OK 2006 09 - Mr. Keller's Oklahoma History Classkellersclass.com/uploads/OK_LofC_Ch9.pdf · Signs of the TimesP News Cartoonist Thomas Nast joined the staff of Harper’s Weekly in

210 Oklahoma: Land of Contrasts

Terms: tariff, states’rights, free state,slave state, secede,Compromise of 1850,abolitionist, Under-ground Railroad,popular sovereignty,Confederate States ofAmerica, neutral,guardianship, guerrillaPeople: AbrahamLincoln, Albert Pike,Ben McCulloch, JohnRoss, Stand Watie,Opothleyahola, JamesBluntPlaces: Public LandStrip, Fort Davis, FortMcCulloch, Pea Ridge,Cowskin Prairie, FortBlunt, Honey Springs

ChapterPreviewChapterPreview

TThe common ground that had united the colonistsin the American Revolution was slowly being displacedby disagreements over political issues. As the countrygrew, so did the differences, primarily between thenorthern and the southern states.

The many disagreements escalated until theyerupted in 1861 in an event that was far more horrific than anyonecould imagine at the time—the American Civil War. The war pittedbrother against brother, friend against friend. The human loss was

Chapter9Chapter9The Civil Warin the IndianTerritory

The Civil Warin the IndianTerritory

Chapter 9: The Civil War in the Indian Territory 211

huge, and the economic destruction was almost beyond repair. Itwould take years to recover.

Tragic events weren’t new to the people in the Indian Territory.They had recently experienced forced removals from their homes toa new land. Life, though not perfect, was beginning to get easier formany of the Native Americans. Although not an official state or terri-tory, the people of the Indian Territory soon found themselves drawninto the white man’s bloody conflict. Even though the Civil War dideventually end, the devastating effects were lasting and costly.

Above: On November 19, 1861,a Confederate Indian regimentattacked Indians loyal tothe Union at Round Mountainin northwest Oklahoma. TheConfederate forces attacked theloyal Indians twice more as theyattempted to escape north intopro-Union Kansas.

PPSigns of the TimesSigns of the Times

News

Cartoonist Thomas Nast joined the staff of

Harper’s Weekly in the 1860s. Nast

originated using animals to represent

political parties, and he helped develop

the character Uncle Sam. His cartoons

helped influence voters, and Rutherford

Hayes said that Nast was “the most

powerful single-handed aid we had” in

winning the presidential election.

Literature

Leo Tolstoy’s panoramic novel of Russian

society War and Peace was published in

1865-1869. Beginning in the early 1860s,

Jules Verne’s writing career, which

eventually included fifty-four books, took

off with Five Weeks in a Balloon, Journey

to the Center of the Earth, 20,000 Leagues

Under the Sea, and others.

Games

The roller skate was perfected in 1863

when James L. Plimpton patented his

“rocking skate,” and the popularity of

roller skating soared. The term yo-yo was

first published in a Filipino dictionary in

1860, and the first U.S. patent on the toy

was issued to James L. Haven and Charles

Hettrich in 1866 as a “whirligig.”

212 Chapter 9: The Civil War in the Indian Territory

Inventions

Mexican General Santa Anna, defeated in

Texas and later exiled to New York,

introduced chicle to inventor James

Adams, who eventually added flavoring to

it in the world’s first chewing gum factory.

Signs of the Times 213

Sports

The schooner-yacht America defeats four-

teen British ships in a 60-mile yacht race

around the Isle of Wight. The trophy won

becomes known as “The America’s Cup.”

Business

New businesses established include the

Western Union Company, Macy’s Depart-

ment Store, Traveler’s Insurance Company,

and the Standard Oil Company of Ohio.

1850 1855 1860 1865 1870

1865Civil War ended

1863Battles of Cabin Creek, Honey Springs,Perryville

1861Tribes signed treaties with Confederacy

1862Battles at Pea Ridge, Locust Grove

1850Compromise of 1850

1865President Lincoln assassinated

1862Transcontinental railroad authorized

1860Abraham Lincoln elected president

Figure 9 Timeline: 1850 – 1870

1863Thanksgiving declared a national holiday

Divided Loyalties

As you read, look for:

• the events and issues that led to the Civil War, and• vocabulary terms tariff, states’ rights, free state, slave

state, secede, Compromise of 1850, abolitionist,Underground Railroad, popular sovereignty, andConfederate States of America.

Section1Section1

Above: In the South, slaveswere essential to growingcotton. Some of the Indians ineastern Indian Territory wereslave owners.

Conflict is a natural part of life,brought on by our different beliefs,experiences, and values. The con-flicts began to grow and widen inthe United States in the 1800s, andsuccessful solutions to the prob-lems didn’t keep pace.

Tariffs (taxes) on goods, bothimported and exported, wereviewed differently by the northernand southern states. There werealso regional differences onwhether federal or state authorityshould prevail. This came to beknown as the issue of states’ rights.By the 1850s, industry had joinedagriculture in importance in theNorth, and thousands of immi-grants arriving in the Northeastprovided cheap labor for its facto-ries. The South’s economy wasbased on agriculture. Most people

in the southern states lived on small farms and owned no slaves.Fewer in number, the powerful, wealthy southern plantation ownersstrongly believed that African slaves were essential to their economyand lifestyle. With a larger population, the North had more represen-tatives in the U.S. House of Representatives, and the southern statesbelieved that their way of life was threatened.

Below: Wagon train crossing thePlains.

!The Compromiseof 1850 was

actually a series offive laws.

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Section 1: Divided Loyalties 215

Increasing TensionsSlavery had once existed throughout the United States. But it had

died out in the North because immigrants provided the cheap laborneeded by the North’s economy. Slavery might also have died out inthe South had cotton not become such an important part of theSouth’s economy.

In 1819, the United States had twenty-two states. Eleven were freestates, states that did not allow slavery; eleven were slave states, statesthat did permit slavery. The 1820Missouri Compromise estab-lished the 36° 30' N parallel as theline dividing the slave and the freestates. That legislation was one ofthe first attempts at maintainingthe balance of power in Congress.The balance was threatenedwhen California applied to be-come the thirty-first state in 1849.Senator John C. Calhoun of SouthCarolina spoke out for states’rights and demanded that thebalance between slave states andfree states be maintained. Hethreatened that the southernstates would secede (breakaway) from the Union if the bal-ance was not maintained. Even though opposed to slavery, both HenryClay of Kentucky and Daniel Webster of Massachusetts proposed theCompromise of 1850 to save the Union.

After eight months of heated debate, the Compromise of 1850 triedto resolve many of the issues. The Texas-New Mexico boundary wassettled, and Texas received $10 million to pay off its debts to Mexico.

The northern boundary of theTexas Panhandle was estab-lished at the 36° 30' N latitudeline. (The Texas Panhandle’snorthern boundary is also theOklahoma Panhandle’s southernborder.) The territories of NewMexico and Utah were organizedwithout a mention of slavery.California was admitted as a freestate. Also included in the com-promise was a new and strongerFugitive Slave Act, which re-quired all citizens to help re-cover fugitive slaves.

Map 27TheCompromiseof 1850

Map Skill: What effect didthe Compromise of 1850have on Oklahoma's futureborders?

!Harriet Beecher Stowe’snovel Uncle Tom’s Cabin

dramatized the harshreality of slavery. Some

historians credit the bookwith adding even morepassion to the northern

abolitionists’ efforts.

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4

Map 28The Electionof 1860

Map Skill: Which candidatewon Arkansas?

KEY:John BellJohn C. BreckinridgeStephen A. DouglasAbraham LincolnElectoral Votes

*New Jersey’s electoral voteswere split between Lincolnand Douglas.

Many northerners refused to obey the act and continued to helpslaves escape from the South. The abolitionists (those against sla-very) became even more active with the Underground Railroad,which was a secret network of safe places for slaves to hide as theyescaped to the North or Canada. As it turned out, the Compromiseof 1850 was only a temporary solution.

Tempers flared again when the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 waspassed. The act formed Kansas and Nebraska Territories and pro-vided for popular sovereignty, which allowed those living in thosetwo territories to decide for themselves if they wanted slavery. Vio-lence between proslavery and antislavery groups broke out in Kan-sas, and that territory came to be called “Bloody Kansas.” (When itbecame a territory, Kansas proposed that its southern border meetthe Texas line. After strong objections from the Cherokee tribe, the

Kansas border was moved to 37°N. Thatleft a 34.5-mile by 167-mile rectanglewest of the Cherokee Outlet and east ofthe New Mexico Territory. This wascalled the Public Land Strip, or NoMan’s Land as it became known in the1880s. The Strip, or Panhandle, becamepart of Oklahoma Territory in 1890.)

More fuel was added to the slaverydebate by the 1857 U.S. Supreme Courtruling in the Dred Scott case. The courtruled that slaves were “beings of an in-ferior order (with) no rights whichwhite men were bound to respect.” Theruling meant that Congress had no rightto stop slavery in the territories.

OR3

CA4

IA4

MN4

TX4

ME8

MO9

AR4

LA6

MS7

AL9

WI5

IL11

MI6

IN13

OH23

KY 12

TN 12

GA10

FL3

SC8

NC10

VA15

PA27

NY35

MD 8

NH 5VT 5

MA 13

CT 6RI 4

NJ 7*DE 3

WASHINGTONTERRITORY

NEBRASKATERRITORY

UTAHTERRITORY

NEW MEXICOTERRITORY

KANSAS TERR.

UNORGANIZEDTERRITORY

INDIANTERR.

Candidate/ Popular ElectoralParty Vote Vote

John Bell (Constitutional Union) 592,906 39

John C. Breckinridge (Southern Democrat) 848,356 72

Stephen A. Douglas (Northern Democrat) 1,382,713 12

Abraham Lincoln (Republican) 1,865,593 180

Totals 4,689,568 303

Figure 10The 1860 Election


Map 29The Unionand theConfederacy

Map Skill: Name the fourborder states.

1. How did the economies of the North and the South differ?2. How did California’s request to become a state upset the

balance in Congress?3. Name the eleven states that made up the Confederate States

of America.

It’s Your TurnIt’s Your Turn

MN

KS

Indian Territory

Nebraska Territory

New Mexico Territory

Colorado Territory

Utah Terr.

Nevada Territory

Washington Territory

Dakota Territory

CA

OR

TX LA

AR

MO

IA

WI MI

IL IN OH

KY

TN

MS AL

FL

GA

SC

NC

VA

MD

PA NJ

NY

ME

NH MA

CT RI

VT

DE

Union states

Confederate states

Border states

Territories

The Election of 1860The presidential election of 1860 brought the tensions to a head.

The Democratic Party split over the issue of slavery. The NorthernDemocrats supported Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, and the South-ern Democrats nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. TheNorth-dominated Republican Party nominated Abraham Lincoln ofIllinois on a platform that opposed slavery and supported free west-ern homesteads, protective tariffs, and a transcontinental railroad.John Bell of Tennessee was nominated by the newly formed Consti-tutional Union party, which primarily stood for maintaining the Unionand the Constitution.

With the Democratic Party split, the Republican Lincoln won 40percent of the popular vote and 60 percent of the electoral votes (asimple majority is required). All of Lincoln’s electoral votes were fromnorthern and western states.Lincoln had no support in theSouth. In fact, he wasn’t even onthe ballot in a number of south-ern states.

Almost immediately, southernstates began carrying out theirthreat to secede. South Carolinawithdrew from the Union on De-cember 20, 1860. Within sixweeks, Mississippi, Florida, Ala-bama, Georgia, Louisiana, andTexas had followed. In February1861, these seven states formeda new government called theConfederate States of America.Jefferson Davis of Mississippiwas chosen as its president.

War broke out between the North and the South in April 1861 atFort Sumter near Charleston, South Carolina. Arkansas, Tennessee,North Carolina, and Virginia soon joined the Confederacy. Both sideswere confident of a quick victory.

Section 1: Divided Loyalties 217

Indian Territory Joinsthe Confederacy

Section2Section2

As you read, look for:

• the reasons why the tribes split and supported bothsides,

• the battles fought in Indian Territory,• important individuals who affected the war in Indian

Territory, and• vocabulary terms neutral, guardianship, and guerrilla.

Confederate officials were very aware of the rich resources in theIndian Territory. Those resources included abundant horse and cattleherds for food, hides, and mounts; grain; lead deposits for makingammunition; plentiful supplies of salt; and men for additional soldiers.The Territory was also strategically located as a buffer between Northand South and could be a central base west of the Mississippi.

Above: Jefferson Davis, thepresident of the Confederacy,had been part of theLeavenworth expedition in 1834.Below: Union forces abandonedFort Arbuckle in May 1861.


In February 1861, Texas leaders approached the Five Tribes aboutaligning with (supporting) the Confederacy, but some of the Indiansdeclined and decided “simply to do nothing, to keep quiet and tocomply with our treaties.” The Civil War, however, quickly spread tothe Indian Territory.

Only three military forts were manned in Indian Territory in thespring of 1861. Fort Washita was in the southeast corner of theChickasaw Nation (present-day Bryan County). Fort Arbuckle wasabout 60 miles northwest of Fort Washita. About 160 miles northwestof Fort Washita was Fort Cobb, which was on the Choctaw lands thatwere leased for bands of Comanche and other tribes.

In April 1861, secessionists (those who supported withdrawingfrom the Union) at Pine Bluff, Arkansas, seized military supplies thatwere to be distributed to the forts in the Territory. Orders from Wash-ington were to abandon the Indian country west of Arkansas andmarch the Union troops to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. A regiment ofthe Texas state militia took over Fort Washita in late April 1861. Fed-eral troops lowered the flag “with military honors” at Fort Arbuckleon May 4 and then marched to Fort Cobb, with the Texans close be-hind. From Fort Cobb, eleven military companies from the abandonedforts headed north to Fort Leavenworth.

Taking SidesSome of the Five Tribes wanted to remain neutral (not take sides).

Others saw advantages to siding with the South, and still others tosiding with the North. Joining the South’s cause would mean the lossof a large amount of money owed to the Indians by the federal gov-ernment, but many believed they had already been abandoned bythe U.S. military.

Above: When Union forcesabandoned Fort Washita, theConfederate forces used it as asupply depot and hospital facility.

!The trail the troopsfollowed to Fort

Leavenworth was latermade famous by

Jesse Chisholm as theChisholm Trail.

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Section 2: Indian Territory Joins the Confederacy 219

The withdrawal of federal troops left thetribes to fend for themselves. With no U.S.military presence, the Indians had to acceptthe Confederacy in their territory or fight iton their own. Some tribal members evenheld out hope that, if the South won, theIndians could return to their ancestralhomes. For many Native Americans, joiningthe South seemed to be the best choice.

Confederate President Jefferson Davisnamed Albert Pike as Commissioner of IndianAffairs. Davis sent Pike, a popular Arkansasattorney and journalist, to negotiate with thetribes in May 1861. At the same time, BenMcCulloch of Texas was appointed brigadiergeneral and given command of the IndianTerritory. Pike and McCulloch traveled to-gether to meet with Cherokee Chief JohnRoss at his home in Park Hill. They urged Rossto sign a treaty with the Confederacy, but herefused saying that the war would destroy hispeople and that it would be cruel “to engagethem in (the white man’s) quarrel.”

Pike continued his mission by signing atreaty with the divided Creek Nation in July,followed by treaties with the Chickasaw and

Choctaw tribes. In August, he made treaties with the Seminole, Quapaw,Seneca, Caddo, Wichita, Osage, and Shawnee. The general provisionsof all the treaties were similar. The Confederacy assumed guardianshipof the tribes and became responsible for all the obligations to the Indi-ans imposed by former treaties with the United States. (A guardian-ship occurs when someone legally has the authority to make decisionsfor and care for and control all of the property of someone.)

As Pike was returning to Arkansas, messengers told him that ChiefRoss, not wanting the Cherokee to stand alone, wanted to meet withhim. At a meeting of 4,000 Cherokee, the tribe decided to join theConfederate cause. Even before Chief Ross reluctantly signed thetreaty, his longtime rival, Stand Watie, was drilling a group of mixed-blood Cherokee horsemen to fight for the Confederacy. Watie’s regi-ment was called the Cherokee Mounted Rifles.

Confederate Indian fighting regiments quickly formed. Former In-dian agent Colonel Douglas Cooper commanded the Choctaw andChickasaw Mounted Rifles, which was supported by a Texas cavalryregiment. Daniel McIntosh and John Jumper led units of Creek andSeminole. Chilly McIntosh and James M. C. Smith led Creek battal-ions. In addition to Watie’s unit, John Drew, William P. Ross, and Tho-mas Pegg led another Cherokee unit.

Above: As Commissioner ofIndian Affairs, Albert Pike negoti-ated treaties with several tribes tofight for the Confederacy. He isseen here in Masonic regalia.


Confederate OutpostsA Confederate outpost (a station in a remote or sparsely populated

area) was built in the Indian Territory on the Texas Road in Novem-ber 1861. Commissioned by Pike, the post was located northeast ofpresent-day Muskogee and named Fort Davis (also called CantonmentDavis) in honor of Jefferson Davis. A sloped terrain helped hide thethirteen buildings at the fort, which surrounded a prehistoric mound.

In March 1862, Fort Davis was abandoned, and Pike’s troops moved150 miles southwest and built Fort McCulloch (near Kenefic in BryanCounty) on the Blue River. Fort McCulloch was located on the militaryroute between Fort Smith, Texas supply towns, and Forts Gibson andWashita. Use of this outpost decreased after Pike resigned in July 1862.It later was used by Indian refugees and, briefly, by General Stand Watie.

War on Indian LandPike’s mission through the Indian Territory had opened old wounds.

The Indians who supported the Union or who wanted to remain neu-tral felt overpowered by those who favored the Confederacy. The Up-per and Lower Creek were divided before removal, and treaties withthe United States had further divided them. The McIntosh-led LowerCreek had moved to the Indian Territory several years before

Above: For a time, Fort Daviswas the main Confederateoutpost in northern IndianTerritory.


Newspapers offer a tremendous window for us to glimpsehistory. Keep in mind, though, that early-day communicationswere much less advanced than what we have today, and thatsensationalism was sometimes used to sell papers. The value ofnewspaper archives far surpasses any fear of misinformation.These vast sources of information can often be accessed on theInternet, on microfilm in libraries, and at newspaper offices. Thefollowing article (misspellings left intact) was read by peopleduring the Civil War years.

The Loyal Indians.Col. Coffin arrived yesterday from the Southern party of theState, in the immediate vicinity of the loyal Indians who havebeen driven from their homes on account of the rebellion. Thereare about eight thousand of these men, women and children;and the agents are now removing them from the Verdigris tothe Neosho. The Colonel represents the sufferings of these poorpeople, on account of the insufficiency of food and clothing, ashorrible, many of them having frozen their feet, and some hav-ing to undergo amputation in consequence. The agents are do-ing all in their power to supply them with the necessaries oflife; but it is impossible to prevent much hardship from cold. Forprovisions they have done very well; but the extreme and pro-tracted winter has been the cause of many deaths and consid-erable sickness, the measles having broken out among them.An effort has been made to remove a portion of the Creeks tothe Sac and Fox reservation, but they have an unconquerableantipathy to being separated, and all wish to remain with andshare the fate of the chief Opothleyoholo.—These Indians haveno doubt endured more hardships on account of their loyaltyand adherence to the Government than any other people.

Source: Daily Times [Leavenworth, Kansas], March 15, 1862,p. 2, c. 1.

Voices from the PastOpothleyahola and the Upper Creekcame to the new land. The tribes’ dif-ferences in the Indian Territoryweren’t always openly hostile, but thedistinction continued, and the CivilWar brought out the dissimilarities.

The Loyal Creek Fightfor Survival

In spite of the Confederate treaty,Upper Creek leader Opothleyaholaand a large number of followers ap-pealed to the “Great Father” (Presi-dent Lincoln) in Washington, D.C., forhelp. They wanted to remain with theUnion. The group became known asthe Loyal Creek, but included about6,500 Indians from many other tribes.

While the Loyal Creek awaitedword from Washington, the white andIndian troops under ConfederateColonel Cooper learned of their at-tempt to seek federal help. The loyalIndians had camped at the junction ofthe Deep Fork and North Fork of theCanadian River. Possibly to avoid aconfrontation with Cooper’s regi-ment, the loyal Indians, led by theaging Opothleyahola, headed northtoward Kansas (a Union state).

On November 19, 1861, Cooper’s2000-man regiment attacked the loyalIndians at Round Mountain (probablynear Yale or northwest of Tulsa).Darkness halted the skirmish, withneither side claiming victory. Duringthe night, the loyal Indians continuedmoving north but left behind most oftheir possessions. The Confederatesretreated to reorganize.

The weather turned bitterly cold.Opothleyahola led the group toChusto Talasah or Caving Banks onBird Creek, north of the Creek settle-

ment of Tulsey Town (Tulsa). Cooper’s forces again attacked theircamp on December 9. Once again, the battle ended in a stalemate,and Cooper retreated to Fort Gibson.


What They Were SayingWhat They Were Saying

Oklahoma ProfilesOklahoma Profiles

OpothleyaholaOpothleyaholaOpothleyahola was one of the greatleaders in the Muscogee Creek Nation.Opothleyahola (also spelled OpothleYohola, Opothleyoholo, Hu-pui-hilthYahola, and Hopoeitheyohola), or “OldGouge,” was a brilliant spokesperson forthe Upper Creek Council. He was bornabout 1798 in Alabama. He fought in sev-eral battles against white people in theearly 1800s and later fought against theforced removal of the Muscogee Creeks.In 1836, commissioned as a U.S. militarycolonel, Opothleyahola fought against theLower Creek who had allied with the Semi-nole. One of his most difficult missionscame in 1837 when he led his people fromtheir homeland to the Indian Territory.

Opothleyahola, a wealthy plantationowner with slaves, adapted to life in theTerritory. Mayor Ethan Allen Hitchcockwrote in his diary in 1842 describingOpothleyahola, “He is a tall, well made In-dian over 45, perhaps 50 years of age. Hadon a blue frock coat of good cloth, but woredeer skin leggings.” Early in the 1840s,Opotheyahola was a trader in partnershipwith J. W. Taylor, a white man, but the com-pany failed “to give bond and license,” and the store was closed.

Opotheyahola again led his people to safety when the Civil Warbroke out. Many years before, he had pledged to never again beararms against the federal government, and he refused to accept thetreaty some Creek had made with the Confederacy. After severalmonths, three intense battles, and blizzards, Opotheyahola and manyfollowers finally reached safety in Kansas. But Opotheyahola diedthere in 1863.

Above: Opothleyahola refusedto consider any alliance with theConfederacy. He led his followersnorth to Union territory.


Map 30The Civil Warin Oklahoma

Map Skill: What is the firstbattle shown on the map?

Battling the cold and dwindling supplies and ammunition, the loyalIndians moved their camp to Chustenahlah (west of Skiatook). TheConfederate troops attacked a third time on December 26. In a battlethat lasted four hours, Opothleyahola’s people were finally defeated.The survivors fled into the wooded land, still intent on reaching safetyin Kansas. The dead and wounded were left to freeze in the blizzard,while the other survivors, many hungry and barefoot, continuednorth.

Opothleyahola was one of those who struggled into Kansas. Thegreat leader survived the trek to Kansas, but he died in March 1863.Many of the others who survived arrived with frozen hands or feetthat had to be amputated. The refugees suffered greatly from diseaseand the lack of food, and many Indians died from the miserable con-ditions. It would be years before they could once again rebuild theirlives in the Indian country.

Pea RidgeBattles raged on many fronts in the eastern half of the country, and

most resulted in Confederate victories in the first half of the war. Eventhough Union wins were fewer, they did occur.

Union forces won a decisive battle at Pea Ridge in northwesternArkansas in March 1862. More than 10,000 Union soldiers commandedby Brigadier General Samuel Curtis battled 16,000 Confederates ledby Major General Earl Van Dorn, McCulloch, and Pike at Elkhorn Tav-ern on Pea Ridge. Eight hundred Cherokee troops, led by Stand Watieand John Drew, joined in the fierce battle. After two days of fighting,the Union forces won. Some 4,600 Confederates, including McCulloch,

!The Union’s First IndianHome Guard Regiment

was organized inMay 1862 in LeRoy,

Kansas. Indians wererecruited through the Sac

and Fox Agency inKansas and from therefugees who had

followed Opothleyahola.

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lost their lives at Pea Ridge, compared to 1,400 Union soldiers. Pikeretreated into Indian Territory, abandoning Fort Davis and setting upFort McCulloch.

The Indian ExpeditionThe loss at Pea Ridge weakened the Confederate position in the

West. Union leaders in Kansas summoned troops from Wisconsin,Ohio, Indiana, and Kansas, as well as two Home Guard Regiments ofloyal Indians, and formed the Indian Expedition to regain the IndianTerritory. Union General James Blunt placed Colonel William Weer incommand of the Indian Expedition, which began June 1, 1862. Afterseveral skirmishes with Stand Watie’s cavalry, Weer faced the Con-federates at Locust Grove on July 3. The southern troops fell backunder heavy artillery fire. The Union soldiers proceeded to take overFort Gibson and Tahlequah, capital of the Cherokee Nation, where theywere welcomed by Chief John Ross. Even though the Union forces hadcaptured Fort Gibson and Tahlequah, poor leadership and rumors ofa counterattack sent them back to Kansas. Ross was taken into pro-tective custody and, with his family, was sent to Philadelphia, wherehe remained for the duration of the war.

In October 1862, to keep the Confederates from advancing acrossUnion lines, Blunt’s two Union brigades fought Cooper’s Confeder-ate forces in northwestern Arkansas. After several battles, Cooper’s

Top: The battlefield at Pea Ridgewas color blind. Blacks, whites,and Indians all lay dead whenthe fighting stopped. Above:General Ben McCulloch waskilled during the second day offighting at Pea Ridge.


troops retreated to Fort Wayne in the Indian Territory, whileother Confederates went to Huntsville, Arkansas. In a sur-prise attack, Blunt drove Cooper out of Fort Wayne (east ofJay), leaving a cannon, supplies, and fifty prisoners.

Black TroopsIn May 1861, freed slave and abolitionist Frederick

Douglass called for African Americans to participate in theCivil War. The Union War Department had authorized theservices of black men in 1862, and the effort was finally en-dorsed by President Lincoln in 1863. James Henry Lane, sena-tor from the new free state of Kansas, was the first to organizea unit of African American soldiers in August 1862, the FirstKansas Colored Infantry.

The 11th Regiment, United States Colored Troops, re-cruited from Fort Smith in 1863, saw its first military actionin 1864. The 265 men were deployed to the Indian Territoryto guard government stock and hay at Gunther’s Prairie,twelve miles northwest of Fort Smith. About 300-400 Confed-erates attacked them on August 24, but the 11th Regimentheld its position, forcing the Confederates to retreat.

The Battle at Cabin CreekColonel William Phillips had been left in command of Union Indian

troops in the northeastern part of the Territory. In addition to com-bating Stand Watie’s raids, Phillips helped protect and find food forthe Indians who remained in their homes. Phillips had also spent muchof the winter trying to convince the Cherokee to resettle on their landsin the Indian Territory that Union troops had recaptured. Encouragedby Phillips, many Union Cherokee met at the Cowskin Prairie in thenortheastern corner of the Cherokee Nation in February 1863. At theCowskin Prairie Council, the Cherokee withdrew from the Confederacy,declared Stand Watie and his followers outlaws, and abolished slavery.They elected John Ross as chief and Thomas Pegg as acting chief.There were now two Cherokee governments in the Territory.

By April 1863, the Union had recaptured Fort Gibson. Union troopsbuilt a mile-long, 18-gun earthwork (a fortification made of earth),called Fort Blunt, on a hill above Fort Gibson.

A Union supply train, escorted by Colonel James M. Williams andthe First Kansas Colored Infantry, two units of white soldiers, and theThird Indian Home Guards from Kansas, headed toward Fort Gibsonon July 2, 1863. All of the creeks and rivers were swollen due to re-cent rains. The high water finally receded enough for Williams to leadthe supply train through Cabin Creek. Watie and his regiment werewaiting at the creek to capture the supply train. After a bloody battle,the Union infantry held off Watie’s men, and the supplies arrived atFort Gibson as planned. The Battle of Cabin Creek was the first en-

!On January 1, 1863,President Lincoln issued

the EmancipationProclamation, which

freed the slaves in theConfederate states.

However, it did not applyto the Indian Territory.

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Above: Troops under the com-mand of General James Bluntdrove Colonel Douglas Cooper’sforces from Fort Wayne.


gagement of the Civil War inwhich black, white, and Indiantroops fought side by side.

The Battle of HoneySprings

The morning of July 17, 1863,dawned with a summer rain.Union troops were tired and hun-gry but somewhat bolstered(strengthened) by news of greatvictories earlier in the month atGettysburg and Vicksburg. Wordreached the Territory of a Con-federate plan to have Cooper’sIndian and Texas regiments join with General William Cabell’s FortSmith forces to attack Union troops at Fort Gibson. Union GeneralBlunt decided to attack first, before the two Confederate forces couldjoin. On the night of July 15, he quickly began moving artillery andmen across the swollen Arkansas River towards Honey Springs, a prin-cipal Confederate supply depot. Blunt’s three thousand men includedthe Second Colorado Infantry; the First, Second, and Third IndianHome Guard Regiments; and the First Kansas Colored Infantry.Cooper’s six thousand Confederate troops included Watie and twoCherokee regiments, Colonel Tandy Walker’s Choctaw and Chickasawunit, Colonel D. N. McIntosh’s two Creek units, Colonel T. C. Bass’sTwentieth Texas Cavalry, and other Texas forces.

After a small skirmish early on July 17, intense fighting shatteredthe silence of the peaceful countryside. In the thick of the battle,Union Indian regiments unintentionally moved in front of the Afri-can American regiment, which had been fighting a Texas cavalry unit.The Indians quickly got out of the way, and the Texans charged intothe First Kansas Colored Infantry’s line of sight. Many Texans werekilled. Confederate troops soon had problems with wet gunpowderand inferior artillery. After a two-hour battle, Cooper’s forces re-treated. Before they left, they set their storage buildings on fire, hop-ing to keep the northerners from taking the supplies. Blunt’s menmanaged to save some of the supplies. Blunt later said, “They [theFirst Kansas Colored Infantry] fought like veterans, with a coolnessand valor that is unsurpassed. They preserved their line perfectthroughout the whole engagement and, although in the hottest ofthe fight, they never once faltered. Too much praise can not beawarded them for their gallantry.”

The Battle of Honey Springs was the largest, bloodiest, and mostdecisive Civil War battle in the Indian Territory. Other skirmishes inthe territory followed, but Honey Springs joined the growing list ofUnion victories.

Top: After Union forces won theBattle of Honey Springs, theycontrolled all of Indian Territorynorth of the Arkansas River.Above: Colonel D. N. McIntoshcommanded ConfederateCreek troops at the Battle ofHoney Springs.


The Battle at PerryvilleBlunt’s mission was to defeat the Confederates in Indian Territory

once and for all. Cooper’s Indian troops were still dispirited after theirdefeat at Honey Springs when Blunt attacked the Confederates on Au-gust 26, 1863. Blunt found them at Perryville, a major supply depotfor the Confederates, located between Boggy Depot and Scullyvilleon the Texas Road. In the nighttime battle, the Confederates hastilyretreated after a short fight, leaving behind supplies. After taking someof the supplies, Blunt ordered the town burned.

Guerrilla WarfareFrom September 1863,

with the fall of Fort Smith, tothe surrenders by the Con-federate Indians in the sum-mer of 1865, the only warfarein Indian Territory was guer-rilla activity. A guerrilla is amember of a small militarygroup that harasses the en-emy. Colonel William Quan-trill, a Confederate raiderprimarily based in Kansas,periodically roamed the In-dian Territory. Indian raiderssometimes stole cattle andhorses and burned Indianhomes or villages. Stand

Watie raided anything military that could be used by the enemy. Watieespecially liked to patrol the Union supply line between Fort Scott,Kansas, and Fort Gibson, where thousands of cavalry horses werekept. Watie’s raiders often drove away grazing mule and horse herds,which were badly needed by the Union troops.

In June 1864, Watie’s troops ambushed and captured the supplysteamboat J. R. Williams as it made its way up the Arkansas Rivertoward Fort Gibson. In September 1864, General Sterling Price, Watie’sregiment, and Colonel Samuel Checote leading a Creek regiment at-tacked and captured a supply train of three hundred wagons andheavy military equipment on Cabin Creek, near where Watie had metdefeat in 1863. The Confederate forces claimed huge quantities offood, medical supplies, and military arms valued at $1,500,000.

In spring 1864, Confederate Indian units were reorganized, creat-ing the First and the Second Indian Cavalry brigades. Stand Watie,promoted to brigadier general, commanded the First Brigade, andColonel Tandy Walker, a Choctaw, commanded the Second Brigade.With practically no military action in the Indian Territory, most In-dian troops were allowed to tend to crops and families.

Above: Quantrill's raiders attackLawrence, Kansas.

!Confederate guerrillaswere also called

“bushwhackers.” Frankand Jesse James werealso bushwhackers.

SomethingExtra!

SomethingExtra!


Above: General Stand Watie’stroops took part in eighteenbattles and major skirmishesduring the war. He was the onlyIndian to be named a general inthe war. In this painting byDennis Parker, General Watie isshown surrendering at the endof the war. He was the lastConfederate general to do so.

Indian RefugeesNeither the North nor the South had anticipated the many Indian

refugees. The Loyal Creek, numbering about seven thousand, even-tually made their way to the refugee camp in Kansas. ConfederateIndian refugees sought safety in Choctaw camps or across the RedRiver. Pro-Confederate Cherokee fled across the Arkansas River intothe Creek Nation when the 1862 Indian Expedition moved south. Oth-ers hastened to the Red River Valley as Union sol-diers burned homes and harassed civilians.Following the Confederate defeat at Honey Springsin 1863, both Cherokee and Creek quickly got outof the way of Union troops. Confederate BrigadierGeneral Samuel Bell Maxey attempted to care forthe refugees along the Red River Valley, whichsometimes numbered almost fourteen thousand.

The War EndsOn April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House in

Virginia, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surren-dered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, ending theCivil War. Throughout the next few months, otherConfederate commanders surrendered. The lastConfederate commander to surrender was GeneralStand Watie, who gave up his sword at Doaksvilleon June 23, 1865.

Just before the end of the war but with Confed-erate defeat in site, Creek leaders tried to arrange ageneral council of all Indians at Council Grove topresent a united front to Union leaders. Union forces didn’t approveof such a meeting. The Five Tribe Confederate representatives thenmet with delegates of several Plains tribes at Camp Napoleon on theWashita River near Verden. The council adopted a compact of peace,which they planned to present to the United States. The peace planamong the Indians made little difference.

The Indian Territory was devastated. Many people were maimedor had died. Livestock, fields, fences, and homes were destroyed.There was no money. All too soon, the Indians had to once again findways to rebuild their lives.

1. Why did many of the tribes support the Confederacy?2. What was significant about the Battle of Cabin Creek?3. When did the Civil War end in Indian Territory?

It’s Your TurnIt’s Your Turn


Chapter ReviewChapter ReviewSummary

• Disagreements among the states overpolitical and economic issues escalated andultimately led to the American Civil War.

• In an attempt to ward off conflict, Congresspassed compromises and legislation such asthe Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of1850, and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854.None of these proved to be a permanentsolution. The election of Abraham Lincoln in1860 further split the country.

• War broke out in April 1861.• Tribes were split in their loyalties between

the North and the South or whether toremain neutral. Old hostilities resurfaced.

• Indian regiments were formed, and Confeder-ate outposts were built in Indian Territory totrain soldiers for battle.

• The Indians who fought in the Civil War werevaliant fighters, but time and again theyfound themselves without supplies,ammunition, or food.

• Union forces won a decisive battle at PeaRidge in northwestern Arkansas in March1862; this weakened the Confederateposition in the West.

• Indians sympathetic with the Union formedthe Indian Expedition and entered IndianTerritory from Kansas to reclaim Fort Gibsonand Tahlequah, which had been controlled bythe Confederacy.

• Black troops played a prominent role inIndian Territory during the Civil War.

• The Battle of Honey Springs was the largest,bloodiest, and most decisive battle in IndianTerritory.

• By September 1863, guerrilla warfare reignedin Indian Territory.

• The Civil War officially ended on April 9,1865, at Appomattox Court House in Virginia.

• The Five Tribes, who had only recentlyrecovered from the tragedy of removal, weredevastated by this war.

VocabularyCreate a crossword puzzle using ten of the follow-ing words. Create clues for the words.

1. abolitionist2. brigade3. Compromise of 18504. free state5. guardianship6. guerrilla7. neutral8. outpost9. popular sovereignty

10. secede11. slave state12. states’ rights13. supply depot14. tariff15. Underground Railroad

Understanding the Facts1. List the terms of the Compromise of 1850.2. What novel emphasized the plight of the

slaves before the Civil War? Who was theauthor?

3. Which man’s election as president triggeredthe Civil War?

4. Which state was the first to secede from theUnion?

5. Who was named Commissioner of IndianAffairs for the Confederacy?

6. What was the largest and most decisivebattle fought in Indian Territory?

7. When and where was the official end of theCivil War?

8. Who was the last Confederate general tosurrender?


Chapter Review 231

Developing Critical Thinking1. Why was Fort Gibson so important to both

sides during the Civil War?2. What do you think were the factors that

contributed to the Confederate losses inIndian Territory?

3. By the end of the Civil War, the Indians hadnothing left. They were in worse shape thanwhen they had arrived after the removals.Explain why this happened.

Applying Your Skills1. On a map of the United States, highlight

using different colors:a. Union statesb. Confederate statesc. Border states that did not seceded. Territory of the Five Tribes in Indian

Territory2. On an Oklahoma map, locate and label by

name and year the Civil War battles foughtin Indian Territory.

3. Assume that you live near Bowling Green,Kentucky, and you are part of the Under-

Do compromises sometimes leave basic problemsunresolved?

As citizens of the United States, we all must makecompromises. Almost daily, we must give-and-takewith our fellow citizens in order to coexist. It isimportant, though, that we recognize that thereare some areas of our lives—our basic values—thatcannot be compromised. As citizens, we realize thatthere are parts of our constitutional democracy thatwe cannot compromise.

What issues are not open to compromise in oursociety? What types of compromises are necessaryfor us to be able to exist in society? Would life aswe know it be possible without compromise? Arethere times when compromise is just not possible?Why are respect, open-mindedness, tolerance, andpatience important qualities to have when makingcompromises?

Americans have always had a knack for com-promising between tough choices and almost im-possible deadlocks between opposing points ofview. The alternatives to not being able to reach acompromise can be lack of progress, indecision, and,in some cases, violent action.

In late 1849, there were several bills before theU.S. Congress that threatened to disrupt the Union.Each side felt strongly about the issues involvedand it seemed that any kind of compromise wasimpossible. Yet compromise was eventuallyachieved. Do some more research on the Compro-mise of 1850. Make careful notes on the differentviews held on each of the issues. Be able to presenteach point of view and discuss the give-and-takethat allowed people with differing opinions toreach an agreement. Did any of the compromisescause a problem? Could conflict have been avoided?

ground Railroad. You have been told that ablack slave from a nearby farm is to besmuggled into Indian Territory, where otherfamily members live with the Creek Indians.Plan how you will get the slave into IndianTerritory.

Exploring Technology1. Use your favorite search engine to research

the lives of any three of the following CivilWar leaders: Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant,Stand Watie, James G. Blunt, Albert Pike,Douglas Cooper.

2. Use your Internet research skills to find outwho Quantrill’s Raiders were and for whatthey were best known.

3. Search the Internet to find out aboutdifferent Civil War reenactments that areheld in Oklahoma each year.a. List at least two of the battles that are

reenacted and indicate which Oklahomatown is nearby each one.

b. Make a list of events and activities thattake place during your two reenactments.

Building Skills Reaching CompromisesBuilding Skills Reaching Compromises

Documents

OK 2006 09 - Mr. Keller's Oklahoma History Classkellersclass.com/uploads/OK_LofC_Ch9.pdf · Signs of the TimesP News Cartoonist Thomas Nast joined the staff of Harper’s Weekly in