
ysic
al th
eory
oft
ime.
Whe
n he
rai
sed
the
issu
e of
pro
babl
e er
ror
in h
is lo
letter to Sky and Telescope
Ash
broo
k, h
e al
so li
sted
vio
latio
ns o
f re
sear
ch e
thic
sin
the
hist
ory
of tw
entie
th-c
entu
ry a
stro
nom
y, in
clud
ing
fals
e cl
aim
s ab
out t
heca
nals
of
Mar
s du
ring
the
earl
y tw
entie
th c
entu
ry a
nd "
fake
spe
ctro
gram
s o
fift
h-
mag
nitu
de s
tars
mad
e at
the
Chi
le S
tatio
n of
the
Lic
k O
ber
vato
ry b
y an
ass
ista
nt
who
dis
cove
red
that
a n
ight
's w
ork
coul
d be
com
pres
sed
mto
less
than
an
hour
by
obse
rvin
g br
ight
sta
rs o
f th
e sa
me
spec
tral
type
." K
ozyr
evs
data
app
eare
d no
less
suspect to Kuiper.
But
wer
e K
ozyr
evs
spec
tra
genu
ine
or f
orge
d? K
uipe
r m
ay w
ell h
ave
felt
less
se-
cure
abo
ut h
is n
egat
ive
conc
lusi
on a
fter
rec
eivi
ng a
det
aile
d le
tter
from
Str
uve.
Thr
ough
the
1950
s St
ruve
was
the
mos
t wel
l-in
form
ed A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
on
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
y. R
ussi
an b
y bi
rth
and
earl
y ed
ucat
ion
, he
hd fled before
adva
ncin
g R
ed A
rmy
afte
r W
orld
War
I; h
e ne
vert
hele
ss r
emam
ed p
reoc
cupi
edw
ith S
ovie
t ast
rono
my,
and
in 1
947
he b
egan
edi
ting
an in
form
al n
ewsl
eter
that
offe
red
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
ers
tran
slat
ed a
bstr
acts
of
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ical
re-
sear
ch. S
truv
e pr
ovid
ed n
o am
mun
ition
aga
inst
Koz
yrev
s fi
ndin
g. H
e ad
vise
Kui
per
that
the
tele
scop
e th
at K
ozyr
ev h
ad a
lmos
t cer
tain
ly u
sed
to e
xpos
e hi
spl
ates
was
the
Cri
mea
n O
bser
vato
rys 50-in
ch r
efle
ctor
, whi
ch h
ad b
een
conf
is-
cate
d by
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ers
from
the
Eer
lin-B
a?el
sber
g O
bsrv
aor
y af
ter
Wor
l
War
II
in r
etal
iatio
n fo
r th
e G
erm
ans'
des
truc
tion
of th
e Se
lmel
s O
bser
vato
ry s
mai
n in
stru
men
t. T
he C
rim
ean
tele
scop
e w
as th
en th
e So
viet
Uni
ons
larg
est,
but
more important
, its
spe
ctro
grap
h w
as a
hig
h-qu
ality
inst
rum
ent m
anuf
actu
red
by
the
Ger
man
ast
rono
mer
Pau
l Gut
hnic
k. K
ozyr
ev h
ad th
us e
mpl
oyed
a. d
etec
tr
of
know
n st
anda
rds.
Whe
ther
this
was
new
s to
Kui
per
is n
ot cl
ear.
LIk
e K
Uip
er
Stru
ve w
as a
ski
lled
spec
tros
copi
st, a
nd a
fter
exa
min
ing
a pr
int o
f th
e A
lpho
npl
ate
mai
led
to A
lter
by K
ozyr
ev, h
e ad
vise
d co
lleag
ues
tit
appe
are
genu
me
to h
im. S
truv
es
opin
ion
prob
ably
infl
uenc
ed B
owen
s decISon to permit
Iter
to
use
the
Mou
nt W
ilson
60-
inch
tele
scop
e fo
r st
eppe
d-up
luna
r re
coal
ssan
ce
hopi
ng, a
s B
owen
put
it
, "
to c
atch
the
volc
ano
in th
e ac
t."3
6 N
one
of th
is p
leas
ed
34 K
uipe
r to
C. S
. Bea
ls, 2
8 N
ov. 1
958
, and
Kui
per
to B
eals
, 19
Dec
. 195
8, b
oth
Box
10
, Kui
per
pa-
pers
' Wal
ter
Sullv
an "
Aur
ora
Bel
ieve
d Si
ghte
d on
Ven
usNew York Times,
! 7 F
eb. 1
958
, p. 2
3, a
nd
ld C
. Ure
y to
E.'
Opi
k, 5
Apr
il 19
57, B
ox 7
2, U
rey
pape
rs. T
e is
no
eVI
ence
KUlper then
unde
rsto
od th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
the
theo
ry w
as u
nder
deb
ate
,,th
m th
e S
ovie
t U m
on, s
ee, e
., M
.
Kita
ev
, "
Koz
yrev
s C
ontr
over
sial
The
ory
of th
e N
atur
e of
Tim
eB
ulle
tzn
of th
e /nsllutefor the Study
of the U.S.
S.R
., 19
607:
39-47
. d h
3S K
uipe
r to
Ash
broo
k , 3
1 Ja
n. 1
959
(cit.
n. 2
4), p
. 2, K
Ulp
er Im
phed
that
Koz
yrev
ha
lor
observations to make his reputation; for an analogous case see Jan Sapp,
Whe
re th
e T
ruth
Lie
s. F
ranz
Moewus and the Origins of Molecular Biology
(New
Yor
k: C
ambn
dge
Um
v. P
ress
, 199
0), P
: 9.
36 I
ra S
. Bow
en to
Din
smor
e A
lter,
19 N
ov. 1
958
, Box
39
, Bow
en p
aper
s; a
nd S
truv
e to
KU
lper
, 31
Dec. 1958
, Box
14
, Kui
per
pape
rs.
and
fhe
Que
stfo
nto
mi
Pow
er,
1939
-194
5 (N
ew Y
ork:
Cam
brid
ge U
niv.
Pre
ss, 1
989)
, pp.
151
-160
;ld
H. D
eVor
kll
Science wIlh a Vengeance: The Miltary Origins of Space Science
(New
Yor
k:Sp
nnge
r, fo
rthc
omm
g), d
raft
, Ch.
3 (
I th
ank
DeV
orki
n fo
r pr
ovid
ing
a dr
aft)
; and
Kui
per
toZ
entr
aIsp
ruch
kam
mer
Nor
dbad
en, 3
Mar
ch 1
950
, Box
28
, Kui
per
pape
rs,
30 K
uipe
r to
Oor
t , 3
1 Ju
ly 1
950
, Kui
per
pape
rs.
31 F
or a
n in
stan
ce o
f B
owen
s ac
ting
thus
see
Ron
ald
E. D
oel, "
Def
inin
g a
Mis
sion
: The
Sm
ithso
nian
Ast
rop
ysic
al O
bser
vato
ry o
n th
e M
ove
J. H
ist.
As/
ron.
1990
2/:1
37- 1
53, o
n p.
41.
32 K
Uip
er to
Otto Struve, 2
7 M
ay 1
954
, Box
28
, Kui
per
pape
rs.
33 M
cCut
cheo
n
, "
The 1936-37 Purge"
(cit.
n. 2
7); a
nd R
ober
t A. M
cCut
cheo
n
, "
Inte
rvie
w w
ithA
;. A
. Koz
yrev
con
cern
ing
the
Ear
ly C
aree
r, A
rres
t , a
nd I
mpr
ison
men
t of
His
Bro
ther
, the
Ast
roph
ysi-
CiS
t N. A
. Koz
yrev
" 1989
, AlP
.
252
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
253
Kui
per,
who
stil
l wan
ted
to u
se th
e M
ount
Wils
on te
lesc
ope
in s
lack
tim
es to
pho
-to
grap
h th
e M
oon
for
the
luna
r at
las
his
team
at Y
erke
s w
as p
repa
ring
.K
uipe
r qu
ickl
y be
cam
e co
nvin
ced
that
his
bes
t hop
es f
or e
valu
atin
g th
e pl
ate
lay
in c
anva
ssin
g So
viet
ast
rono
mer
s. I
n Fe
brua
ry 1
959
, afte
r co
mpl
etin
g hi
san
alys
is o
f th
e sp
ectr
osco
pic
test
pla
tes
of A
lpho
nsus
exp
osed
at t
he M
cDon
ald
Obs
erva
tory
, Kui
per
wro
te f
or th
e fi
rst t
ime
to a
stro
nom
ers
in th
e So
viet
Uni
onfo
r ad
vice
on
Koz
yrev
and
his
luna
r sp
ectr
a. (
Kui
per
appa
rent
ly d
id n
ot w
rite
Koz
yrev
dir
ectly
, per
haps
bel
ievi
ng th
at li
ttle
usef
ul in
telli
genc
e w
ould
com
e of
it.)
The
ast
rono
mer
s he
add
ress
ed h
ad tr
avel
ed to
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es a
nd v
isite
dw
ith h
im a
t Yer
kes;
his
per
sona
l rel
atio
ns w
ith th
em g
ave
him
con
fide
nce
that
he
coul
d tr
ust ,
or
at le
ast e
valu
ate
obje
ctiv
ely,
wha
t the
y ha
d to
say
. Am
ong
them
wer
e K
yril
Ogo
rodn
ikov
, an
astr
onom
er a
t the
Len
ingr
ad U
nive
rsity
wel
l kno
wn
to A
mer
ican
and
Eur
opea
n as
tron
omer
s , a
nd A
lia M
asse
vitc
h, a
Sov
iet t
heor
eti-
cal a
stro
phys
icis
t hig
hly
rega
rded
by
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
ers.
Kui
per
disc
over
ed th
at n
o co
nsen
sus
exis
ted
amon
g So
viet
ast
rono
mer
s on
the
accu
racy
of
Koz
yrev
s vo
lcan
o re
port
. In
earl
y Fe
brua
ry O
goro
dnik
ov in
form
edK
uipe
r th
at s
olar
sys
tem
ast
rono
mer
s in
the
Sovi
et U
nion
app
eare
d to
acc
ept
Koz
yrev
s cl
aim
. He
repo
rted
atte
ndin
g a
Leni
ngra
d m
eetin
g at
whi
ch V
. S
haro
nov
and
A. V
. Mar
kov ,
lead
ing
figu
res
in th
e fi
eld
, wer
e pr
esen
t. K
ozyr
evsp
ectr
um h
ad b
een
show
n at
the
gath
erin
g; w
hile
Sha
rono
v an
d M
arko
v ha
d di
sa-
gree
d ov
er d
etai
ls o
fKoz
yrev
s in
terp
reta
tion
, "
all a
gree
d it
was
due
to s
ome
kind
of e
rupt
ion
of g
ases
. " A
t Kui
per
s re
ques
t Ogo
rodn
ikov
had
als
o " q
uite
pri
vate
lyvi
site
d M
ikha
ilov ,
Koz
yrev
s ct
rect
or a
t Pul
kovo
and
a p
rom
inen
t Sov
iet a
stro
n-om
er. W
hile
Mik
hailo
v ex
pres
sed
som
e m
isgi
ving
s ov
er K
ozyr
evs
prev
ious
re-
sear
ch, O
goro
dnik
ov r
epor
ted
, he
corr
obor
ated
the
valu
e an
d si
gnifi
canc
e of
the
volc
ano
anno
unce
men
t.M
asse
vitc
h's
resp
onse
, whi
ch K
uipe
r re
ceiv
ed s
hort
ly th
erea
fter
, was
far
mor
ene
gativ
e. In
a c
rispl
y w
orde
d le
tter
she
repo
rted
that
she
had
obt
aine
d a
copy
of
the
plat
e an
d sh
owed
it to
ast
rono
mer
s in
Mos
cow
inte
rest
ed in
luna
r st
udie
s. N
oon
e ou
tsid
e K
ozyr
evs
clos
e ci
rcle
of
prof
essi
onal
acq
uain
tanc
es, s
he c
laim
edw
ould
end
orse
the
accu
racy
of K
ozyr
evs
inte
rpre
tatio
n, o
r ev
en th
e au
then
ticity
of th
e pl
ate.
Mas
sevi
tch
did
not s
pecu
late
on
why
Ogo
rodn
ikov
had
off
ered
a f
a-vorable review, o
r w
hy o
ther
s in
Koz
yrev
s ci
rcle
had
def
ende
d hi
s w
ork.
She
sum
med
it th
us: t
he w
hole
mat
ter
was
"re
ally
puz
zlin
g, b
ut o
f co
urse
ther
e ca
n be
no questions
(sic
) of
the
spec
trum
bei
ng f
aked
."39
Kui
per
repl
ied
to M
asse
vitc
h th
at h
e w
as "
stil
unce
rtai
n w
hat t
o th
ink
abou
tth
e lu
nar
spec
trum
" an
d w
ishe
d th
at a
t lea
st o
ne S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
wou
ld a
ttest
to th
e au
then
ticity
of t
he p
late
: "If
the
resu
lts w
ere
not s
o di
ffcu
lt to
bel
ieve
, one
wou
ld n
ever
rai
se th
e qu
estio
n of
the
true
nat
ure
of th
e sp
ectr
um a
t all.
" B
ut e
ven
with
out f
urth
er w
ord
from
Mas
sevi
tch
, Kui
per
retu
rned
to h
is h
ard-
line
posi
tion
on th
e ob
serv
atio
n an
d in
crea
sing
ly u
sed
her
argu
men
t to
just
ify
war
ning
Am
eri-
can
colle
ague
s ag
ains
t ini
tiatin
g se
arch
es f
or lu
nar
even
ts. H
e pa
ssed
ove
rO
goro
dnik
ovs
favo
rabl
e re
view
, pos
sibl
y be
caus
e O
goro
dnik
ov, a
s he
had
re-
min
ded
Kui
per,
was
not
an
expe
rt in
luna
r or
pla
neta
ry s
cien
ce, w
hile
Mas
sevi
tch
had
mad
e oc
casi
onal
con
trib
utio
ns to
the
fiel
d. O
ne r
easo
n th
at K
uipe
r em
brac
edM
asse
vitc
h's
char
ge o
ffak
ery
was
that
it r
eson
ated
with
his
ow
n do
ubts
abo
ut th
esp
ectr
um. B
y ea
rly
spri
ng 1
959
Kui
per
s cr
itici
sms
of th
e sp
ectr
al e
vide
nce
(in-
clud
ing
publ
ishe
d cr
itiqu
es f
or th
e fi
rst t
ime)
fai
rly
bris
tled
with
con
tem
pt. H
e ar
-gu
ed, f
or in
stan
ce, t
hat t
he a
ppar
ent b
righ
t em
issi
on b
and
near
470
0 an
gstr
oms
seem
ed to
con
trad
ict t
he p
hysi
cal e
nvir
onm
ent e
xpec
ted
of a
n ac
tive
erup
tion.
Mor
e im
port
ant,
per
haps
, Mas
sevi
tch'
s ar
gum
ents
res
onat
ed w
ith K
uipe
rem
ergi
ng v
iew
of
how
the
Sovi
et c
omm
unity
of
astr
onom
ers
oper
ated
and
of
Koz
yrev
s st
andi
ng w
ithin
this
com
mun
ity. A
lthou
gh K
uipe
r ha
d, t
hrou
gh h
isco
mm
itmen
ts to
the
IAU
and
his
wor
k at
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d, b
een
in c
onta
ct w
ithin
divi
dual
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ers,
his
fir
st v
isit
to th
e So
viet
Uni
on h
ad n
ot c
ome
until
Aug
ust 1
958
, whe
n he
had
atte
nded
the
Mos
cow
mee
ting
of th
e IA
U. L
ike
man
y A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s he
was
inte
nsel
y cu
riou
s ab
out t
his
vast
, sci
entif
i-ca
lly a
dvan
ced
, yet
rel
ativ
ely
mys
teri
ous
land
that
had
bec
ome
the
focu
s of
U.
polit
ical
, mili
tary
, and
cul
tura
l anx
iety
; and
, lik
e so
man
y, h
e re
veal
ed h
isth
ough
ts in
a tr
ip d
iary
.K
uipe
r w
as n
ot r
eass
ured
by
wha
t he
saw
that
Aug
ust.
His
dia
ry is
fill
ed w
ithim
pres
sion
s of
a b
leak
and
thre
aten
ing
cultu
re; h
e no
ted
the
abse
nce
of p
aved
road
s in
Sov
iet v
illag
es, t
he li
kelih
ood
that
bug
ging
dev
ices
wer
e pr
esen
t in
his
hote
l roo
m, a
nd h
is f
eelin
g of
isol
atio
n fr
om a
ll ne
ws
from
the
Wes
t. H
e ha
d pa
r-tic
ular
ly w
ante
d to
vis
it ne
arby
ast
rono
mic
al f
acili
ties
to a
sses
s th
e qu
ality
of
in-
stru
men
tatio
n an
d to
gai
n fir
stha
nd im
pres
sion
s of
sci
entif
ic w
ork;
he
had
been
prev
ente
d fr
om d
oing
so.
Lik
e ot
her
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
ers,
he
com
plai
ned
that
the
scie
ntif
ic m
eetin
gs h
ad b
een
delib
erat
ely
plan
ned
to p
rovi
de li
tte o
ppor
tuni
tyfo
r pe
rson
al d
iscu
ssio
ns, a
nd th
at th
e sc
hedu
ling
of e
veni
ng ta
lks
mad
e it
near
lyim
poss
ible
to v
isit
info
rmal
ly w
ith S
ovie
t col
leag
ues.
Wha
t Kui
per
did
gain
fro
mhi
s M
osco
w v
isit
was
the
impr
essi
on th
at S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
s re
mai
ned
vuln
era-
ble
to p
oliti
cal p
ress
ure,
and
that
the
boun
dari
es b
etw
een
scie
nce
and
the
stat
e re
-m
aine
d su
bjec
t to
incu
rsio
ns b
y po
litic
al a
utho
ritie
s (a
lthou
gh th
e si
tuat
ion
did
not s
eem
to h
im n
earl
y as
gri
m a
s th
at in
Sov
iet g
enet
ics
duri
ng th
e he
ight
of
Lys
enko
s power). In short, t
he S
ovie
t ast
rono
mic
al c
omm
unity
cou
ld n
ot b
eev
alua
ted
by th
e sa
me
stan
dard
s th
at a
pplie
d in
the
Wes
t. "R
ussi
an s
cien
tists
are
suff
cien
tly in
telli
gent
to k
now
whe
n th
ey a
re c
ompr
omis
ing
real
ity,"
Kui
per
had
wri
tten
to G
eorg
e an
d Pr
isci
lla P
olya
ni, editors of the bulletin
Scie
nce
and
Free
-do
m.
The
rea
l pro
blem
is to
brin
g th
em a
nd th
eir
coun
trym
en to
a c
ondi
tion
whe
re th
ey c
an a
ffor
d to
be
obje
ctiv
e in
off
cial
sta
tem
ents
and
art
icle
s."4
1
Kui
per
cam
e to
acc
ept t
he v
iew
that
Sov
iet s
cien
tific
res
ults
cou
ld b
e pr
oper
lyev
alua
ted
only
thro
ugh
exte
nsiv
e lo
cal k
now
ledg
e, w
hich
onl
y So
viet
con
tact
sco
uld
supp
ly. A
lthou
gh M
asse
vitc
h's
resp
onse
did
not
dir
ectly
add
ress
the
issu
e
37 A
lla M
asse
vitc
h to
Fre
d L.
Whi
pple
, 10
Sep
t. 19
59, B
ox 1
0, F
red
L. W
hipp
le p
aper
s, S
mith
soni
anIn
stitu
tion
Arc
hive
s , W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.;
and
Mas
sevi
tch
, int
ervi
ew b
y Sp
ence
r R
. Wea
r!, I
Sep
t. 19
76A
lP.
38 K
yril
Ogo
rodn
ikov
to K
uipe
r, 4
Feb
. 195
9, B
ox 1
3, K
uipe
r pa
pers
.39
Alla
Mas
sevi
tch
to K
uipe
r , 26
Mar
ch 1
959
, Box
12
, and
"M
asse
vitc
h" f
olde
r, B
ox 1
8, b
oth
ibid
.
40 K
uipe
r to
Alla
Mas
sevi
tch
, 13
Apr
il 19
59, B
ox 1
2ib
id.
an?
Kui
per,
lette
r on
Koz
yrev
s ob
serv
tion of volcanic activity, Sky Telesc., 1
959
, 18:
307.
Oth
er A
men
can
astr
onom
ers
soug
ht M
asse
vltc
h s
opin
ions
on
the
relia
bilit
y of
oth
er S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
s; s
ee, e
., D
onal
d E
. Men
zel t
o M
asse
vltc
h, 3
0April 1960
, Box
42
, HC
O d
irec
tor
s pa
pers
.41
G. P
. Kui
per ,
trip
dia
ry, a
nd K
uipe
r to
Ray
mon
d M
itche
ll, 20 Sept. 1965
, bot
h B
ox 1
8; a
ndK
uipe
r to
G. a
nd P
. Pol
yani
, 28
Oct
. 195
8, B
ox 2
8; a
ll in
Kui
per
pape
rs. O
n L
ysen
kos
infl
uenc
e in
So-
viet genetics, including foreign perceptions of the controversy, see David Joravsky, The
Lys
enko
AjJ
aIf
(Cam
brid
ge, M
ass.
: Har
vard
Uni
v. P
ress
, 1970).
254
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
L
of K
ozyr
evs
plac
e w
ithin
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
y, it
rei
nfor
ced
Kui
per
s im
pres
sion
that
Koz
yrev
was
a m
argi
nal a
ctor
with
in th
e Pu
lkov
o co
mm
unity
, per
haps
tole
-ra
ted
only
bec
ause
of
his
past
nig
htm
aris
h pe
rsec
utio
n. K
uipe
r ha
d lo
ng h
ad s
us-
pici
ons
abou
t the
rel
iabi
lity
of K
ozyr
evs
plan
etar
y st
udie
s, b
ut n
ow h
is d
oubt
sas
sum
ed a
mor
e cy
nica
l cas
t. H
e ex
pres
sed
his
new
thin
king
in le
tters
to a
stro
no-
mer
s, f
eder
al p
atro
ns, a
nd a
dmin
istr
ator
s of
the
burg
eoni
ng s
pace
age
ncie
s, in
-te
ndin
g to
fore
stal
l fur
ther
atte
ntio
n to
Koz
yrev
s cl
aim
s. B
ut it
is c
lear
that
he
also
bel
ieve
d he
was
com
mun
icat
ing
to th
em im
port
ant i
nfor
mat
ion
abou
t the
eval
uatio
n of
all
Sovi
et r
esea
rch
, and
thus
pro
vidi
ng a
ser
vice
that
few
Am
eric
anas
tron
omer
s w
ere
capa
ble
of o
ffer
ing.
His
ung
uard
ed th
ough
ts w
ere
now
here
as
clea
rly
expr
esse
d as
in a
lette
r to
a p
oliti
cal s
cien
tist w
ho w
rote
him
in th
e ea
rly
fall
of 1
959
to a
sk w
hy h
e ha
d cr
itici
zed
the
wor
k of
ano
ther
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
erI.
S. S
hklo
vsky
. Suc
h ca
ses,
Kui
per
resp
onde
d, w
ere
"par
t of
the
baff
ing
pict
ure
whi
ch s
cien
tists
in th
e W
est a
re f
acin
g"
whe
n at
tem
ptin
g to
eva
luat
e th
e w
ork
oftheir Russian colleagues:
Koz
yrev
s pu
blic
atio
n on
the
erup
tion
of th
e ce
ntra
l pea
k of
the
Cra
ter
Alp
hons
us o
n th
eM
oon
is a
som
ewha
t rel
ated
cas
e. T
he b
est i
nfor
med
opi
nion
on
such
cas
es a
ppea
rs to
be
that
men
who
are
mild
ly (
Shk
lovs
ky)
or s
ever
ely
(Koz
yrev
) pe
rsec
uted
by
the
Com
mun
ist
part
y an
d w
ho h
ave
not b
een
prot
ecte
d by
thei
r co
lleag
ues,
use
that
sor
t of
com
ic o
pera
perf
onna
nces
to a
ttrac
t atte
ntio
n to
them
selv
es a
nd to
em
barr
ass
thei
r co
lleag
ues.
We
inth
e W
est w
ould
mak
e a
mis
take
if w
e w
ould
take
thes
e m
enta
l acr
obat
ics
seri
ousl
y.4
Kui
per
seem
ed to
bel
ieve
that
the
judg
men
ts o
f as
tron
omer
s w
ho w
ere
in f
avor
with
the
Com
mun
ist P
arty
-ind
ivid
uals
like
Mas
sevi
tch
and
Am
bart
sum
ian
who
wer
e at
the
zeni
th o
f th
e So
viet
ast
rono
mic
al c
omm
unity
and
enj
oyed
the
free
dom
to tr
avel
to th
e W
est-
wer
e m
ore
trus
twor
thy
and
obje
ctiv
e th
an th
ose
out o
ffav
or w
ith th
e Pa
rty.
If
Kui
per
reco
gniz
ed th
e in
appl
icab
ility
of
this
rea
son-
ing to Soviet genetics, h
e co
mm
itted
non
e of
his
dou
bts
to p
aper
.B
y m
id 1
959
Kui
per
stre
ssed
sci
entif
ic a
rgum
ents
for
rej
ectin
g K
ozyr
evs
clai
min
pub
licat
ions
and
to th
e pr
ess,
but
in p
riva
te h
e m
ade
clea
r th
at th
e co
nfid
entia
las
sess
men
ts o
f K
ozyr
evs
char
acte
r he
had
rec
eive
d fr
om S
ovie
t con
tact
s ha
d in
-fl
uenc
ed h
is ju
dgm
ent m
ore
heav
ily. K
uipe
r us
ually
ref
used
to n
ame
Mas
sevi
tch
and
othe
r So
viet
ast
rono
mer
s w
ho p
rovi
ded
him
with
info
rmat
ion
, cla
imin
g th
atto
exp
ose
them
wou
ld je
opar
dize
his
con
tinue
d ac
cess
to s
cien
tific
res
ults
in S
o-vi
et a
stro
nom
y an
d sp
ace
scie
nce.
As
he p
oint
edly
rem
inde
d a
NA
SA le
ader
, suc
h
info
rmat
ion
was
as
impo
rtan
t to
Am
eric
an r
esea
rch
in lu
nar
scie
nce
as n
ew r
e-se
arch
res
ults
dev
elop
ed a
t hom
e.K
uipe
rs
atta
cks
on K
ozyr
evs
wor
k su
ccee
ded
in s
talln
g po
ssib
le U
.S. a
nd C
a-na
dian
pla
ns to
sea
rch
for
sim
ilar
vari
able
phe
nom
ena
on th
e M
oon.
Tha
t the
ydi
d ha
d m
uch
to d
o w
ith te
chni
cal a
spec
ts o
f th
e m
atte
r: th
e be
lief
of A
mer
ican
scie
ntis
ts th
at th
e ev
ent w
as in
deed
impr
obab
le, t
he d
egre
e of
tele
scop
e tim
e su
chse
arch
es w
ould
req
uire
, and
Kui
per
s so
lid r
eput
atio
n as
a s
pect
rosc
opis
t and
lunar astronomer. But these de
cisi
ons
also
ref
lect
ed b
road
er w
orri
es a
bout
42 Kuiper to Albert Parry, 10 Oct. 1959, Box 18
, Kui
per
pape
rs. K
uipe
r ha
d cr
itici
zd
Shk
lovs
kysu
gges
tion
that
unu
sual
pro
pert
ies
then
attr
ibut
ed to
the
orbi
ts o
f th
e tw
o sm
all m
oons
of
Mar
s m
ight
be a
ccou
nted
for
by
assu
min
g th
e m
oons
wer
e ar
tifac
ts o
f an
anc
ient
Mar
tian
civi
lizat
ion;
see
Par
ry to
Kui
per , 30 Sept. 1959
ibid
.43 Kuiper to Robert Jastrow, 2 Dec. 1959,
ibid
.
EV
ALU
AT
ING
SO
VIE
T L
UN
AR
SC
IEN
CE
IN C
OLD
WA
R A
ME
RIC
A25
5
Lys
enko
ist i
nflu
ence
s an
d th
e ab
ility
of
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ers
to s
peak
fre
ely,
leav
-
ing a residue of doubt regarding controversial claims by Soviet researchers.
One
sig
n of
Am
eric
an s
cien
tists
' sen
sitiv
ity to
the
issu
e of
pol
itica
l int
erfe
renc
ew
ith S
ovie
t res
earc
h w
as p
rovi
ded
, iro
nica
lly, b
y U
rey.
Ure
y w
as c
erta
inly
the
mos
t ada
man
t of K
ozyr
evs
supp
orte
rs in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es, a
nd h
e re
peat
edly
ar-
gued
that
he
saw
no
reas
on to
rej
ect K
ozyr
evs
spec
trum
or
his
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
it.
He
rega
rded
Kui
per
s at
tack
s on
Koz
yrev
s in
tegr
ity a
s lit
te s
hort
of
scan
dalo
us.
Yet
Ure
y w
as h
imse
lf w
orrie
d th
at S
ovie
t wor
k in
pla
neta
ry g
eoch
emis
try
suffe
red
from
intr
usio
ns b
y po
litic
al f
acto
rs, a
nd p
erha
ps f
or th
is r
easo
n he
app
eare
d to
mut
e hi
s cr
itici
sms
of K
uipe
rs
appr
oach
.K
uipe
rs
reje
ctio
n of
luna
r vo
lcan
ism
prev
aile
d w
ithin
U.S
. ast
rono
mic
al in
stitu
tions
and
thei
r pa
tron
s un
til d
eten
te a
l-lo
wed
Sov
iet a
nd A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts n
ew o
ppor
tuni
ties
for
dire
ct in
tera
ctio
n.
IV. C
OM
PET
ITIO
N A
ND
NA
TIO
NA
L S
EC
UR
ITY
Kui
per
s vi
ews
of K
ozyr
ev w
ere
influ
ence
d no
t onl
y by
his
theo
retic
al, i
nstit
u-
tiona
l, a
nd p
rofe
ssio
nal c
omm
itmen
ts, b
ut a
lso
by h
is v
iew
s of
the
rela
tion
of s
ci-
ence
and
nat
iona
l sec
urity
, and
by
his
anxi
etie
s ov
er r
etai
ning
acce
ss to
new
fede
ral p
atro
ns a
nd p
atro
nage
. By
1959
the
rapi
d ex
pans
ion
of s
pace
res
earc
han
d th
e co
ntin
ued
iden
tific
atio
n of
luna
r ro
cket
s w
ith te
chno
logi
cal s
uper
iorit
y in
the
Col
d W
ar, p
lace
d N
ASA
off
cial
s un
der
still
gre
ater
pre
ssur
e to
lear
n m
?re
abou
t the
luna
r en
viro
nmen
t. In
Dec
embe
r 19
59 o
ffci
als
of th
e Je
t Pro
pulS
lOn
Lab
orat
ory
rece
ived
aut
hori
zatio
n to
dev
elop
wha
t bec
ame
know
n as
Pro
ject
Ran
ger,
a s
erie
s of
spa
cecr
aft d
esig
ned
to e
xplo
re th
e M
oon
thro
ugh
hard
-land
ed
inst
rum
ent p
acka
ges
and
late
r th
roug
h te
levi
sion
imag
es. T
he f
irst
Ran
gers
wer
e
plan
ned
for
laun
ch in
196
1. W
hile
A1e
rica
n pl
ans
coal
esce
d: :w
o S
viet
. cra
ft
Lun
ik I
and
Lun
ik I
ll, s
core
d im
pres
sive
sci
entif
ic a
nd p
ohtlc
al v
lcto
nes
bysw
eepi
ng p
ast t
he M
oon.
Lun
ik I
rel
ayed
info
rmat
ion
indi
catin
g th
at th
e M
oon
poss
esse
d no
sig
nifi
cant
mag
netic
fie
ld, w
hile
Lun
ik II photographe
the
pre
ousl
y hi
dden
luna
r fa
r si
de.
(Lun
ik I
I hi
t the
Moo
n on
the
ee
ofSo
vlt P
rem
ler
Nik
ita K
hrus
hche
vs
visi
t to
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es, c
ompo
undm
g A
men
can
angs
t
over
infe
rior
ity in
the
spac
e ra
ce.)
Res
pond
ing
to th
e he
ight
ened
dem
and
for
sci-
entis
ts e
xper
ienc
ed in
sol
ar s
yste
m a
stro
nom
y, in
clud
ing
cele
stia
l mec
hani
cssu
ch s
choo
ls a
s Y
ale
and
Cin
cinn
ati b
egan
exp
andi
ng th
eir
grad
uate
pro
gram
s or
offe
red
sum
mer
sch
ools
, whi
le H
arva
rd, C
olor
ado
, and
Cal
tech
initi
ated
bol
d
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y pr
ogra
ms
desi
gned
to a
ppea
l to
the
broa
deni
ng r
ange
of
patr
ons
in this field, i
nclu
ding
the
NSF
, the
Air
For
ce, a
nd N
ASA
. Alth
ough
new
fun
ds
wer
e pr
ovid
ed f
or th
ese
effo
rts,
com
petit
ion
for
them
rem
aied
fice
.6
. .
Kui
per
rem
aine
d an
act
ive
com
petit
or f
or th
ese
fund
s, a
nd m
crea
smgl
y w
llhng
to u
se a
ll av
aila
ble
mea
ns to
sus
tain
his
pro
gram
s in
sol
ar s
yste
m r
esea
rch.
De-
man
ds o
n hi
s en
trep
rene
uria
l ski
lls in
crea
sed
in e
arly
196
0, w
hen
he m
ade
the
de-
cisi
on to
tran
sfer
his
res
earc
h co
ntra
cts,
sup
port
ing
staf
f, an
d gr
adua
te s
tude
nts
44 H
. C. U
rey
to B
. J. L
evin
, I A
ug. 1
956
, Box
52
. Fol
der
35, U
rey
pape
rs.
45 K
oppe
sIPL and the American Space Program
(Clt.
n. 2
), p
. 106
; R. C
argt
ll H
all
Luna
r Im
pact
. A
History of Project Ranger (W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.:
NA
SA, 1
977)
; and
Tat
arew
lcz
Space Technology
(Clt.
n.
2)'
D~~
ald
E. M
enze
l and
Ger
ard
de V
auco
uleu
rs to
Edw
ard
R. D
yer, 2
Dec
. 195
9, B
ox 3
2, H
CO
di-
rect
ors
pape
rs; a
nd T
atar
ewic
zSpace Technology,
pp, III
, 114
.
256
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
257
(ten
peo
ple
in a
ll) f
rom
Chi
cago
to th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Ari
zona
. The
shi
ft c
ame
abou
t afte
r se
rious
dep
artm
enta
l con
flict
s at
Yer
kes
dera
iled
his
plan
s to
exp
and
his
rese
arch
fur
ther
at t
hat f
acili
ty. T
he in
stitu
tiona
l dif
fcul
ties
that
torp
edoe
dhi
s ef
fort
s to
enl
arge
the
inst
itutio
nal b
ase
for
sola
r sy
stem
ast
rono
my
at C
hica
gore
flect
ed th
e ra
pid
chan
ges
then
aff
ectin
g A
mer
ican
ast
rono
my.
Dur
ing
1959
Kui
per
had
cont
inue
d to
attr
act n
ew f
eder
al a
nd m
ilita
ry p
atro
nage
for
res
earc
hpr
ojec
ts a
nd n
ew in
stru
men
ts a
t Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d, i
nclu
ding
a 2
8-fo
ot in
frar
ed-
mic
row
ave
tele
scop
e fo
r th
e M
cDon
ald
site
, int
ende
d fo
r st
udyi
ng p
lane
ts a
ndco
ol s
tars
. But
by
the
fall
of th
at y
ear
Kui
per
face
d in
crea
sing
opp
ositi
on f
rom
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d st
aff
mem
bers
who
se p
rinc
ipal
res
earc
h in
tere
sts
invo
lved
star
s an
d ga
laxi
es. R
isin
g co
ntro
vers
y ov
er th
e al
loca
tion
of te
lesc
ope
time
be-
twee
n th
ese
fiel
ds o
f re
sear
ch, a
s w
ell a
s K
uipe
rs
hand
ling
of a
larg
e A
ir F
orce
gran
t to
build
a te
lesc
ope
for
gala
ctic
res
earc
h in
Chi
le, c
ause
d un
iver
sity
off
cial
sto
inte
rven
e an
d, u
ltim
atel
y, to
for
ce K
uipe
rs
resi
gnat
ion
as d
irec
tor
of th
e ob
ser-
vato
ries
. Kui
per
s gr
uff,
auto
crat
ic d
irec
tors
hip
was
cle
arly
a m
ajor
cau
se o
f th
eco
nflic
t. B
ut s
o to
o w
as th
e in
crea
sing
abi
lity
of th
e N
SF
and
oth
er p
atro
ns to
fund
res
earc
h in
ste
llar
and
gala
ctic
ast
rono
my,
giv
ing
astr
onom
ers
with
inte
rest
in th
ese
field
s ev
er g
reat
er in
fluen
ce in
set
ting
obse
rvat
ory
polic
y. A
lthou
ghK
uipe
r ca
me
to w
elco
me
the
mov
e to
Ari
zona
, he
had
excl
usiv
e ac
cess
ther
e to
just one major telescope, a
36-
inch
ref
lect
or. T
o pe
rfor
m th
e ki
nd o
f re
sear
chne
eded
to f
ulfi
ll hi
s lu
nar
cont
ract
s , a
s w
ell a
s th
e m
ore
ambi
tious
pro
gram
s fo
rlunar and planetary research he envisioned, h
e fo
und
him
self
mor
e de
pend
ent
than
eve
r on
obt
aini
ng m
ajor
fund
ing
from
fede
ral a
genc
ies
such
as
NA
SA to
fina
nce
the
build
ing
of e
ntir
ely
new
inst
rum
ents
.K
uipe
r co
ntin
ued
to s
eek
new
con
sulti
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties ,
aw
are
that
they
gav
ehi
m a
cha
nce
to im
pose
his
pro
fess
iona
l sta
ndar
ds o
n ne
w w
ork
in th
e fi
eld
and
toin
crea
se h
is u
sefu
lnes
s to
maj
or p
atro
ns. H
e sa
w th
e he
ight
ened
nat
iona
l com
pe-
titio
n be
twee
n th
e U
nite
d St
ates
and
the
Sovi
et U
nion
as
an o
ppor
tuni
ty f
or a
d-vi
sing
fede
ral p
atro
ns o
n th
e bu
rgeo
ning
Sov
iet a
chie
vem
ents
in s
pace
and
luna
rsc
ienc
e, o
ften
hid
den
behi
nd v
eils
of
secr
ecy.
48 A
fter
195
8 K
uipe
r to
ok o
n ne
wco
nsul
ting
wor
k w
ith s
uch
agen
cies
as
Gen
eral
Ele
ctri
c an
d th
e A
rmou
r R
esea
rch
Foun
datio
n of
the
Ilin
ois
Inst
itute
of
Tec
hnol
ogy
(for
whi
ch "
secr
et"
clea
ranc
ew
as r
equi
red)
and
sec
ured
new
opp
ortu
nitie
s fo
r ad
visi
ng o
ffci
als
at th
e Je
t Pro
-pu
lsio
n L
abor
ator
y, f
ast b
ecom
ing
the
lead
cen
ter
for
NA
SA in
stu
dies
of
the
Moo
n an
d pl
anet
s. K
uipe
r us
ed s
uch
occa
sion
s to
cri
ticiz
e K
ozyr
evs
repo
rted
ob-
serv
atio
ns a
s un
foun
ded
, and
to p
rom
ote
his
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
wha
t cou
ld a
ndcould not be trusted in the publications of Soviet astronomers.
Kui
per
was
not
the
only
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
er in
this
per
iod
to f
ind
his
dedi
ca-
tion
to s
cien
tific
pur
suits
str
aine
d by
loya
lties
to n
atio
nal a
ims.
Man
y sc
ient
ists
disc
erne
d a
genu
ine
Sovi
et p
oliti
cal t
hrea
t dur
ing
the
Col
d W
ar y
ears
, and
thos
ew
ho fi
lled
out m
anda
tory
"tr
ip r
epor
ts"
for
the
Stat
e D
epar
tmen
t aft
er a
ttend
ing
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Ast
rono
mic
al U
nion
mee
ting
in M
osco
w in
195
8 w
ere
awar
eth
at th
eir
info
rmat
ion
wou
ld s
erve
pol
itica
l rat
her
than
sci
entif
ic e
nds.
Wha
t dis
-tin
guis
hed
Kui
per
from
his
col
leag
ues
was
his
will
ingn
ess,
eve
n ea
gern
ess
, to
pro-
vide
the
Am
eric
an in
telli
genc
e co
mm
unity
with
suc
h in
form
atio
n. O
n 10
Apr
il19
59 K
uipe
r su
cces
sful
ly p
ropo
sed
to th
e C
entr
al In
telli
genc
e A
genc
y th
at h
e "r
e-vi
ew a
nd e
valu
at(e
J cu
rren
t Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ical
lite
ratu
re"
to a
id A
mer
ican
as-
tron
omer
s an
d go
vern
men
t pol
icym
aker
s. K
uipe
r su
bseq
uent
ly m
ade
clea
r th
elim
its o
f hi
s in
volv
emen
t: he
wou
ld n
ot d
elib
erat
ely
dece
ive
Sovi
et c
olle
ague
s fo
rpo
litic
al g
ain
, as
he w
as a
ppar
ently
req
uest
ed to
do.
But
he
saw
no
harm
in s
up-
plyi
ng th
e go
vern
men
t with
info
rmat
ion
of s
trat
egic
or
poss
ibly
mili
tary
impo
r-ta
nce,
and
bel
ieve
d th
at s
uch
an e
valu
atio
n w
ould
pro
ve h
elpf
ul in
pla
nnin
gfuture research. so
To
assi
st h
im o
n th
e pr
ojec
t, K
uipe
r hi
red
a Y
ugos
lavi
an a
stro
nom
er, L
eoR
andi
c. R
andi
c w
as f
luen
t in
Rus
sian
and
had
vis
ited
man
y So
viet
ast
rono
mic
alin
stitu
tions
but
was
"en
tirel
y w
este
rn in
out
look
" si
nce
he w
as "
rais
ed in
Rom
an C
atho
lic s
urro
undi
ngs"
(R
andi
c ha
d al
so s
pent
a y
ear
in S
cotla
nd).
The
proj
ect r
an f
rom
Nov
embe
r 19
59 to
Oct
ober
196
0, w
ith K
uipe
r of
fcia
lly d
evot
-in
g to
it 5
per
cent
of
his
prof
essi
onal
tim
e an
d R
andi
c 75
per
cent
of
his
time.
To-
geth
er th
ey p
rodu
ced
two
leng
thy
conf
iden
tial r
epor
ts, i
nclu
ding
a d
etai
led
com
men
tary
on
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ers,
thei
r w
ork
, and
thei
r in
stitu
tions
. The
re-
port
s as
sess
ed th
e re
lativ
e st
reng
ths
and
wea
knes
ses
of A
mer
ican
and
Sov
iet
sola
r sy
stem
ast
rono
my
and
com
pare
d th
e nu
mbe
r of
Am
eric
an a
nd S
ovie
tw
orke
rs in
the
field
.In
his
pro
posa
l to
the
CIA
Kui
per
decl
ared
that
his
rev
iew
wou
ld b
e ba
sed
prin
-ci
pally
on
publ
ishe
d do
cum
ents
. His
vie
w o
f th
at li
tera
ture
(in
clud
ing
Koz
yrev
wor
k) r
emai
ned
stro
ngly
infl
uenc
ed b
y hi
s oc
casi
onal
per
sona
l con
tact
s w
ith S
o-vi
et a
stro
nom
ers.
For
exa
mpl
e, in
pri
vate
lette
rs to
Am
eric
an r
esea
rche
rs in
the
fall
of 1
959
, Kui
per
shar
ply
criti
cize
d th
e fa
r-si
de lu
nar
imag
es a
ttrib
uted
to th
eL
unik
III
mis
sion
, dec
lari
ng th
at th
ey a
ppea
red
to b
e gr
oss
extr
apol
atio
ns f
rom
mar
gina
l dat
a or
eve
n ou
trig
ht f
orge
ries
. Yet
by
Oct
ober
196
0, in
his
fin
al C
IAco
ntra
ct r
epor
t, K
uipe
r pr
aise
d th
e L
unik
pro
gram
as
one
of "
grea
t com
pete
nce
who
se d
ata
had
not b
een
"ove
r-in
terp
rete
d"
on a
ccou
nt o
f th
e "c
alm compe-
tenc
e" of the Lunik III science team.
Kui
per
s ch
ange
of
view
ow
ed m
uch
to th
e vi
sit o
f a
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
er, V
. I.
Kra
ssov
sky,
to th
e Y
erke
s O
bser
vato
ry in
late
Nov
embe
r 19
59. K
rass
ovsk
y w
ason
e of
the
few
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ers
to v
isit
this
fac
ility
in th
e la
te 1
950s
, as
ex-
47 K
uipe
r to
W. G
ordo
n W
hale
y, 1
9 A
ug. 1
960
, Box
14
, Kui
per
pape
rs; G
. and
E. M
. Bur
bidg
em
emo,
ca.
Oct
. 195
9, B
urbi
dge
file
, Mor
gan
pape
rs; K
uipe
r, "
Prop
osal
for
the
Dev
elop
men
t of
an I
n-fr
ared
and
Mic
row
ave
Faci
lty a
t the
McD
onal
d O
bser
vato
ry o
f T
exas
" U
nive
rsity
of
Tex
as 1
960
file
Yer
kes
Obs
erva
tory
dir
ecto
rss
files
, Wili
ams
Bay
, Wis
cons
in; C
ruik
shan
k, "
Kui
per"
(ci
t. n.
5);
and
Ew
en A
. Whi
take
rT
he U
nive
rsity
of A
rizon
as
Luna
r an
d P
lane
tary
Lab
orat
ory:
Its
Fou
ndin
g an
dEarly Years
(Tuc
son:
Uni
v. A
rizo
na, 1
985)
.48
Kui
per, "
Rep
ort o
n S
ympo
sium
, 'T
he M
oon,
' " c
onfid
entia
l CIA
dra
ft, c
a. D
ec. 1
960
, p. 2
, Box
, Kui
per
pape
rs. L
imite
d co
mm
unic
atio
ns b
y So
viet
aut
hori
ties
mad
e it
diff
cult
for
astr
onom
ers
toob
tain
eve
n th
e m
ost e
lem
enta
ry in
form
atio
n, s
uch
as th
e or
bita
l cha
ract
eris
tics
of th
e Sp
utm
k sa
tel-
lites
; see
Wol
fgan
g P
riest
er, i
nter
view
by
Ron
ald
Doe
l, 1
9 Ja
n. 1
987
, AlP
; and
Wal
ter
Sulli
van
Ass
ault
on the Unknown: The International Geophysical Year
(New
Yor
k: M
cGra
w-H
ill, 1
961)
, pp.
72-
73.
49 See Kuiper to R. N. Dyruff ,
7 J
une
1958
, and
R. 0
. Buc
hana
n to
E V
. Kel
ly, 1
5 M
ay 1
958
, bot
hB
ox I
I, K
uipe
r pa
pers
.
so K
uipe
r to
Her
man
L. C
room
, 18
Oct
. 196
0, B
ox 3
3ib
id.
51 K
uipe
r to
CIA
, 10
Apr
il 19
59, B
ox 3
3ib
id.
52 K
uipe
r, "
Mem
oran
dum
on
Rus
sian
Ast
rono
my:
Rep
ort N
o.. I
" ca. Oct. 1959, p. 10
, Box
33;
Kui
per
to J
. J. R
aim
ond
, ca.
sum
mer
or
fall
1959
, Box 28; and KUiper to Lawrence
mpt
on, I
Nov
.1959, p. 3, Box 18;
ibid
. T
rans
late
excerpts .from the
umk II sCience reports clrc,:l
ated
In
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es p
rior
to th
e pr
epar
atio
n of
off
cial
tran
slat
IOns
; see
, e.
, Leo
Gol
dber
g, T
rans
allo
nfr
om R
ussi
an A
stro
nom
ical
Cir
cula
r N
o. 2
06, D
ecem
ber
12, 1
959,
'Firs
t Res
ults
of I
nves
tigat
IOn
ofPh
otog
raph
s of
the
Oth
er S
ide
of th
e Su
rfac
e of
the
Moo
n,'''
Dec
. 195
9, c
opy
in B
ox I
Iib
id.
258
EV
ALU
AT
ING
SO
VIE
T L
UN
AR
SC
IEN
CE
IN C
OLD
WA
R A
ME
RIC
A25
9
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
L
chan
e vi
sits
incr
ease
d on
ly g
radu
all f
ollo
wsp
henc
spe
cial
ist ,
a h
igh-
rank
ing
off J
al in
thIng the
eath o
Stal
in. A
n at
mo-
and
a m
embe
r of
the
Lun
le
emer
gIng
Sov
iet s
pace
pro
gram
ISS
lOn
sCie
nce
team
Kr
the
Um
ted
Stat
es a
s pa
rt o
f a
pro
ram
or
aas
sovs
ha
d be
en I
nvite
d to
he a
ppar
ently
had
ask
ed to
vis
it kui er
mze
d by
the
Am
enca
n R
ocke
t Soc
iety
;
program. The two men joined b R
P d
' n a
ccou
nt o
f th
e Y
erke
s lu
nar-
map
ping
at th
e ne
arby
Lak
e L
wn L
, gat
here
d fo
r a :hanksgiving Day meal
Kui
pers home where over
refr
esaS
SovS
k Y a
nd K
Uip
er th
en r
etre
ated
toen
sse
rve
bMrs K'
vers
ed lo
ng In
to th
e ni
ght. 53
. Ulper, t
e tw
o m
en c
on-
The
mee
ting
mad
e a
stro
ng im
pres
sion
on K
' so
lar
syst
em a
stro
nom
y an
d to' d
U
lper
s v
iew
s of
Sov
iet w
ork
in
role
in s
hapi
ng th
e to
nd co
e b l h
IS n
otes
on
the
mee
ting,
pla
yed
a la
rge
leag
ues
and
patr
ons
The
orc
eIS
rep
orts
to th
e C
IA a
s w
ell a
s to
col
-as
sura
nce
of K
rass
o k'
IS detaded explanations of the L '
III
vs y
s c
ara
cter
, as
wel
l as
wha
t per
suad
ed h
im th
at th
e lu
na;r
-sid
:gIng system
, Kip
er r
epor
ted
, wer
e
wha
t deg
ree
Kui
per
s vi
ews
pers
uade
d ot
h:r
aPhs were Indeed
enui
ne. (
To
although a consensus along those lines h d
en c
an a
stro
nom
ers
IS u
ncer
tain
valu
ed K
rass
ovsk
ys corroboratin te f a
emer
ged
by e
arly
196
0.)5
4 K
uipe
r al
so
sonally unstable and further
g s
lmon
y th
at K
ozyr
ev, i
n hi
s vi
ew, w
as p
er-
Alp
hons
us a
nd f
und
it " d
efec
t he had seen. t
he c
rtic
al s
pect
rum
of
a se
cond
tim
e , u
ncer
tain
whe
ther
' Kr
epea
ted
IS q
uest
IOn
abou
t Koz
yrev
had understood' he was delighted
Kr
y, s
peak
ng th
roug
h an
inte
rpre
ter
Kuiper appeared
to v
alue
mos
t f w
eas
sosk
y re
itera
ted
his
criti
cism
. Wha
t
form
atio
n he
rec
eive
d bu
t tha
t tI e me
tmg
was
not
mer
ely
the
spec
ific
in-
roug
h th
e po
litic
al t
nsio
ns o
fth
~~~
nva
conv
ersa
tion
seem
ed to
pie
rce
tIst
s, o
ne to
ano
ther
' "T
he v
' '
r an
allo
wed
them
to s
peak
as
scie
n-
questions on which
e co
ul;:s ver
t?rthwhile and cleared up
a nu
mbe
r of
sona
l dis
cuss
i ons
ave 0 amed good answers except by such
er-
roug out much of 1960 K .
meeting with Krassovsky in ex
..
mpe
r ci
ted
the
auth
ority
of h
is
tern
res
earc
h. 5
5 pr
essI
ng o
pInI
Ons
on
the
natu
re o
f Sov
iet s
olar
sys
-
Kui
per
was
in e
ffect
op
Yer
kes-
McDonald' the
a ,
g an
mt
llIge
ne
oper
atio
n th
roug
h th
e of
fces
of
vvar permitted him to .
. .
him from World War II. The se
f' re
sum
e pr
actic
es f
amili
ar to
criti
cize
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ers
' cre
nat
ure
0 hi
s re
port
s to
the
CIA
allo
wed
him
to
vate
lette
rs, another vehicle
:t:ot O
rwis
e os
sbl
e. e
xcep
t thr
ough
pri
-
to attack the work of Soviet res
:a
litte hesitatIOn m
usi
ng to
pra
ise
or
contract, he did not (at I
rc ers. ecause
?f th
e se
crec
y im
pose
d by
the
diff
cult
to d
isce
rn th
e re
denC
e) d
iscu
ss th
is w
ork,
and
thus
it is
whe
re. B
ut it
is c
lear
that
Kui
I 0 as r
nom
ers
at Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald
or e
lse-
eval
uatin
g ne
w k
now
ledg
e a :
d r
rear
ded
IS
,:ork of contacts as essential for
tial m
eans
of
ensu
ring
tha t
ast
r: r
o t
IS
md
as a
legi
timat
e, e
ven
esse
n-
tive
fiel
ds o
f re
sear
ch w
ould
rem
ai
~~~~
tltut
lOns
eng
aged
in h
ighl
y co
mpe
ti-
V. D
ET
EN
TE
, SC
IEN
CE
, AN
D C
OM
MU
NIC
AT
ION
S: T
HE
LE
NIN
GR
AD
CO
NFE
RE
NC
E
Indi
vidu
al e
ncou
nter
s of
the
kind
Kui
per
valu
ed s
oon
lost
thei
r si
ngul
ar in
flu-
ence
, how
ever
, as
cont
acts
bet
wee
n A
mer
ican
and
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ers
incr
ease
d.P
oliti
cal r
elat
ions
bet
wee
n th
e U
nite
d S
tate
s an
d th
e S
ovie
t Uni
on w
ere
hard
lyw
arm
in 1
960:
the
U-2
sur
veila
nce
plan
e pi
lote
d by
Fra
ncis
Gar
y Po
wer
s w
as
shot
dow
n on
I M
ay o
f th
at y
ear, c
ausi
ng th
e pl
anne
d Pa
ris
sum
mit
mee
tings
between Eisenhower and Khrushchev to be canceled. Nevertheless, plans to
hold
the
gene
ral m
eetin
g of
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Ast
rono
mic
al U
nion
in th
e U
nite
dS
tate
s in
196
1 w
ent f
orw
ard
, and
fund
s fo
r A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts to
atte
nd in
tern
a-
tiona
l mee
tings
abr
oad
wer
e in
crea
sing
ly a
vaila
ble.
One
con
sequ
ence
was
that
Mik
hailo
v w
as s
ucce
ssfu
l in
prop
osin
g th
at a
spe
cial
mee
ting
of th
e IA
U's
luna
r
com
mis
sion
, dev
oted
ent
irel
y to
luna
r re
sear
ch, b
e he
ld a
t Len
ingr
ad in
Dec
em-
ber
1960
. Mik
hailo
v na
med
Kui
per
as o
ne o
f six
mem
bers
of t
he p
rogr
am
com
mitt
ee.
Kui
per
wel
com
ed th
e m
eetin
g. I
t wou
ld a
llow
him
to g
ain
new
fir
stha
nd in
for-
mat
ion
abou
t the
pro
gres
s of
Sov
iet r
esea
rch
in lu
nar, p
lane
tary
, and
spa
ce s
ci-
ence
and
to d
eepe
n hi
s acquaintances with Soviet co
lleag
ues.
Ple
ased
with
Mik
hailo
vs
desi
re to
lim
it th
e co
nfer
ence
to f
ifty
or
sixt
y pa
rtic
ipan
ts, K
uipe
r
also
rea
lized
he
coul
d cl
ean
hous
e by
exc
ludi
ng th
ose
he c
onsi
dere
d "su
bsta
n-
dard
" A
mer
ican
res
earc
hers
, par
ticul
arly
thos
e, li
ke A
lter,
who
acc
epte
d K
o-
zyre
vs
evid
ence
and
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
luna
r vo
lcan
ism
. His
gam
bit f
aile
d w
hen
Kop
al, w
ho h
ad a
lso
been
app
oint
ed to
the
Len
ingr
ad p
rogr
am c
omm
ittee
and
was
a c
lose
ass
ocia
te o
f U
rey,
lear
ned
of th
e om
issi
ons.
Kop
al p
rom
ptly
issu
edin
vita
tions
to lu
nar
astr
onom
ers
igno
red
by K
uipe
r.56 By the time the meeting
conv
ened
on
6 D
ecem
ber
1960
, the
num
ber
of in
vite
d gu
ests
had
clim
bed
to o
ver
one
hund
red.
Of t
he fi
fty-t
hree
invi
ted
pres
enta
tio, t
wen
ty-t
wo
wer
e of
fere
d by
indi
vidu
als
from
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es; r
epre
sent
ativ
es o
f at
leas
t six
uni
vers
ities
and
vari
ous
gove
rnm
ent a
genc
ies
wer
e pr
esen
tY T
he m
eetin
g w
as th
e fi
rst m
ajor
sci
-en
tific
con
fere
nce
devo
ted
entir
ely
to E
arth
's ne
ares
t nei
ghbo
r.
Kui
per
did
not k
eep
a tr
ip d
iary
, as
he h
ad o
n hi
s vi
sit t
o M
osco
w in
the
sum
-m
er o
f 19
58, t
wo
and
a ha
lf y
ears
bef
ore.
His
res
pons
es to
the
mee
ting
mus
t be
glea
ned
from
his
sub
sequ
ent l
ette
rs a
nd f
rom
com
men
ts h
e jo
tted
in th
e m
argi
nsof
his
pro
gram
. Wha
t see
ms
clea
r is
that
he
expe
cted
no
maj
or s
urpr
ises
. Sho
rtly
befo
re th
e m
eetin
g he
had
wri
tten
Mik
hailo
v ag
ain.
In
lang
uage
that
rec
alle
d th
eef
fort
s of
Geo
rge
Elle
ry H
ale, W
alla
ce W
. Cam
pbel
l, an
d ot
her
lead
ers
of e
arly
twen
tieth
-cen
tury
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
y to
pol
ice
disc
ussi
ons
of P
erci
val L
owel
l'un
orth
odox
cla
ims
of c
anal
s on
Mar
s, Kui
per
prot
este
d th
at d
iscu
ssio
ns o
f lu
nar
volc
anis
m w
ere
redu
cing
the
stat
ure
of th
e fi
eld.
Ris
ing
amat
eur
repo
rts
of tr
an-
sien
t lun
ar p
heno
men
a th
reat
ened
the
grow
th o
f sol
ar s
yste
m a
stro
nom
y at
his
own
faci
lity
and
else
whe
re. P
ulko
vos
failu
re to
add
ress
the
"int
erna
l con
trad
ic-
tions
" of
the
spec
trum
, or
to d
eny
its a
uthe
ntic
ity, h
e de
clar
ed, p
erpe
tuat
ed a
53 K
.54
\ 8 D
c. 1959
, Box
31
ibid. .
, ibi
d,
' Apn11960
, Box
12;
and
KU
Iper
to R
ick
Rile
y 21
Mar
196
0
"K .
, x
ulpe
rto
Jam
es J
. Har
ford
8D
ec 1
959
B 3 ..
and Kuiper
, "
Mem
oran
dum
0; Russi
n A
stro
; KU
l Per
to H
ibbs
, 21
Nov
. 196
0(ci
t. n.
14)
;
y, C
lt. n
. 2),
p. 1
0.
56 K
uipe
r to
Zde
nek
Kop
al, 3
0 N
ov. 1
960,
Box
II
, Kui
per
pape
rs; a
nd K
opal
to H
arol
d C
. Ure
y, 4
Aug
. 196
0, a
nd U
rey
to K
opal
, 21
Sep
t. 19
60, B
ox 5
0, U
rey
pape
rs.
57 Z
dene
k K
opal
and
Zde
nka
Kad
la M
ikha
ilov, e
ds.
The Moon
(I.A
.U. S
ympo
sium
14)
(N
ew Y
ork:
Aca
dem
ic P
ress
, 196
2), p
p. v
-ix.
260
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
261
prob
lem
of
inte
rnat
iona
l rel
atio
ns.
8 W
hen
Mik
hailo
v di
d no
t res
pond
, Kui
per
conf
iden
ce in
his
con
vict
ions
abo
ut S
ovie
t ast
rono
my
soar
ed.
The
Len
ingr
ad m
eetin
g ne
vert
hele
ss p
rodu
ced
surp
rise
s. N
one
of th
e fi
ve s
es-
sion
s, d
evot
ed to
suc
h br
oad
topi
cs a
s ra
dio
obse
rvat
ions
and
roc
ket e
xplo
ratio
nsof
the
Moo
n, f
ocus
ed s
olel
y on
act
ivity
on
the
luna
r su
rfac
e. B
ut a
ses
sion
on
the
orig
in, i
nter
nal s
truc
ture
, and
sur
face
" of
the
Moo
n, h
eld
on 8
Dec
embe
r , in
-cl
uded
two
talk
s de
vote
d to
Koz
yrev
s 19
58 s
pect
rogr
aphi
c in
vest
igat
ion
ofA
lpho
nsus
. Koz
yrev
spo
ke f
irst
. Kui
per
liste
ned
inte
ntly
as
Koz
yrev
rei
tera
ted
his
clai
m th
at h
is p
late
gav
e un
ambi
guou
s ev
iden
ce o
f ac
tive
luna
r vo
lcan
ism
, inc
lud-
ing
ther
mal
em
issi
ons.
In
the
seco
nd ta
lk th
e L
enin
grad
ast
rono
mer
s A
. A.
Kal
inya
k an
d L
. A. K
amio
nko
offe
red
a so
mew
hat d
iffe
rent
inte
rpre
tatio
n. T
hey
subjected the
rigi
nal p
late
to a
mic
roph
otom
etri
c an
alys
is, a
sta
ndar
d pr
oced
ure
used
to d
eter
min
e pr
ecis
e lin
e id
entit
ies
as w
ell a
s qu
antit
ativ
e va
lues
for
them
.Their judgment was that the spectrum indeed revealed emission that fo
r ex
am-
ple ,
Koz
yrev
s id
entif
icat
ion
of th
e Sw
an b
ands
see
med
vir
tual
lyce
rt;in
, as
fain
tca
rbon
ban
ds (
whi
ch K
uipe
r ha
d no
t dis
cern
ed o
n hi
s co
py p
rint
s) w
ere
evid
ent
unde
r m
icro
phot
omet
ric s
crut
iny.
Onl
y on
one
poi
nt-a
lthou
gh a
sub
stan
tial
one-
did
thes
e re
sear
cher
s di
ffer
fro
m K
ozyr
ev: t
hey
argu
ed th
at th
e sp
ectr
al e
vi-
denc
e w
as m
ore
cons
iste
nt w
ith c
old
gase
s , p
ossi
bly
rele
ased
as
a di
scre
te g
ascl
oud
, tha
n w
ith h
ot, v
olca
nic
outp
ouri
ng. S
uch
an e
vent
, qui
esce
nt in
nat
ure ,
did
not r
equi
re th
at th
e M
oon
be v
olca
nica
lly active. 59
Kui
per
s no
tes
unfo
rtun
atel
y do
not
rec
ord
whe
n hi
s im
pres
sion
s of
the
spec
-tr
um a
nd K
ozyr
ev b
egan
to c
hang
e. T
he p
ivot
al m
omen
t see
med
to c
ome
late
r in
the
conf
eren
ce w
hen
, pee
ring
thro
ugh
a hi
gh- p
ower
ed m
agni
fyin
g gl
ass,
he
per-
sona
lly e
xam
ined
the
orig
inal
slid
es. T
his
priv
ate
conf
ront
atio
n w
ith K
ozyr
evev
iden
ce h
ad g
reat
eff
ect a
nd m
arke
d an
unm
ista
kabl
e cr
itica
l mom
ent i
n th
eco
ntro
vers
y. A
gain
and
aga
in in
lette
rs to
col
leag
ues
follo
win
g th
e co
nfer
ence
Kui
per
decl
ared
that
he
" had
no
doub
t lef
t tha
t the
spe
ctra
are
gen
uine
. " E
ven
Am
eric
an r
esea
rche
rs w
ho s
uppo
rted
Koz
yrev
bef
ore
the
conf
eren
ce w
ere
im-
pressed: Urey advised Philip Abelson of
Scie
nce
that "un
anim
ous"
agr
eem
ent d
e-ve
lope
d at
Len
ingr
ad th
at K
ozyr
evs
plat
es w
ere
auth
entic
.Fo
r K
uipe
r to
adm
it hi
s m
ista
ke, a
fter
his
for
cefu
l ass
essm
ents
to th
e co
ntra
ry,
requ
ired
no
smal
l am
ount
of
cour
age.
Cer
tain
ly h
is c
onve
rsio
n w
as a
ided
by
his
relie
f tha
t the
Kal
inya
k-K
amio
nko
anal
ysis
req
uire
d no
vol
cani
c ac
tivity
: it
mea
nt o
nly
" tha
t occ
asio
nally
som
e co
ld g
ases
esc
ape "
and
thus
"no
dra
stic
chan
ge in
the
mod
el f
or th
e in
teri
or o
f th
e M
oon
is n
eede
d."6
1 T
he r
esul
t , in
,;\: .
"KuipertoA. A. Mikhailov, 2
4 A
ug. 1
960,
Box
I I ,
and
Kui
per
to B
art B
ok, 2
2 S
ept.
1959
, Box
10
both
in K
uipe
r pa
pers
; and
Dav
id H
. DeV
orki
n
, "
w. W. Campbell'
s Sp
ectr
osco
pic
Stud
y of
the
Mar
-tia
n A
tmos
pher
eQuarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society,
1977
, 18:
37-5
3.,.
Ver
sion
s of
thes
e pa
pers
wer
e su
bseq
uent
ly p
ublis
hed:
see
N. A
. Koz
yrev
, "
Spe
ctro
scop
ic P
roof
sfo
r E
xist
ence
of
Vol
cani
c Pr
oces
ses
on th
e M
oon
" an
d A
. A. K
alin
yak
and
L. A
. Kam
ionk
oM
icro
phot
omet
ric
Ana
lysi
s of
the
Em
issi
on F
lare
in th
e R
egio
n of
the
Cen
tral
Pea
k of
the
Cra
ter
Alp
hons
us o
n 3
Nov
embe
r 19
58"
both
in K
opal
and
Mik
hailo
vThe Moon
(cit.
n. 5
7), p
p. 2
63-2
7227
3-28
7. F
or a
Sov
iet p
ersp
ectiv
e on
the
cont
rove
rsy
see
A. N
. Dad
aev, "
Pervootkryarel' lunnogo
Uyl
kani
zma
(K 7
5-leriiu so dnia rozhdeniia N. A. Kozyreva),
Fizi
ches
kie
aspe
kty
sovr
emen
noi
astr
onom
ii (S
born
ik n
auch
nykh
trud
ov)
(Len
ingr
ad: A
kade
miia
Nau
k SS
SR, (
985)
, pp.
8-2
4. I
than
kR
ober
t McC
utch
eon
for
calln
g m
y at
tent
ion
to th
is w
ork.
60 K
uipe
r to
Llo
yd V
. Ber
kner
, 27
Dec
. 196
0, B
ox I
I, a
nd K
uipe
r to
Hom
er E
. New
ell,
7 N
ov. 1
963
Box 8
, bot
h in
Kui
per
pape
rs; a
nd H
arol
d C
. Ure
y to
Phi
lip A
bels
on, 9
Jan
. 196
1, B
ox 2
, Ure
y pa
pers
.6'
Kui
per
to S
ubra
man
yan
Cha
ndra
sekh
ar, 2
6 D
ec. 1
960
, 7 J
an. 1
961
, Box
10
, Kui
per
pape
rs.
Figu
re
2.
The
Int
erna
tiona
l Ast
rono
mic
al U
nion
sym
posi
um o
n th
e M
oon,
. Pul
kovo
Ob-
serv
ator
y, L
enin
grad
, Dec
embe
r 19
60. S
eate
d in
the
fron
t row
are
(le
ft to
rig
ht)
.Ger
ard
P. K
uipe
r, Z
denk
a K
. Mik
hailo
v, E
ugen
e M
. Sho
emak
er, Harold
C.
Ure
y, Z
dene
k K
opal
T. W
Rac
kham
, Alb
ert
C.
Hib
bs, A
udou
in D
ollfu
s, a
nd A
leks
andr
A. M
tkha
zlov
. Ntk
olat
A. K
ozyr
ev is
sea
ted
in th
e fo
urth
row
, beh
ind
and
slig
htly
left
of
Rac
kham
. Pho
togr
aph
cour
tesy
of Z
dene
k K
opal
.
othe
r w
ords
, pos
ed li
tte th
reat
to K
uipe
rs
evol
utio
nary
mod
el o
fth
Moo
n
the
mic
roph
otom
etri
c an
alys
is a
nsw
ered
obj
ectio
ns h
e ha
d fi
rst r
aise
d ag
amst
Koz
yrev
s cl
aim
that
the
spec
tra
dem
onst
rate
d ga
seou
s em
issi
on.
Impo
rtan
t as
Kui
per
s co
nfro
ntat
ion
with
the
evid
ence
was
, it w
as n
ot a
lone
re-
sponsible for causing his views to shift. In early 1959 Kuiper was aware that
ev-
eral
Am
eric
an a
nd B
ritis
h sc
ient
ists
had
sug
gest
ed th
at K
ozyr
evs
spec
tra
mig
ht
be e
xpla
ined
by
nont
herm
al le
akag
e of
gas
es f
rom
the
Moo
n; h
e ha
d re
ject
ed th
isal
tern
ativ
e on
the
stre
ngth
of
argu
men
ts b
y su
ch v
isiti
ng S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
s as
Mas
sevi
tch
and
Kra
ssov
sky
(nei
ther
of w
hom
atte
nded
the
Leni
ngra
d co
nfer
-en
ce).
Mor
eove
r, in
his
pri
vate
com
mun
icat
ions
to p
atro
ns, K
uipe
r ha
d e
size
d so
cial
and
pro
fess
iona
l rea
sons
for
rej
ectin
g K
ozyr
evs
wor
k, s
tres
smg
his
own
qual
ific
atio
ns f
or e
valu
atin
g th
e re
sear
ch r
esul
ts o
f So
viet
sci
enti
ts.
In s
ubse
quen
t let
ters
to h
is m
ost i
nflu
entia
l pat
rons
and
con
tact
s, mcl
udm
g
Hom
er N
ewel
l of N
AS
A, t
he g
eoph
ysic
ist a
nd a
dmin
istr
ator
Llo
yd B
erkn
er, a
nd
his
hand
lers
at t
he C
IA, Kuiper paid comparatively little attention to
ozyr
ev
scie
ntif
ic f
indi
ngs.
He
focu
sed
inst
ead
on h
is n
ew im
pres
sion
s of
the
Sovi
eas
tr
nom
ical
com
mun
ity. O
ne o
f th
e m
ajor
dif
fere
nces
bet
wee
n th
e IA
U m
eetm
gs m
Mos
cow
in 1
958
and
the
Len
ingr
ad c
onfe
renc
e, h
e no
ted
, was
the
free
dom
he
had
to tr
avel
abo
ut th
e ci
ty, t
o vi
sit t
he h
omes
and
off
ces
of S
ovie
t col
leag
ues
such
as
Ogo
rodn
ikov
and
Mik
hailo
v fo
r lo
ng e
veni
ng c
onve
rsat
ioan
d to
ass
esfi
rst-
hand
the
qual
ity o
f th
eir
labo
rato
ries
and
inst
rum
ents
. He
visi
ted
Shar
onov
s la
b-
262
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
L
orat
ory
at th
e L
enng
rad
llvef
Sty
("
d .
run
dow
n, on the lower flo
ocat
e In
a fo
rmer
girl
s' s
choo
se
cond
flo
or, w
as a
ll ri
ght o
r. .
Tut the . Ia
bora
tory
, con
sist
ing
of fi
ve
r' .
tern
bly
quat
e),
had
din
ner
with
' . '' .
e eq
uipm
ent w
as s
impl
e, h
ome-
ma
ms
on th
e
smal
l par
ty h
oste
d by
OgO
~~~~
~
llov F
and
cele
brat
ed h
is f
ifty
-fift
h b
ut a
de-
no tr
ansl
ator
.62 The details K
. ov. requently he
con
vers
ed in
Fre
nch ay at a
ret
rn f, on
the
who
le r
esem
ble
~~~
to c?n
vey
to A
mer
ican
OffC
i
~~~
ma
e or
the
CIA
ear
lier
that
yea
r' th
e m
aJr
asse
ssm
ent h
e an
d R
andi
c ha
d
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~
~ oft
. O;g
ani
~~~~
~~; p
~~~
~~~ /r
eate
st
wel
l as
thos
e at
the
top.
"
~~~~
amon
g sc
ient
its
at t
he "second eche~~
~~
ther
e IS
a s
urpr
isin
g am
ount
of
in e .a
ppar
ent s
olid
fro
nt o
f R
ussi
an s
cien
. as
~~~
to e
ceed
toc
casi
o
~~~
1:t
al r
ival
ry, ?
fan
inte
n
. c usslan politicians come to the . . t se
ems
as I
f th
e m
etho
ds
Infi
ghti
ng, h
e di
scov
ered
, exi
sted
bus
ed a
lso
amon
g th
e sc
ient
ists
.
Ilar
con
flic
ts h
ad a
ppar
ently
led
Kr Kozyrev and Massevitch and
and
resu
lts. "
Kra
ssov
sky
had
lied
to m
e as
sovs
ky t
att a
ck K
ozyr
evs credibilit
on Thanksgiving 1959"
at a receptIOn In my home in
. Y
fi d
"63
Ulper eclared" I h
ISC
OnS
In
e . .
It w
as c
lear
ly d
iffc
ult f
or h
im to
ac' a
s w
dis
cove
red
and
veri-
so e
asIl
y co
mpr
omis
ed b
such
cept that SCIentific objectivit
b"
pers
onal
squ
abbl
een
ItIO
ns h
ad b
een
jeop
ardi
zed
in th
e es
, or
that
his
ow
n in
stitu
tiona
l
Afte
r re
turn
into
tpr
oces
s.
fI
II e
tates K .
una :
tran
sien
t phe
nom
ena.
Alth
ou '
er
step
s to
enc
oura
ge th
e st
udy
of p
ossi
ble
luna
r ou
tgas
sing
sin
ce h
Ip
er d
id n
ot p
erso
nally
laun
ch s
tudi
es
y:ev
s ev
iden
ce, he did
ermit o
::::?
affe
d, d
espi
te h
is a
ccep
tanc
e of
In nz
?na
to d
o so
. (T
he a
cron
ym L
TP
"IS unar
? P
lane
tary
Lab
orat
ory
later cOIned by a member
ofK
, for
luna
r tr
ansI
tory
phe
nom
eU
lper
s s
taff
) H
' . '
was
age
ot e
r go
vern
men
t-funded lunar '. e
a so
use
d hI
S In
flue
nce
to e
ncou
r
at the Lowell Observatory by the Air
app:
n X p
rogr
a, i
nclu
ding
one
laun
che
ter , to monitor the Moon for si n orce s
rona
utlC
al C
hart
and
Inf
orm
atio
n
dItI
oal
exa
mpl
es o
f su
ch p
heno
m: of possIble
hang
e. A
ttem
pts
to lo
cate
ad-
crea
sIng
sop
hist
icat
ion
of lu
nar
spac
e ge
eral
lY d
id n
ot s
ucce
ed, d
espi
te th
e in
-
many lunar scientists found the m
a a
s w
ell a
s gr
ound
- bas
ed s
tudi
es a
nd
reso
lved
.a er 0 Kozyrev
s plates unsatisfac;o
rily
VI.
CO
NC
LU
SIO
N
Kui
per
s pr
ogra
ms
ofIu
nar
rese
arch
ben
fi
:ary
pat
rona
ge a
fter
the
laun
ch o
f Sp
utn
k t
;rm
OU
SlY
from
fede
ral a
nd m
il i-
unar research after 1958 helped stren
e ?O? o
men
t sup
port
for
for
sola
r sy
stem
ast
rono
my,
per
mitt
e
~~~
the eXIStI
g In
stitu
tIO
nal f
ound
atio
ns
scop
es, a
nd e
ncou
rage
d th
e de
velo
pmen
t lon
stct
IOne
w, d
edic
ated
tele
-0 new
Inte
rdIs
Cip
linar
y re
sear
ch p
ro-
:: K
upe
r, "
Rep
ort o
n S
ym o
sium
KUiper to Berkner 27
1960
t. n.
48)
, p. 2
.64 K . ,
(Clt
n 60
) A
Ppa~~
~~
Hom
er
wel
l , ?
Nov
. 196
3: K
uipe
nd K
uipe
r, "
Rep
ort o
n S
ympo
sium
1966
, 55:
I oo
~~~~
~~~
evie
wed
i'Z
aM
. Mid
dieh
st:
79:2
65- 2
68; a
nd p
erso
nal d
iscu
ssio
n w
i' s
unar
Tra
nsito
ry P
heno
men
a;::
/Tfe
sc:
g'. oemaker
, Fla
gsta
ff , A
rizo
na, 4
Dec
. 199
0.
EV
ALU
AT
ING
SO
VIE
T L
UN
AR
SC
IEN
CE
IN C
OLD
WA
R A
ME
RIC
A26
3
gram
s w
ithin
trad
ition
al a
cade
mic
dep
artm
ents
of
astr
onom
y. S
olar
sys
tem
as-
tron
omy
at b
oth
Chi
cago
and
Ari
zona
gre
w r
apid
ly a
s a
dire
ct r
esul
t of
the
com
-m
itmen
t of
natio
nal r
esou
rces
to th
e sp
ace
race
. Stil
l, new
tele
scop
e co
nstr
uctio
n
did
not k
eep
pace
with
this
unp
rece
dent
ed e
xpan
sion
, cau
sing
com
petit
ion
to in
-
crea
se s
harp
ly b
etw
een
sola
r sy
stem
ast
rono
mer
s an
d m
embe
rs o
f ot
her
spec
ial-
ties
for
tele
scop
e tim
e.As director of the Yerkes-M
cDon
ald
obse
rvat
orie
s an
d su
bseq
uent
ly o
f th
e
Lun
ar a
nd P
lane
tary
Lab
orat
ory,
Kui
per
reco
gniz
ed th
at su
cces
sful
adm
inis
tra-
tion
requ
ired
him
to fu
lfill
a va
riety
of ro
les.
He
was
mos
t com
fort
able
pro
vidi
ng
his
patr
ons
the
kind
of
know
ledg
e th
at a
stro
nom
ers
enga
ged
in s
olar
sys
tem
re-
sear
ch a
fter
Wor
ld W
ar I
I w
ere
wel
l pos
ition
ed to
off
er: e
xper
tise
in p
repa
ring
luna
r m
aps,
in evaluating the kinds of research that could be undertaken by
in s
itu
spac
ecra
ft s
tudi
es, a
nd in
ass
essi
ng th
e lim
its o
f kn
owle
dge
in th
e va
riou
s cr
oss-
disc
iplin
ary
fiel
ds th
at c
ontr
ibut
ed to
luna
r st
udie
s. H
ere
the
role
of
adm
inis
tra-
tor
fit c
omfo
rtab
ly w
ith h
is d
utie
s as
a s
cien
tist a
nd le
ader
of
a pr
ofes
sion
al f
ield
.Y
et to
mai
ntai
n lu
nar
rese
arch
as
a co
mpe
titiv
e su
bfie
ld o
f ast
rono
my,
Kui
per
foun
d it
nece
ssar
y to
pro
mot
e th
e va
lue
and
rele
vanc
e of
the
field
act
ivel
y to
new
fede
ral a
nd m
ilita
ry p
atro
ns, a
nd to
kee
p th
e fi
eld
befo
re th
e pu
blic
eye
. See
king
a
secu
re n
iche
and
aw
are
of th
e hi
gh s
cien
tific
and
pol
itica
l val
ue a
ttach
ed to
Sov
iet
luna
r re
sults
, Kui
per
succ
essf
ully
pro
mot
ed h
imse
lf to
pat
rons
as
an e
xper
t int
er-
preter of Soviet science.
The
Koz
yrev
con
trov
ersy
hol
ds m
uch
sign
ific
ance
for
the
soci
olog
y of
sci
ence
.K
uipe
rs
role
as
a sc
ient
ist-
entr
epre
neur
was
str
aine
d by
Koz
yrev
s re
port
ed d
is-
cove
ry o
f lu
nar
volc
anis
m, w
hich
thre
aten
ed h
is th
eori
es o
f lu
nar
evol
utio
n an
d
chal
leng
ed h
is c
rede
ntia
ls in
adv
isin
g go
vern
men
t age
ncie
s ab
out t
he lu
nar
envi
-ro
nmen
t. M
any
of th
e st
eps
that
Kui
per
took
to in
terp
ret K
ozyr
evs
char
acte
r an
d
cred
entia
ls a
t a d
ista
nce
wer
e m
otiv
ated
by
his
desi
re to
def
end
his
own
theo
reti-
cal c
once
pts,
to w
hich
he
was
dee
ply
atta
ched
. The
re is
no
ques
tion
that
his
abru
pt r
ever
sal o
f opi
nion
abo
ut K
ozyr
evs
evid
ence
in L
enin
grad
was
eas
ed b
y
new
inte
rpre
tatio
ns o
f th
e sp
ectr
um b
y So
viet
ast
rono
mer
s th
at le
ft h
is th
eore
ti-, cal fr
amew
ork
undi
stur
bed.
Fur
ther
, Kui
per
was
no
less
atte
ntiv
e to
soc
ial c
onte
xt
follo
win
g th
e L
enin
grad
enc
ount
er th
an b
efor
e: h
e lo
st n
o tim
e at
tem
ptin
g to
dis
-co
ver
why
his
Sov
iet s
ourc
es h
ad le
d hi
m a
stra
y, o
r in
com
mun
icat
ing
thes
e ne
win
sigh
ts to
Am
eric
an c
olle
ague
s an
d pa
tron
s. I
t sho
uld
not b
e co
nclu
ded,
how
ever
that
sci
entif
ic evidence played anything less than a primary role in shaping
Kui
per
s vi
ew, f
or o
nly
afte
r ho
ldin
g K
ozyr
evs
evid
ence
in h
is h
and
did
he b
e-
com
e co
nvin
ced
of it
s au
then
ticity
and
sig
nifi
canc
e. T
hese
soci
al d
ynam
ics
sup-
port
arg
umen
ts b
y Pe
ter
Gal
ison
, Yve
s G
ingr
as, a
nd S
ilvan
Sch
web
er th
at w
hile
pers
onal
and
soc
ial p
rogr
ams
mus
t be
take
n in
to a
ccou
nt in
exp
lain
ing
the
cour
seof
sci
entif
ic c
ontr
over
sies
, phe
nom
enol
ogic
al c
onst
rain
ts c
anno
t be
over
look
ed in
dete
rmin
ing
the
outc
ome.
The
eve
nts
also
sho
w th
at p
ublic
dem
onst
ratio
ns o
f sc
i-en
tific
res
ults
con
tinue
to p
lay
impo
rtan
t rol
es, a
s St
even
Sha
pin
and
Sim
on
Schaffer have recently argued for the seventeenth century.
Kui
per
s at
tem
pts
to c
ompr
ehen
d K
ozyr
evs
wor
k al
so il
ustr
ate
how
lim
ited
65 P
eter
Gal
ison
How Experiments End
(Chi
cago
: Uni
v. C
hica
go P
ress
, 198
7); Y
ves
Gin
gras
and
Silv
an S
. Sch
web
er
, "
Con
stra
ints
on
Con
stru
ctio
nSocial Studies of Science, 19
8616
:372
-383
; and
Ste
ven
Sha
pin
and
Sim
on S
chaf
fer
Levi
atha
n an
d th
e A
ir-Pu
mp:
Hob
bes,
Boy
le, a
nd th
e E
xper
imen
tal
264
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
L
com
mun
icat
ions
wer
e be
twee
n A
mer
ican
and
Sov
iet s
cien
tists
dur
ing
the
Col
dW
ar. I
f th
e So
viet
Uni
on w
as d
iffc
ult t
o un
ders
tand
pol
itica
lly o
r cu
ltura
lly, t
hew
orki
ngs
of it
s sc
ient
ific
com
mun
ity s
omet
imes
see
med
equ
ally
opa
que.
The
wil-
ingn
ess
of A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts to
acc
ept t
he id
ea th
at S
ovie
t sci
entif
ic r
esul
ts w
ere
tain
ted
by p
oliti
cal i
nter
fere
nce
refl
ecte
d an
xiet
ies
felt
by A
mer
ican
s du
ring
this
time
as m
uch
as a
ctua
l con
ditio
ns a
broa
d. T
hat K
ozyr
evs
plat
e w
as a
sin
gula
rity
and
thus
unu
sual
ly d
iffc
ult t
o ve
rify
doe
s no
t inv
alid
ate
its a
bilit
y to
sym
boliz
eth
e br
oad
prob
lem
of
eval
uatin
g ev
iden
ce f
rom
dis
tant
sci
entif
ic c
omm
uniti
es.
Kui
per
can
be r
egar
ded
as r
epre
sent
ativ
e of
man
y A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts d
urin
gth
e C
old
War
. His
dee
ply
felt
com
mitm
ent t
o so
lar
syst
em a
stro
nom
y m
ade
him
anxi
ous
to u
nder
stan
d ne
w d
evel
opm
ents
in th
e fie
ld, a
nd h
e w
as g
enui
nely
con
-ce
rned
to u
nder
stan
d S
ovie
t pro
gres
s in
his
sub
ject
. He
used
his
net
wor
k of
con
-ta
cts
to e
valu
ate
the
relia
bilit
y of
new
and
con
trov
ersi
al r
esul
ts, e
spec
ially
thos
epr
oduc
ed b
y re
lativ
ely
unkn
own
wor
kers
. But
his
will
ngne
ss to
ser
ve th
e na
tiona
lan
d po
litic
al a
ims
of h
is p
atro
ns m
eant
that
he
need
ed h
is c
onta
cts
as m
uch
for
inte
llgen
ce-g
athe
ring
ope
ratio
ns a
s to
und
erst
and
the
scie
nce
at h
and.
Kui
per
view
of
scie
nce
was
thus
str
ongl
y in
flue
nced
by
polit
ical
con
side
ratio
ns a
nd th
eec
onom
ic a
nd p
oliti
cal s
igni
fican
ce a
ttrib
uted
to s
cien
ce a
fter
1945
. His
arg
u-m
ents
abo
ut S
ovie
t res
ults
ow
ed m
uch
to h
is n
eed
to b
e se
en a
s an
obj
ectiv
e ju
dge
of K
ozyr
evs
wor
k as
wel
l as
corr
ect i
n hi
s vi
ews
on th
e lu
nar
inte
rior
. Sci
ence
di-
vorc
ed f
rom
nat
iona
l pri
oriti
es o
r in
tern
atio
nal c
ompe
titiv
enes
s ha
d no
pla
ce in
Kui
per
s ou
tlook
.K
uipe
rs
expe
rien
ce a
s an
ent
repr
eneu
rial
man
ager
of
scie
nce
in th
e 19
50s
was
ultim
atel
y sh
aped
by
conf
lictin
g ob
ligat
ions
, and
it is
dif
fcul
t to
say
whe
ther
his
perc
eptio
ns o
f Sov
iet s
cien
ce w
ould
hav
e di
ffere
d ha
d he
not
face
d th
e co
mpe
ti-tiv
e pr
essu
res
of m
aint
aini
ng la
rge-
scal
e re
sear
ch p
rogr
ams.
He
veer
ed f
rom
an
eage
r be
lief
that
the
Sovi
ets
wer
e fa
llibl
e an
d th
eir
dece
ptio
ns w
ide-
scal
e to
for
ce-
ful a
sser
tions
that
he
had
been
mis
led
over
Koz
yrev
. In
a st
ilted
yet
sin
cere
gest
ure
at th
e co
nclu
sion
of
the
Len
ingr
ad c
onfe
renc
e he
toas
ted
Koz
yrev
s di
s-co
very
, dec
lari
ng th
at A
mer
ican
s "w
il ta
ke h
ome
(a)
very
dee
p im
pres
sion
: the
one-
ness
of
our
civi
lizat
ion
and
the
effo
rts
we
mus
t all
mak
e to
pre
serv
e it.
"67
Cer
-
tain
ly th
e co
ntra
dict
ions
wer
e in
par
t inh
eren
t in
Kui
per
s ch
arac
ter,
but t
hey
also
refle
cted
the
char
acte
r of
Am
eric
an s
cien
ce in
the
Col
d W
ar.
DO
CU
ME
NT
AT
ION
Lif
e (P
rinc
eton
: Pri
ncet
on U
niv.
Pre
ss, 1
985)
. Rel
evan
t lite
ratu
re is
vol
umin
ous;
for
rec
ent r
evie
ws
see
Jan
Gol
insk
y, "
The
The
ory
of P
ract
ice
and
the
Pra
ctic
e of
The
ory:
Soc
iolo
gica
l App
roac
hes
in th
eHistory of Science,
Isis
, 19
90, 8
1:49
2-50
5; a
nd T
imot
hy L
enoi
r, "
Prac
tice,
Rea
son
, and
Con
text
:T
he D
ialo
gue
Bet
wee
n T
heor
y an
d E
xper
imen
t,Sc
ienc
e in
Con
text
1988
, 2:3
-22.
66 O
n th
e qu
estio
n of
sin
gula
ritie
s in
a d
isci
plin
ary
cont
ext s
ee G
alis
onHow Experiments End
(cit.
65).
67 K
uipe
r, "
Mot
ion
of T
hank
s,"
Box
II,
Kui
per
pape
rs.