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LT202 Week 3

Coleridge and Wordsworth: Lyrical Ballads

Today’s lecture is about one of the most significant collections of

poetry in English literature: a collection of poems that marks a

watershed, or key point, in the development of modernity, first

published towards the end of the French Revolutionary decade in the

year 1798: Lyrical Ballads. (I hope you have enjoyed reading the

poems, or that you will enjoy them in the next few days. They are

wonderful, mostly short examples of Romantic poetry). Lyrical Ballads

is regarded as a fundamental text to English Romanticism, a literary,

artistic and philosophical movement that occurred alongside similar

movements in Germany, France, and Italy between the Enlightenment

and the Victorian Period, and mainly between the American War of

Independence and the passing of the first Great Reform Act in 1832.

Although a collaborative project by William Wordsworth and Samuel

Taylor Coleridge, Lyrical Ballads was first published anonymously in

London in 1798 following the circulation of a private ‘test’ edition

earlier in that year which was published in Bristol. The private edition

deserves mentioning, not least because it was printed by the

Dissenting publisher Joseph Cottle, whilst the London, official first

public edition was published by J. Arch. Bristol at the end of the

eighteenth-century was not only a port connected with the slave trade

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and its produce, but also – conversely - a centre where reformers and

radicals gathered. I will say more about publishers later.

Lyrical Ballads ran through three further editions after 1798,

published respectively in 1800, 1802 and 1805. Whereas the first

edition contained 23 poems (the privately circulated volume had 24),

the successive editions contained many more. You can compare the

different editions on line at the Romantic Circles electronic editions

archive (the link is provided on ORB and Moodle). Indeed, the second

edition and other editions ran into two volumes whilst the first was a

small, unassuming single book. Besides an increase in the number of

poems, Wordsworth added his name (but not Coleridge’s) to the

second and subsequent editions along with a lengthy essay that he

wrote theorizing what constituted good poetry and the basic conditions

for poetic composition. That essay is usually referred to as “The

‘Preface’ to Lyrical Ballads,’ or even simply as “Wordsworth’s Preface.”

I will spend a few moments talking about it, because it is a

philosophical treatise and one of the most important theoretical

studies of the nature of poetry in English literature. In the “Preface,”

Wordsworth explains “why I have chosen subjects from common life,

and endeavoured to bring my language near to the real language of

men.” He further argues that “all good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of

powerful feelings . . . by a man who being possessed of more than usual organic

sensibility had also thought long and deeply.” Reflection during moments of tranquility,

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on the everyday events of life and the intense feelings of love, sympathy, loss and pain

that produce, in such a way that original feelings are recreated to be contemplated at a

distance of time, is the key to the “Preface.” That privileging of the philosophical power

of the ordinary man’s life and imagination is one of the most modern aspects of Lyrical

Ballads and of Romanticism. I have long thought of Lyrical Ballads as a collection that

re-democratizes poetry by dispensing with the idea that a high education is necessary. A

heightened sense of feeling and the ability recapture moments of epiphany through

thought are the only necessary qualities for a poet, according to Wordsworth. Johnny

Foy, the Idiot Boy, is a poet when he produces ecstatic speech - after a poem in which he

can only make noises that Wordsworth captures phonetically (Burr, burr—now

Johnny’s lips they burr, / As loud as any mill):

Now Johnny all night long had heard The owls in tuneful concert strive; No doubt too he the moon had seen; For in the moonlight he had been From eight o’clock till five.

And thus to Betty’s question, he Made answer, like a traveller bold, (His very words I give to you,) “The cocks did crow to-whoo, to-whoo, “And the sun did shine so cold.”

The Idiot Boy was one of the poems in the first edition of Lyrical

Ballads. The “Preface’ was in many ways a response to criticism that

had followed publication of the first edition, an attempt to explicate the

poems in retrospect. Indeed, the “Preface” is like a retrospective

manifesto not only for Lyrical Ballads and Wordsworth’s poems more

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generally, but for Romanticism itself. The extra materials in the

second and subsequent editions of Lyrical Ballads - the added poems

and the Preface - were mainly by Wordsworth. Lyrical Ballads

therefore really needs to be understood as a collaborative venture and

a developing and unfolding series, rather than as a single book. The

balance shifts from a joint venture towards Wordsworth after the first

edition. The fluid nature of the volume’s composition - we might

describe it as an organic process - is one of the reasons why it is so

important to English Literature. The revision of the series through

those four main editions is itself a manifestation of modernity - both a

symptom and a cause of change - because that processes that made

successive editions possible was brought about by material

improvements in printing technology in the late eighteenth century

that made it cheaper, easier, and quicker to revise books.

The poems in Lyrical Ballads were themselves experimental, as

mentioned in the Advertisement that preceded them in the first

edition:

“The majority of the following poems are to be

considered as experiments. They were written

chiefly with a view to ascertain how far the

language of conversation in the middle and

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lower classes of society is adapted to the

purposes of poetic pleasure.”

(Advertisement to Lyrical Ballads 1798).

Above all, though, Lyrical Ballads announced its experimental nature

up front, even before reader read those lines from the Advertisement.

The title itself promised something unusual: Lyrical Ballads. Readers

could not but expect something different from what they were used to,

even though the apparent forms of the poems acknowledged tradition

rather than rejecting it. Let’s look at the title for a moment: just what

are Lyrical Ballads? Lyrical poetry and ballads are traditionally quite

different forms of verse, traceable to different origins in classical

literature, then passing across and down through folklore. Lyrical

poetry is concerned with feeling, emotion and thought, whilst ballads -

a narrative poetic form - tell a story. Lyrical poetry in the Western

Tradition evolved from ancient Greek poetry as far back as Sappho and

a group of other lyricists in the 7th century BC, in which the feelings

and passions of individuals were the main subject matter rather than

the exploits and deeds of heroes that comprised the narratives of

heroic and epic poetry. Indeed, lyric poetry arose as a counterpoint to

the narratives of epic and heroic poetry. The choruses in Greek drama

tend to be lyrical in style, as they reflect the thoughts with which the

audience can identify rather than the narrative that the play drives

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along. Both forms of poetry derive from oral traditions, and there lies

the common ground between them. Both forms were originally sung or

chanted, and they had passed down through the centuries into the

folklore forms of songs (lyrical) and ballads. Lyrical poems may have

elements of narrative, and ballads may describe feelings and thoughts,

but Wordsworth’s and Coleridge’s equal weighting of the two forms -

Lyrical Ballads - must have suggested to readers in 1798 and the early

1800s a rather unusual reworking of traditional forms. The

Advertisement that I have already mentioned is very important, as it

anticipates those new forms and prepares readers for something quite

unusual.

You must have noticed in your reading of Lyrical Ballads that

some of the poems look like more or less like ballads - “The Rhyme of

the Ancyent Marinere,” “Goody Blake and Harry Gill,” “Lines Written at

a Small Distance from my House,” “Simon Lee the Old Huntsman,”

“We are Seven” and “The Idiot Boy,” for example - whilst others bear

no formal resemblance to ballad form - “ The Foster Mother’s Tale,”

“Old Man Travelling,” “Complaint of Forsaken Indian Woman,” and

“Lines Written a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey,” for example. In all of

these cases, however, elements of ballad form are both present and

changed. Even the most ballad-like of the poems are profoundly

concerned with the feelings and imagination of individuals. The poems

all privilege the imagination of the poet and an individual subject or

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interlocutor (the narrator or a character in the poem). “The Complaint

of a Forsaken Indian Woman” imagines the last thoughts of a dying

woman, as she regrets having to leave her child to others to raise. The

narrative is full of symbolic meaning, and sympathy is the key to the

poem - as is shown in these last lines:

My fire is dead, and snowy white The water which beside it stood; The wolf has come to me to-night, And he has stolen away my food. For ever left alone am I, Then wherefore should I fear to die?

My journey will be shortly run, I shall not see another sun, I cannot lift my limbs to know If they have any life or no. My poor forsaken child! if I For once could have thee close to me, With happy heart I then would die, And my last thoughts would happy be. I feel my body die away, I shall not see another day.

Note that the woman - a fictitious narrator - thinks sympathetically of

her child, and the love that she will no longer be able to give it, rather

than of the physical pain of her own death. Her love for her child is

expressed simply, yet in proportions that are overwhelming. Such an

expression of sympathy and love in the most dire of situations is a

typically Romantic trope which, in its turn, elicits the sympathy of the

reader for the fictional Indian woman and, by association, for everyone

who must die and leave loved ones behind in the world.

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“We are Seven,” another of the poems, privileges the

imagination of a child, which is set against the apparent realism and

wisdom of the adult interlocutor who tells the story. But Wordsworth

gives the little maid has the last word, as she adamantly insists that if

her dead brother and sisters have lived, they cannot ‘unexist.’ The

interlocutor becomes increasingly frustrated, and again the reader is

drawn to sympathize with the maid in a poem that is ultimately

uplifting because optimistic in appalling circumstances (the death of

siblings, however commonplace in the late eighteenth century is

represented in the poem as intensely personal).

They poems in Lyrical Ballads emphasize the value of events

concerning ordinary people and their lives - even the Rime of the

Ancyent Marinere, with all its gothic imagery and supernatural

suggestion, is the tale of a seemingly common sailor. Such

celebrations of the power of the imagination, and the attempt to take

poetry back to simple events which are closer to nature, are key

features of what we call Romantic writing. Sympathy for the poor and

the unfortunate in society is a key aspect of the poems, as is the

remembrance of past events years after they happen. That, indeed, is

the theme in the poem that is usually considered the most difficult for

students, but which is one of the most important poems in the English

language, Lines Written a few Miles above Tintern Abbey. Consider

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these lines from the opening of that poem, looking at the way in which

they emphasize the passing of time and the motif of return:

Five years have passed; five summers, with the lengthOf five long winters! and again I hearThese waters, rolling from their mountain-springsWith a sweet inland murmur.—Once againDo I behold these steep and lofty cliffs,Which on a wild secluded scene impressThoughts of more deep seclusion ; and connect

The landscape with the quiet of the sky.The day is come when I again reposeHere, under this dark sycamore, and viewThese plots of cottage-ground, these orchard-tufts,Which, at this season, with their unripe fruits,Among the woods and copses lose themselves,Nor, with their green and simple hue, disturbThe wild green landscape.

Motifs of remembrance that mark the passing of time, seeing changes

that have occurred over five years through the imaginative lens of the

poet’s memory on which they are impressed, are features that we

associate with Romantic writing. The anxiety that marks the

fragmentary nature of memory is a commonplace feature of modernity

and modern literature. Change itself seems a small matter in the early

lines of Tintern Abbey. The narrator continues:

Once again I see / These hedge-rows, hardly hedge-rows, little lines /

Of sportive wood run wild

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But the poem soon becomes a philosophical reflection on the way that

time affects our lives, our consciences, and the way we understand the

very nature of existence. The narrator (remember that this poem by

Wordsworth was first published anonymously) thinks with sadness not

only about what has been lost to him personally, but on the tragedies

that mankind more generally suffers. He cannot fully remember what

he once was, but can only recapture a series of emotions and moments

of feeling:

I cannot paintWhat then I was. The sounding cataractHaunted me like a passion: the tall rock,The mountain, and the deep and gloomy wood,Their colours and their forms, were then to meAn appetite: a feeling and a love,That had no need of a remoter charm,By thought supplied, or any interestUnborrowed from the eye.—That time is past,And all its aching joys are now no more,And all its dizzy raptures. Not for thisFaint I, nor mourn nor murmur: other giftsHave followed, for such loss, I would believe,Abundant recompence. For I have learnedTo look on nature, not as in the hourOf thoughtless youth, but hearing oftentimesThe still, sad music of humanity.

This is obviously profoundly lyrical poetry, although there is a narrative

element attaching to the plot of passing time and the revisiting of

place. Still later in Tintern Abbey, these early feelings of melancholy

and loss turn to joy and wonder as the poet senses with exhilaration

that he is part of the grand scheme of creation that has been unfolding

since time began and will go on unfolding into eternity:

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A presence that disturbs me with the joyOf elevated thoughts ; a sense sublimeOf something far more deeply interfused,Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns,And the round ocean, and the living air,And the blue sky, and in the mind of man,A motion and a spirit, that impelsAll thinking things, all objects of all thought,And rolls through all things.

Finally, there is the return to nature, the everyday world that is around

the poet, and the desire to share his experience with the dear

companion (in this case, Wordsworth’s beloved sister Dorothy is the

friend addressed). The effect is similar to catharsis, although not quite

the same, but the protagonist is the ordinary man, the poet himself:

Therefore am I still A lover of the meadows and the woods,And mountains; and of all that we beholdFrom this green earth; of all the mighty worldOf eye and ear, both what they half-create,*

And what perceive; well pleased to recognizeIn nature and the language of the sense,The anchor of my purest thoughts, the nurse,The guide, the guardian of my heart, and soulOf all my moral being

. . .

wilt thou then forgetThat on the banks of this delightful streamWe stood together; and that I, so longA worshipper of Nature, hither came,Unwearied in that service: rather sayWith warmer love, oh! with far deeper zealOf holier love. Nor wilt thou then forget,That after many wanderings, many yearsOf absence, these steep woods and lofty cliffs,

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And this green pastoral landscape, were to meMore dear, both for themselves, and for thy sake.

I will continue to explain why all of these features were so important to

Romantic writing and to Modernity throughout the rest of this lecture,

with reference to more of the poems that demonstrate the

experimental nature of Lyrical Ballads.

Lyrical Ballads is now recognized as one of the founding works of

Romanticism, although Coleridge and William Wordsworth would not

have recognized it as such. They could not have done so, because in

1798 the Romantic movement was still very new (you can read more

about Romanticism in the several general books we have in the

library). What is modern about Romanticism? That is not a

straightforward question to answer, because Romantic writing took

various forms. However, a common feature amongst Romantic writers

is the privileging of the individual mind as the place where freedom of

thought is located, and a corresponding interest in the natural world as

a conduit for imaginative thought. Romantic saw the natural world not

in terms of landownership and property, but as a counterpoint to the

mind-numbing corruption of city life and commercialism. In another

poem, Wordsworth wrote: “The World is too much with us / Late and

soon, Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers/ little we see in

nature that is ours.” Nature for the Romantics contained the spirit of a

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creative power - God, in the case of Wordsworth and Coleridge who

both help deeply rooted Christian beliefs. That is why the Ancyent

Mariner is redeemed when, after his mindless act of violence against a

sinless creature (the Albatross, which can be read symbolically as an

allegory of Christ) he sees beauty in the lowliest of all creatures, the

sea-snakes that he has previously found so hideous. In a moment of

involuntary emotion, he blesses them unawares and experiences

spontaneous feelings of joy and redemption.

Beyond the shadow of the ship       I watch’d the water-snakes: They mov’d in tracks of shining white; And when they rear’d, the elfish light       Fell off in hoary flakes.

Within the shadow of the ship       I watch’d their rich attire:Blue, glossy green, and velvet blackThey coil’d and swam; and every track      Was a flash of golden fire.

O happy living things! no tongue       Their beauty might declare: A spring of love gusht from my heart,      And I bless’d them unaware! Sure my kind saint took pity on me,       And I bless’d them unaware.

The self-same moment I could pray;       And from my neck so free The Albatross fell off, and sank       Like lead into the sea.

I mentioned earlier that Lyrical Ballads was made possible by the

growing commercialization of the book trade and technological

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developments in printing and paper manufacture in the eighteenth

century, which I mentioned to you last week. I would like now to turn to

some of the material historical contexts of the collection. The first

edition was neither expensive nor cheap to buy – an ordinary,

everyday product in its material form, if you like, that did not seek to

draw attention to itself in very obvious ways. In fact, despite Lyrical

Ballads subsequent importance as a ground-breaking work of

literature, and the ambivalent traditional-yet-modern form of the

poems themselves, the material book in which it was printed looked no

different from thousands of other books published at the same time

[See facsimile and title pages of editions on slides ].

We should also think of the various editions within their historical

contexts of the French Revolutionary and early Napoleonic years (that

is, 1789-1799 as the French Revolutionary years, and 1800-1815 and

the years of the Napoleonic wars).Those were years in which Britain

was almost continually at war with France and intermittently at war

with the United States. Radical movements calling for social and

political changes were regarded by the establishment as dangerously

revolutionary, and were ruthlessly repressed by the institutions of

State, including the law. To be a radical was to live in a dangerous

situation, where legal prosecution or beating by Church and King mobs

were very real dangers. Coleridge and Wordsworth were both initial

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supporters of the French Revolution, but they quickly withdrew from

that support when the events of the terror took place in 1793 and

1794. Wordsworth in particular had lived for a while in France, and had

left a young woman partner there pregnant. His guilt at leaving

Annette Vallon and his daughter, and at supporting a revolution which

collapsed into the bloodshed of the guillotine, haunts his poetry

thereafter. If we look back at “Lines written a few miles above Tintern

Abbey” published in 1798, the ‘five years’ that are mentioned as

having passed go back to 1793 and just before the Terror, when the

poet fled from France. The redemptive qualities of nature and time that

are invoked in “Tintern Abbey” can be read as God’s and the natural

world’s healing process for the events that had torn apart both the

poet’s life and France.

The late eighteenth century also saw huge changes in the

appearance and socio-economic structures of the British countryside,

with the Enclosures Acts disrupting communities and forcing families to

become more mobile. Thirdly, despite Britain’s involvement in wars

against France, exploration and the extension of trade in distant parts

of the world were stimulating yet further interest in exotic, mysterious

and previously unknown locations and as well as in human difference

or “otherness.” Lyrical Ballads is a profoundly political collection of

poetry that addresses each of those areas of concerns, as well as a

work of philosophical and literary innovation. Let’s look at some

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pointers to help you think about the ways in which Lyrical Ballads, in its

various editions, constitutes a politically engaged “version of

modernity.”

For example, how does other early Romantic print culture

compare with Lyrical Ballads as a version of modernity? Well, the

material ordinariness of appearance that I have mentioned could not

be said to apply to William Blake’s work, in books such as Songs of

Innocence and Experience – published earlier in the same decade as

Lyrical Ballads. Blake’s Songs similarly comprised a collection of song-

like poems with lyrical, socio-political themes and they are certainly,

similarly innovative works of first-generation Romanticism. Blake’s

songs can, indeed, usefully be compared and contrasted with Lyrical

Ballads as poetically innovative and socially-aware literature of the

1790s. Blake’s books are what we called “illuminated books” – drawing

on medieval traditions of vividly and allegorically illustrated text, but

with radically updated poems, themes and imagery. He hand engraved

and coloured his books himself, with the help of his wife. Each book is

materially unique – unlike Lyrical Ballads. And the number of copies

that could be produced meant that circulation was necessarily limited.

That was simply not the case with Lyrical Ballads, where the circulation

of an ordinary-looking book (with no illustrations) was determined by

public demand through sales and subscriptions and the economy of

sales figures. (William St. Clair’s The Reading Nation in the Romantic

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Period gives details of the number of copies printed and sold of all of

the primary works I will mention today – you might find that book,

which is in the library – very interesting as a guide to what people

bought by way of literature.)

I have mentioned editions several times. If you compare the

Romantic Circles electronic archive editions with your own volume, you

will see that the order of the original poems changes completely with

the 1800 second edition. You might like to think about why those

changes might have been made. Without any doubt, they privilege

Wordsworth’s contributions over Coleridge’s poems, and they point to

Wordsworth’s emphasis on his own ideas in the “Preface” that poetry

should be about the circumstances and events of everyday life,

because it is there that the most genuine feelings between human

beings are to be found. The poems “The Female Vagrant,” “Goody

Blake and Harry Gill,” “The Idiot Boy,” “We are seven,” “Old Man

Travelling” all bear out that belief. “Lines Written a few Miles Above

Tintern Abbey” begins with its theme of reflection upon revisiting the

site of an earlier emotional experience, thereby foregrounding

Wordsworth’s major argument in the “Preface” that poetry needs be

the result of reflection in moments of tranquility after an initial

overflow of powerful feeling. Those reflections can go on happening,

and they can be concerned with events from minutes or from years

before. “Tintern Abbey” looks back five years, whereas Johnnies’ poetic

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exclamation at the end of “The Idiot Boy” is concerned with the

experiences of the night before. Coleridge did not contribute any new

poems to Lyrical Ballads after the 2nd edition. Whereas the first edition

was published anonymously, Wordsworth’s name (but not Coleridge’s)

was on the title page of each subsequent edition. Next, and of

fundamental importance. Wordsworth’s great treatise on what good

poetry ought to be and on what makes a “good” poet, the “Preface”

was added in 1800, and even the order in which the original poems

appears was changed: for example, “Old Man Travelling: Animal

Tranquility and Decay, a Sketch: ” was placed third in the second

edition, after two new poems. Meanwhile, the “Rime of the Ancyent

Marinere” and “Lines Written a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey” - first

and last in the first edition, and both poems with philosophical themes

of revisiting past experiences, of heightened emotional response, and

of a yearning for inner peace through creative imaginative activity, but

with entirely different approaches to their subject matter, - were

respectively moved to second from last and last in the first volume of

the second edition. One of Wordsworth’s new poems for the collection,

“Michael: a Pastoral Poem,” – another philosophical poem about hope,

loss, and the fragmentation cause by change (the pile of unhewn

stones that were to have become a sheepfold built by father and son is

profoundly symbolic) concluded the second, 1800 edition. I will suggest

some reasons for those alterations of order, as they say something

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about the nature and values of modern poetry as Wordsworth and

Coleridge – increasingly differently - saw them.

Well, Lyrical Ballads is the first text that you will have read on

Versions of Modernity Last week, I talked to you about the overall

scope of the course, addressing what we mean by “modernity” and

how we intend to approach different versions of that concept through a

series of literary works. In terms of anxieties addressed by Lyrical

Ballads, some key features define problems and anxieties confronted

by literary and artistic modernity in general. Those anxieties including

the relationship between the desire for continuity and a disturbing

reality of fragmentation – social and concerned with cultural memory,

but also in terms of the individual’s desire for a secure sense of

identity. Lyrical Ballads directly confronts anxieties about social

change and fears of alienation. Those are also key themes in many of

other the texts that you will be reading on the module. They are

modern, but by no means new issues, for anxieties about change in

society stretch back through deep cultural memories and literary

traditions to before Homer, and are still features of works published

today, in the twenty-first Century. What does change in modernity is

the rapidity with which historical contexts and new circumstances

shape lives. So why did we choose Lyrical Ballads as your first text and

in what ways do the poems in that collection represent a key moment

in the development of Modernity? Those are good questions, to which a

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range of answers are necessary. I hope you will look for your own ideas

alongside those that I am proposing in the space of this brief lecture.

Obviously, a project that shapes the future of poetry through

innovation and experimentation – which Lyrical Ballads states as its

aim - implies a “modern” approach. However, it is impossible to give a

hard-and-fast definition of what actually constitutes “modernity,” in

writing from 1798 – 212 years ago now. Most of you will have looked

last year, at why the French Revolution - and the American Revolution

before it – was a moment of monumental significance in the shaping of

western cultural, political, social and intellectual modernity. What is

certain is that something is immediately evident in Lyrical Ballads that

identifies the collection as an instance of experimental and progressive

writing for its time. The title gives us our first clue, which is further

revealed when read alongside the Advertisement at the front of the

collection and then exemplified in the poems themselves.

Wordsworth’s “preface” to the second and subsequent editions

comprises one of the most important essays in English literature on the

nature of poetry, its “proper” subject matter, and the creative

processes of the poet’s mind.

I have put some key extracts from the Advertisement and from

the preface onto a PowerPoint presentation that will be available on

the CMR shortly after this lecture.

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In the time that we have left today, I want to offer a close

reading of “Old Man Travelling: Animal Tranquility and Decay.” It is a

short enough poem for us to consider in the space of a lecture and one

that bears out what I have said. [reading of Old Man Travelling as a

poem that turns from the mundane to the extraordinary, overturning

the nature, organic progression from one generation to another.

Some further reading:

M. H. Abrams, The Mirror and the Lamp, Oxford: Oxford UP, 1953.

Groundbreakaing in its time and still an important work on the

Romantic Imagination.

Richard Holmes, Coleridge: Early Visions, London: Hodder and

Stoughton, 1989. [Good on the composition and context of the “Rime

of the Ancyent Marinere” and Lyrical Ballads generally.]

William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lyrical Ballads, 2nd

Edition, Ed. Michael Mason. Preface John Mullan. Edinburgh: Pearson,

2006. [Excellent introduction and valuable extra materials.]

Duncan Wu, Romanticism: an Anthology, 4th Edition. Malden, M.A.:

Wiley Blackwell, 2012. [Section on Lyrical Ballads.]

Journals:

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European Romantic Review. Not in the Library, so please ask me.

Romanticism: River Wye number July 2013, and essays in other

numbers.

Studies in Romanticism.