Organisational Socialization Chow

Int. J. of Human Resource Management 13:4 June 2002 720-737 I ? Routledge^ g ^ Taylor 6. Francis Grot

Organizational socialization and careersuccess of Asian managers

Irene Hau-Siu Chow

Abstract This study proposed a new framework to conceptualize organizationalsocialization. It examined two broad socialization strategies: perceived organizationalsupport and developmental experience and their relationships with career success. Datawere obtained from interviews with 374 line managers and human resource managers infour industrial sectors in five Asia countries/societies, namely, Singapore, Hong Kong,Taiwan, Japan and Thailand. There is partial suppori for the predicted relationships. Theresults from the present study add to our understanding of how organizationalsocialization affects career success. Implications for research and managerial practices, aswell as future research directions, are provided.

Keywords Socialization; organizational support; developmental experience; careersuccess.

Introduction

Socialization, like induction and orientation, prepares an individual for a smoothtransition between jobs or organizations. It is the process by which an individualacquires the knowledge and skills needed to perfonn his or her job. Socialization is achange process involving the transmission of important norms and values to employees.New employees have a strong desire to be accepted; they attempt to intemalize the waythings are done in the organization. The basic objective of organizational socializationis to maintain control by ensuring the employees conform to and share the same normsand values as those of the organization. Through the socialization process, employeesleam and perform the desired behaviour. It helps the organization meet its need forproductive employees while enabling new employees to meet their needs. It is generallybelieved that effective socialization will help employees achieve maximum productivityin the shortest period of time, reduce anxiety level and thus reduce the tumover rate.Such effort can be best reflected by the level of job satisfaction, organizationalcommitment and expected organizational tenure.

Socialization is a well-researched area and has attracted much attention (Bauer et al.,1998; Chao et al., 1994; Allen and Meyer, 1990; Morrison, 1993; Van Maanen andSchein, 1979; Vanous, 1992). There is considerable body of literature on this topic. Thedefinition of organizational socialization generally refers to the process through whichindividuals change from outsiders to functioning members of an organization. VanMaanen and Schein defined the organizational socialization process as 'the process bywhich an individual acquires the social knowledge and skills necessary to assume an

Irene Hau-Siu Chow, Department of Management, The Chinese University of Hong Kong,Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, PRC (tel: +852 2609 7798; fax: +852 2603 6840; e-mail:[email protected]).

The Intemationat Journat of Human Resource ManagetnetitISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online © 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd

http://www.tandf.co.uk/journalsDOI: 10.1080/09585190210125877

Chow: Organizational socialization and career success 721

organization role' (1979: 211). It is a dual process, involving an organization that isseeking to influence and shape its members, and an employee who is attempting todefine an acceptable role for himself within the organization (Fisher, 1986). Both jobchange and self change are possible means by which individuals progress in careers(Granrose, 1995). Based on the literature, a broad view of organizational socializationis adopted, not just as orientation to help newcomers to adjust or reduce the anxietylevel. Socialization occurs whenever employees change roles or cross boundaries withinan organization. The socialization process may take a much longer period of time;probably it will continue throughout a career in an organization. In fact, career isviewed as a long-term bundle of socialization experience, as one moves in, through andout of various work-related roles over the span of one work life (Van Maanen andSchein, 1979; Hall, 1987). A number of studies have examined the relationship betweenprevious work experience, the task and outcomes of the socialization process using alongitudinal design (Adkins, 1995; Allen and Meyer, 1990; Ashforth and Saks, 1996;Jones, 1983; Morrison, 1993). Another focus of research has been to identify the criticalelements in the socialization process that affect career success.

Previous socialization research focused primarily on new entrants, particularly newcollege graduates or MBAs. No doubt, the first organizational experience during theinitial stage of socialization has a disproportionate infiuence over one's subsequentresponse to the organization. The present study tries to explore the relationship betweenorganizational socialization and career success of Asian managers. Individuals changeseveral jobs during the different stages of their career. Socialization is not restricted tonew entrants. This study extends the socialization process to include job changeexperience, the leaming and adjustment process as a person moves along his or hercareer path. Hall (1987) viewed careers as a long-term bundle of social experience.Therefore, job transition, coaching and mentoring, training and development arespecific facets of socialization processes. Research finding also supports the propositionthat, at the later stage of a career, socialization will explain more variance in person-organization (P-0) fit than person variable will (Chatman, 1989: 345).

The major gaps identified in the literature are: (1) there is a lack of empirical studiesevaluating socialization effectiveness based on critical socialization content and (2) therelationship between socialization process and career success has not been examinedempirically across Asian countries. The present study will fill the gaps by exploringsocialization and career progression in five Asian countries and societies.

Review of relevant literature

Organizational socialization can be viewed from two different approaches, namely thestages approach and the contextual factors approach.

Socialization process

The stages of socialization have been investigated by several scholars and researchers(Feldman, 1976; Buchanan, 1974; Porter et al., 1975; Schein, 1978). These modelsfocus on the sequence and timing of change that occur when newcomers are transferredfrom outsiders to insiders. The stage model suggests three distinct phases. The firststage is 'anticipatory' socialization when newcomers prepare themselves for entry intothe organization. This is followed by 'accommodation' when newcomers first join theorganization and begin to master their job, develop relationships with co-workers andleam how the organization operates. The final stage is reached when newcomersbecome fully accepted members of the organization. Vanous (1992) synthesized the

722 The International Journal of Human Resource Management

studies and integrated these models into a single view of post-entry organizationalsocialization. The different stages include (1) confronting and accepting organizationalreality, (2) achieving role clarity, (3) locating oneself in the organizational context and(4) detecting signposts of successful socialization. The faster a newcomer movesthrough these stages of socialization, the faster the individual will fit into the neworganization. One criticism of the stage models is that they do not provide insight intohow the changes occur (Morrison, 1993).

Socialization content

The contextual factors approach identifies personal and organizational factors whichaffect the outcomes of the socialization. Previous studies, such as Adkins (1995), Allenand Meyer (1990), Vanous (1992) and Schein (1978), have examined the relationshipbetween organizational and individual variables and job change mode of adjustment.Others, such as, Meyer and Allen (1997), Ashforth and Saks (1996), Granrose (1995)and Chatman (1991), suggest that variables at the individual, job and organization levelcan have an impact on the individual's career success. Morrison's (1993) view ofsocialization process consists of four elements:

1 developing a sense of task competence (getting things done is an importantelement)

2 work role clarity (leaming one's role within the work group is another criticaltask)

3 realistic expectations (the extent to which a newcomer perceives aspects of the joband the work environment in the same way as experienced organizationalmembers)

4 interpersonal relationships on the job.

Van Maanen and Schein (1979) formulated a theory of socialization that depicts sixdimensions that organizations can use to shape newcomers in a desired way. Thesetactics can be classified into three categories. In terms of context, it includes:

1 collective vs individual - provision of common learning experience as part of a groupor single

2 formal vs informal - a set of training programmes;

in terms of content, it can be described as

3 fixed vs variable - timetable for career progression

4 sequential vs random - structured career progression, and

according to the social aspects, it can be classified along the:

5 serial vs disjunctive - trained by a predecessor or role model, and6 investiture vs divestiture - deep or reject prior identity.

The first two dimensions are self-explanatory. The next two dimensions refer to theprogression of roles that the individual assumes. Sequential socialization providesindividuals with a well-understood path for their career with the organization. The fixedchoice indicates that there is a narrow range for the time the organization expects aperson to be in any particular capacity. The serial/disjunctive dimension involves theextent that direct supervisors held the roles now occupied by incumbents. Serialarrangements provide an individual with a very knowledgeable role model. The lastdimension, investiture/divestiture evaluates the degree to which previous values and


identities must be dismantled and replaced by new ones in the socialization process.These measures have been used in several studies and the evidence indicates a linkbetween perceived socialization experiences and outcomes such as commitment (Allenand Meyer, 1990; Ashforth and Saks, 1996).

Jones (1986) further proposed that these six dimensions can be captured in a singlecontinuum which he labeled 'institutionalized vs. individualized' socialization. Theinstitutionalized tactics represent collective, fixed, sequential, serial and investituretactics at one end of the continuum. These tactics suggest a systematic, planned set ofactivities designed by the organization to transmit the socialization content to thenewcomers. The individualized tactics represent individual, informal, variable, random,disjunctive and divestiture tactics at the opposite end of the continuum; they place theonus for the acquisition of socialization content on the newcomer. The institutionalizedapproach aims mainly at providing newcomers with detailed knowledge about work-related issues while the individualized approach depends largely on individuals to seekinformation. The 'institutionalized' approach tends to produce newcomers who strictlyconform to organizational norms and values while the 'individualized' approach tendsto produce newcomers who are creative individualists (Vanous, 1992). Orpen (1995)empirically tested the effects of institutionalized and individualized tactics withmeasures of career satisfaction and success. There was a strong negative relationshipbetween perceptions of institutionalized tactics and career satisfaction. In contrast, astrongly positive relationship existed between initial perceived individualized tacticsand later career satisfaction. Neither perceived institutionalized tactics nor in-dividualized tactics was related to the two indicators of career success, that is, numberof promotions received and annual salary growth three years later.

Chao et al. (1994) developed a method of classifying organizational socializationcontent multi-dimensionally. They identified six content areas that are potentiallysubject to direct influence by organizations through their socialization practices:

1 performance proficiency - learning to perform the tasks2 people - establishing successful and satisfying work relationships with organizational

members3 politics - gaining information regarding formal and informal work relationships and

power structures within the organization4 language - knowing the profession's technical language as well as knowing the

acronyms, slang and jargon that are unique to the organization5 organizational goals and values - understanding the rules or principles that maintain

the integrity of the organization6 history - including the organization's traditions, customs, myths, rituals, personal

background of a particular organization's members and stories.

Research in socialization has increased in both quantity and quality over the last twodecades (Fisher, 1986; Bauer et al., 1998). However, most of the studies onsocialization have been conducted mainly within US companies. Despite the rapidgrowth in the Asian countries, relatively little is known about the socialization processin Asia. This points to a clear need for more cross-cultural study on socialization.Taormina (1998) developed a measure of organizational socialization that included fourdimensions: training, understanding company policies and operations, co-workersupport and future prospects within the employing organization. The measuringinstrument was developed and validated by using samples of Chinese in the People'sRepublic of China, Hong Kong and Singapore.


Outcomes of socialization process

Researchers have tended to assess the outcomes of socialization with general attitudinalmeasures, such as job satisfaction, commitment, intention to quit, subjective perform-ance, etc. Previous literature suggests that the socialization process may affect workoutcomes in terms of organizational commitment, job satisfaction and turnoverintention (Mobley et al., 1979; Meyer and Allen, 1997; Vanous, 1992). Chao et al.(1994) found the contents of organizational socialization were positively and sig-nificantly related to employee attitudes such as organizational commitment and jobsatisfaction. It is possible that socialization will be more effective in fosteringcommitment if the content is appropriate to different career stages (Ostroff andKozlowski, 1992). At the entry level, new hires might be influenced most byinformation that helps them understand their role and become competent with their task,while more experienced employees might be more influenced by information ofrelevance to upward movement, such as politics. Therefore, different approaches toinformation-seeking strategy may be related to different outcome variables.

Employees may experience anxieties within an organization because the organiza-tional socialization practices affected their values. The perceived values congruencebetween person and organization results in a number of positive work outcomes.Employees perceiving more P - 0 fit with their organization will (1) experience greaterorganizational commitment, (2) experience greater job satisfaction and (3) report lowerintention to quit. Wanous et aL (1992), based on a meta-analysis of thirty-one studieswith 17,241 newcomers, found that met expectations were positively related to jobsatisfaction, organizational commitment, intent to remain, job performance and jobsurvival. The P - 0 fit literature suggests that individuals will remain longer in anorganization that they feel compatible with (Kristof, 1996). It is expected that higherlevels of person-organization fit will be positively related to job attitudes andnegatively related to turnover intention.

Fisher (1986) characterized socialization as a learning and change process. Thepurpose of socialization is to facilitate learning about various aspects of theorganizational environment, including history, goals, people, performance proficiencyand politics. Learning or knowledge acquisition can be linked to some developmentalactivities. Socialization is affected by both organizational and individual initiatives.Employees take an active role in learning while organizations will provide the supportto facilitate such learning. The present study does not focus on new entrants, but seescontinued organizational support and development experiences as more crucialthroughout the career of the individuals. Time on the job was a good predictor of job-related learning. Pinder and Schroeder (1987) found that time to gain proficiencyfollowing a job change varies depending upon perceived support and the similaritybetween old and new positions. Peers, supervisors and mentors are very important infacilitating adjustment. Ostroff and Kozlowski (1993) pointed out that newcomers withmentors learn more about their organization than newcomers without mentors. In thepresent study, organizational socialization is conceptualized as perceived organizationalsupport and developmental experience. Based on the literature reviewed, the proposedframework of the study is given in Figure 1.

Hypotheses

Nelson and Quick (1991) examined socialization practices and found that formalorientation was rated as one of the most available social support resources. Heimannand Pittenger (1996) explored the impact of mentorship on socialization. Employees


SOCIALIZATION CAREERS OUTCOMES

Perceived organizational support Career satisfactionCommitment

Development experience ^ PerformanceExpected org. tenure

P-0 fit Prob. of successNo. of promotions

Figure 1 The framework of socialization and career success

with a close relationship with their mentors (spending more time with mentor andreceiving more support from mentor) reported higher levels of socialization andorganizational commitment. Jones (1986) found that institutional socialization tacticswere related to greater job satisfaction and commitment, and lower role ambiguity, roleconflict and intentions to quit, because such tactics provide information that reducesnewcomers' anxiety. Wanous (1992) showed that an accurate understanding of jobrequirements will enhance a person's adjustment to a job and career progression. Thus,perceived organizational support will lead to performance outcomes (Eisenberger et al.,1990).

HI: There is a positive relationship between perceived organizational support(coaching and mentoring, career planning workshop, career and organizationalinformation) and outcome measures in terms of organizational commitment,performance, career satisfaction, number of promotions, probability of successand expected organizational tenure.

One major function of socialization is to provide the information needed to adjustbetter to organization (Van Maanen, 1978; Miller and Jablin, 1991). Training is one ofthe most formal and planned socialization procedures (Louis et al., 1983). Trainingplays a critical role during socialization by providing newcomers with importantinformation about the organization as well as their jobs and roles. Saks (1996)examined the relationship between the amount and helpfulness of entry training andwork outcomes for newcomers during organizational socialization. The results revealedthat the amount of training received by newcomers was significantly related to jobsatisfaction, commitment, intention to quit, ability to cope and several measures of jobperformance. Sherman et al. (1986) found a significant impact of network onorganizational socialization.

H2: There is a positive relationship between developmental experience provided(training, education, access to information, career guidance, networking,growth and learning new things) and socialization outcomes.

Perceived organizational support includes discretionary practices available toemployees within the organization. It is perceived as an institutionalized investment inemployees. Development experience is more like individualized socialization becauseindividuals actively seek career guidance, opportunity for growth and learning newthings, getting more education/training and building networks. Based on the finding thatemployees are likely to be more satisfied with their careers if they have been providedwith unique individualized socialization experience, it is hypothesized that:


H3: Employees value developmental experience more highly than perceivedorganizational support.

Sample

Included in the present study are five high-growth economies in Asia, namely, Japan,Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Thailand. Japan is the engine for growth in Asia.Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan are three of the little dragons. Thailand wasconsidered to be the fifth little dragon following the Asian Newly IndustrializedCountries. The selected economic indicators of these most rapidly developed economiesare presented in Table I. Despite the meltdown of the economy after the Asian financialcrisis, demand for executives in the Asia Pacific region has bounced up. Asia was thefirst choice of 1997 Wharton MB As who took jobs outside the US (The Asia Wall StreetJournal, 3 March 1998). It offers good opportunities for middle managers to progressin the region.

In addition to the variation in economic development, these five economies also varyon different cultural dimensions. It is believed that these five countries and regionsshare certain Oriental values, such as Confucianism. Table 2 depicts the differentsocietal culture of the five countries/regions. It should be noted that Singapore is veryhigh in future orientation whereas Thailand is very low in this dimension. Collectivism

Table 1 Selected economic indicators

GDP growth (%) GDP per capita Population (million)

JapanSingaporeTaiwanHong KongThailand

Source: Asiaweek (20 February, 1998: 56)

1.010.16.95.70.6

234402461015370240858165

126.13.121.96.661.4

Table 2 Societal culture

Hong Kong Singapore Taiwan Japan Thailand

Performance orientation 4.80 4.90 4.56 4.22 3.93Future orientation 4.03 5.07 3.96 4.29 3.43Assertiveness 4.67 4.17 3.92 3.59 3.64Societal emphasis on collectivism 4.13 4.90 4.59 5.19 4.03Family collectivism 5.32 5.64 5.59 4.63 5.70Gender egalitarianism* 3.47 3.70 3.18 3.19 3.35Humane orientation 3.90 3.49 4.11 4.30 4.81Power distance 4.96 4.99 5.18 5.11 5.63Uncertainty avoidance 4.32 5.31 4.34 4.07 3.93

NotesIn general the higher score indicates greater impact in a particular dimension.* Higher scores indicate greater female orientation and lower scores indicate greater maleorientation.Source: House et al. (1999): GLOBE project database


is further divided into two dimensions, at the societal level and towards family (in-group). Japan is distinctively different from the other Asian societies in collectivism.Japan is very collective at the societal level but not collective towards the family, incontrast to other Asian countries. That explains why employees in Japanese organiza-tions make a lot of personal sacrifice for their organizations at the expense of theirfamily (Durlabhji and Ramachandram, 1993). Furthermore, Singapore is not veryhumane but strikingly high in uncertainty avoidance compared with their Asiancounterparts. This can be reflected in the government's heavy involvement in everyaspect of the Singapore society, such as the control of mass media, housing, even themarriage and number of children of Singapore citizens. The government-dependent andwelfare state environment reduces the risk-taking propensity of the Singaporean. Itis also worth noting that Thailand is very low in uncertainty avoidance but high inpower distance. It is also true that national culture permeates the boundaries oforganizations.

The present study is part of a larger study on career projects in Asia. Data wereobtained from interviews with line managers and human resource managers in fourindustrial sectors in five Asia countries/societies, namely, Singapore, Hong Kong,Taiwan, Japan and Thailand. To ensure comparability over the different countries,respondents were selected according to several criteria. The types of industries includedmanufacturing, financial services, petrochemical and public sectors. Ten to twentymanagers were drawn from each organization in all departments and at all levels. Theselected individuals had to be working for a company employing at least 200 employeesand to have worked for the same organization for at least one year. Data were collectedthrough structured interviews. The sample consisted of 374 managers from fivedifferent Asian countries and societies. The distribution of respondents and samplecharacteristics is given in Table 3. The mean age for the total sample was 47 years old,81.7 per cent were male and 81 per cent were married. There were higher percentagesof male managers for the Japan and Taiwan groups, 95 and 90 per cent respectively.The respondents were well educated, with 91.6 per cent having attained the level ofjunior college education and above. Participants had been in the labour force for anaverage of 15.8 years. On the average, they had 4.8 jobs, 2.7 promotions and worked for2.7 organizations. The Japanese had noticeably longer years of experience in the labourforce (20.6 years) and had worked for fewer organizations (1.5 against the average of2.7). The sample reflected a wide range of jobs, industries and cultural diversity.

Measures

The present study utilizes a broad array of activities to capture many aspects ofsocialization. The perceived organizational support was measured by checking out the

Table 3 Classification of the sample by industrial sectors

Country/society

SingaporeThailandJapanHong KongTaiwan

TOTAL

Sample size

21849671

102

374

Services

12246627

4

133

Manufacturing

536271664

148

Petrochemical

421

391

38

Government

000

1933

52


Table 4 Sample characteristics

Average age% married% attaining BA/BSc

& above% maleYears in labour forceNo organizations workedNo. of jobs/positions

Singapore

41.69048

52.412.93.14.95

Thailand

47.962.688

66.312.94.24.84

Japan

43.488.393

94.720.6

1.54.56

Hong Kong

46.37654.3

78.914.42.84.94

Taiwan

51.39179.2

9014.02.64.55

Total

478177.8

81.715.82.74.55

career management activities available to employees within the organization. Perceivedorganizational support refers to discretionary practices that the organization providesfor their employees. These activities include career information, coaching andmentoring, job/organization information, career planning and guidance, etc. Theresponse categories are: don't know (0), not available (1), available informally (2) andavailable formally (3).

Developmental experience was measured by these items: seek help from co-workersor friends, get more education or training, gain access to important information, builda network of contacts, seek career guidance, career opportunity, growth and learningnew things, with a measurement scale of 1 to 5.

Person-organization fit

Various methods, both direct and indirect, can be used to measure P - 0 fit inorganization studies (Kristof, 1996). In the present study, direct, subjective measure ofP - 0 fit is used. The respondents' perceptions of the P - 0 fit was measured with threeitems, 'your career goals match your organization's goals for you', 'your careertimetable matches your organization's timetable for you' and 'your career strategymatches the organization's career strategy for your future'. Responses were anchoredon a 5-point scale ranging from I (very unlikely) to 5 (very likely). The internalconsistency estimate for the three-item scale was .86.

Outcomes of socialization

Socialization processes lead directly to various desirable organizational outcomes. Theoutcomes of socialization from both the individual and organization perspectives will bereflected in effectiveness, satisfaction and commitment. In the present study, bothattitudinal and objective measures of socialization are included. Several socializationoutcomes, such as self-evaluated job performance, career satisfaction, career success,number of promotions, organizational commitment and expected organizational tenure,were recorded. These self-reported work outcomes were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale.

Career success was assessed by self-reported data: 'How likely are you to achievesuccess in your career?' The responses ranged from 1 to 5, representing five categories,from 0-20 per cent chance to 80-100 per cent chance.

Organizational commitment was measured by three items: 'This organization meansa lot to me', 'I am not part of this organizational family (R)', and 'I do not belong to


this organization (R)'. The measurement scale ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5(strongly agree). The alpha coefficient was .65.

The expected organizational tenure was measured by 'How long do you expect tocontinue working for this organization?' coded in years.

Career satisfaction was measured by 'In general, how satisfied are you with meetingyour career goals so far in your life?' The response ranged from (1) very dissatisfied to(5) very satisfied.

Performance was measured by the self-reported statement 'my job performance isexcellent' and the number of promotions the respondents reported in their careerhistory.

It is expected that socialization, in terms of perceived organizational support anddevelopmental experience, would be significantly and positively related to these criteriaof career effectiveness. Income is not a good measure of success because of thedifferent income levels and cost of living standards. It is difficult to compare acrossdifferent countries.

Results

Table 5 reports the means of all variables of the sample groups. Results from outcomemeasures indicated that, on the average, the respondents estimated a 75 per cent chanceof achieving success in their career. The average scores for self-reported performanceand career satisfaction were 3.5 and 3.2 respectively on a five-point scale. The expectedorganizational tenure on average was 8.6 years. A significant difference was notedbetween the Japanese and Singaporean managers' expected organizational tenure, 11.4years compared with 4.9 years. In terms of perceived organizational support, theJapanese organizations provided more network support but less career guidance. This isin line with the Japanese group-oriented culture and progressive career path based onseniority. The Japanese were less inclined to get more education. The Hong Kongmanagers perceived relatively slow company growth comparing with their counterpartsin the regions. In terms of developmental experience, Singapore and Hong Kongrespondents were less likely to seek help from friends. It is interesting to note that HongKong respondents were less likely to share information, while their Singaporecounterparts were given more career training and share of information. Singaporean andTaiwanese were less likely to get access to information, but the Taiwanese were morelikely to seek career guidance. To a certain extent, this reflects the differentsocialization tactics used in different Asian organizations.

Table 6 presents the correlations among the outcome variables and socializationdimensions. Looking at the correlations among the six performance and career successindicators, it is quite surprising to find that expected organization tenure was not relatedto any of these indicators. It was also negatively related to other outcome variablesexcept commitment. Career satisfaction was significantly correlated with self-reportedperformance, probability of success and commitment. Probability of success wassignificantly correlated with organizational commitment and self-reported performance.And self-reported performance was correlated with number of promotions.

Subjective P - 0 fit judgement correlated with four out of the six outcome measures,i.e. probability of success, expected organizational tenure, career satisfaction andcommitment. Expected organizational tenure and number of promotions were notcorrelated with any of the perceived organizational support activities and developmentalexperience. The result confirms the earlier finding by Orpen (1995) that career success.


Table 5 Means of variables

Singapore Thailand

Career success and performance indicatorsExpected org. tenureSelf-reported

performanceProb. of career successCareer satisfactionOrg. commitmentNo. of promotions

Person-org. fitGoals matchTime matchStrategy match

Perceived org. supportSet up a networkProvide career guidanceCoaching and mentorCareer informationCareer planning

workshopCo. growth

Developmental experienceCareer opportunitiesHelp from friendsGet more educationAccess to informationBuild a networkSeek career guidanceGrowth & learning

new thingsCareer trainingShare information

4.94

4.53.83.252.95

2.92.72.7

0.860.141.61.21.2

1.8

3.72.34.42.63.52.62.5

3.74.2

7.63.5

3.92.92.652.73

2.93.13.0

0.420.361.92.02.0

1.6

3.62.94.43.93.72.82.6

3.53.5

Japan

11.43.3

3.13.43.362.74

2.82.92.9

1.030.091.40.90.91

1.8

3.03.03.83.83.62.43.1

3.13.4

Hong Kong

7.93.8

3.63.62.992.95

2.92.62.8

0.260.141.51.61.3

0.34

3.22.04.43.23.72.62.7

3.22.3

Taiwan

8.63.5

3.733.42.37

2.82.72.7

0.720.171.31.41.4

1.0

2.83.14.32.03.43.12.5

3.03.2

Total

8.63.5

3.53.23.12.74

2.82.82.9

0.650.181.51.41.4

1.3

3.23.04.23.43.62.72.7

3.23.3

judged by promotions received and salary growth, was unaffected by how socializationtactics were used.

Regarding perceived organizational support, career satisfaction was significantlycorrelated with job/organization information and sharing information, but negativelyrelated to coaching, career planning workshop, career information, growth and learningnew things. Organizational commitment was negatively correlated with career informa-tion. Growth and learning new things was negatively correlated with organizationalcommitment and probability of success. Sharing information was significantly corre-lated with organizational commitment, career satisfaction and probability of success.On the other hand, developmental experience was not related to job satisfaction.Sharing information, career training, career opportunity, getting more education andbuilding a network were significantly correlated with perceived probability of success.Education, company growth and building a network were significantly correlated withself-reported performance. Getting more education was significantly correlated with

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organizational commitment. One general observation: there are more positive relation-ships between developmental experience and socialization outcome measures, incontrast to more negative relationships between perceived organizational support andoutcome measures. Thus H3 was supported.

Table 7 depicts the results of the analysis concerning the relationships between thesocialization process and career success, which are tested with ordinary least-squaresregression. Regression analysis using perceived organizational support revealed thatorganizational commitment and career satisfaction were significant. Organizationinformation was a significant predictor of commitment and satisfaction. Careerinformation and organization information were predictors of career satisfaction.Organization information was also a predictor of organizational commitment. Contraryto what might be expected, career planning, coaching, mentoring were not significantpredictors of organizational commitment and career satisfaction. Perhaps the respon-dents were not aware of the availability of such programmes in their organizations.

Results from the regression analysis using developmental experience showed thatfour out of six outcome measures were significant. This is consistent with thecorrelation analysis. Career opportunity, career training (negative), getting moreeducation and access to information were significant predictors of career satisfaction.Career training and building a network were significant predictors of performance.Growth and career opportunities were significant predictors of probability of careersuccess and organizational commitment.

Table 7a Regression analysis predicting outcomes using perceived organizationalsupport

Adjusted R̂Signif. F

Coaching and mentoringCareer-planning workshopCareer informationOrganization information

Commitment

.0502

.0047

-.0935.1184

-.1978-.2087*

Table 7b Regression analysis predicting outcomes using

Adjusted R̂Signif. FopGrowthCareer opport.Career trainingGet educationAccess to info.Build a networkCareer guidance

Career sat.

.08

.00

-1.43.6**

-2.2*2.0*2.3*-.91

-1.21

Preform.

.03

.02

-.05.05

-.06.13*.00.15*.41

Career satisfaction

.05415

.0005

-.0679-.0815-.1313*

.2438**

developmental experience

Psuccess

.09

.00

-.12*.20*

-.141.9-.351.68-.09

Commitment

.12

.00

-3.5**1.78.22

1.132.15*

-1.71.95

Note* p < .05; ** p < .01.


Discussion and conclusions

This study investigates the effects of developmental experience and perceivedorganizational support on employee socialization outcomes. There is partial support forthe predicted relationships in the present study. A significant regression coefficientindicated that developmental experience was positive associated with performance,probability of success, career satisfaction and organizational commitment. Conversely,perceived low support for organizational support would lessen the effectiveness of theseprogrammes. Organizations should put more effort into arousing awareness of theseprogrammes in order to utilize the available resources fully. The results from thecorrelation analysis and regression coefficients were not significant for two out of thesix outcome measures, that is, expected organizational tenure and number ofpromotions. This is consistent with the previous study by Orpen (1995), which foundthat socialization tactics were not related to either salary growth or number ofpromotions. Organizational tenure and promotion received depend much more onfactors like chance, competence and reputation. Overall, the results of this study suggestthat effective socialization can result in productive and committed employees.

Findings from the correlation and multiple regression analyses suggest thatsocialization tactics, such as access to information, career opportunity and getting moreeducation, play the most prominent role in predicting effective socialization. Weemphasize the learning dimensions and outcomes of socialization as identified in Fisher(1986) and Bauer et al. (1998). Training and education are highly valued in Asiancountries. The developmental experience helps an individual to acquire skill andcompetence and better adjust to changes in the workplace. It is an important tool andindividuals are inclined to seek information that will increase their knowledge.

Orpen's (1995) study found that perceived individualized tactics were significantlypositively related to career satisfaction, while perceived institutionalized tactics weresignificantly negatively related. From the employees' point of view, organizationalsupport or institutionalized support is perceived as less important. No organization hasthe sole responsibility for an individual's career planning. It is the individual'sresponsibility. Employees should take a more proactive role in seeking developmentalexperience. Individuals should be proactive in initiating interaction opportunities withone another and engage in more useful information seeking.

Employees enter an organization with a set of expectations about their future andcareer. Positive work outcomes develop when one's expectations are confirmed. Peoplealso differ in their needs, values and personalities. Research from the person-job fitliterature points out that an experience that is congruent with one's value or meets one'sneeds will be rewarding and thus enhance positive work outcomes (Jones, 1983; Cableand Judge, 1996). Results from the present study showed four out of the six outcomesmeasures are significantly correlated with P-O fit. P - 0 fit (met expectations) wassignificantly and positively related to organizational commitment, expected organiza-tional tenure, probability of success and career satisfaction. The present study confirmsa highly consistent positive relationship between P-O fit and socialization outcomes.The pattern of the socialization process can also be explained by cultural differences.Differences associated with national culture may also create cross-cultural variation insocialization process. Organizations in different cultures may utilize different social-ization tactics. Thus, successful socialization differs across culture. As indicated inTable 5, the types of organizational support and developmental activities will be heavilyinfluenced by national culture. There are undeniable variations in socialization among


different countries. These variations stem from radical differences in culturalenvironments.

This study makes a unique contribution to the socialization literature by developingan alternative view of effective socialization and testing empirically the relationshipbetween socialization tactics and effectiveness in terms of career success. Results fromthe present study will add to the literature and increase our understanding of howindividuals adjust to their organization throughout their career and achieve careersuccess. It is the first cross-sectional, multi-country design with heterogeneous samplesto explore the effects of socialization and career success. Jt provides meaningfulinsights into individuals' adjustment to organizations in Asia. Socialization appears tobe an important component of the process that can make a difference for career success.Results from the present study generally support the prediction that amount of supportand training would be positive related to job attitudes and performance. The results ofthe research point to research as well as to practical implications.

Research implications

The results failed to support some of the hypotheses. The lack of relationship betweenexpected organization tenure, number of promotions and socialization should beinterpreted with caution. Expected organizational tenure and number of promotionsdepend on some external factors, such as chance, growth rate of the organization andthe economy, the attractiveness of getting a job elsewhere, etc. A sample-specificexplanation for this finding of lack of relationship may be one possibility. Anotherexplanation may be due to the heterogeneity of the sample. Future research shouldcontinue exploring this issue.

This study has explored a line of research that will contribute to greaterunderstanding of the socialization and adjustment throughout the individual's career inAsian countries. It lays the groundwork for future research. By focusing on thesocialization process and examining its effectiveness, the study highlights relevantvariables that have been linked to socialization in terms of organizational support anddevelopmental experience of individual's career success. The amount and nature offormal orientation vary widely between organizations depending on size and the social-cultural context in which they are embedded. Future research should extend the presentstudy by incorporating the intensity and complementary of these socializationprogrammes in order to achieve maximum benefit.

Managerial implications

In terms of practical implementation, understanding the relationship between social-ization experiences and organizational outcomes in these Asian countries should helphuman resource managers to gain a better understanding of the content and componentsthat need to be included in their training and socialization programmes for employees.Such a knowledge base would enable HR managers to design more successfulsocialization programmes, which, in turn, would provide organizations with a morededicated workforce. They are then in a better position to anticipate the impact of aparticular policy or practice. Gaertner and Nollen (1989) found that perceptions of theorganization's adherence to career-oriented employment practices, including internalpromotion, training and development and employment security, were related tocommitment among employees in Fortune 100 manufacturing firms.

Socialization tactics can have long-lasting, beneficial consequences, extendingbeyond the early organization entry stage. Based on the findings reported in the present


study, it appears that organizations can do several things to foster a stronger sense ofcommitment and career development for their employees. Career training, getting moreeducation, building a network and sharing information are among the most importanttactics. In other words, cultivating networks and gaining access to other people'sknowledge and resource are fundamental steps in socialization and career success. Thesocialization process and content include skill training and career planning workshops.Training should be an important and integral part of the socialization process. In thepresent study, training does not show any significant impact on outcome measuresexcept probability of success. Probably organizations are not doing enough to providesufficient training to make it have a significant impact on socialization outcomes.Organizations can benefit from providing accurate information to employees during therecruitment and selection process, using socialization strategies designed to bolsteremployees' sense of self-worth, and offering training programmes to provide employeeswith the knowledge and skills they expect to do their jobs effectively. These are someof the suggestions for managing successfully the transition and effective socialization ofan individual's career. No doubt, well-designed socialization programmes contribute tosuccessful organizational experience, which in turn have been attributed to long-termcareer success.

Limitations and suggestions for future research

The present study relies on self-reported data and retrospective information provided bythe respondents. Such a method was used by Feldman (1976). The retrospective natureof reporting objective life events is more reliable than retrospective reporting of sub-jective interpretation (Jones, 1983). The common method variance problem may alsoprovide the basis for cautious interpretation of the results. To overcome potential prob-lems of common method variance of inflated bias, additional data concerning career andhuman resource activities should be collected. In the present study, interviews were alsoconducted with human resource managers to verify the accuracy of information providedin order to reduce the probability of common method variance posing a substantial threatto the validity of this study. In view of these limitations, multiple methods of assessingsocialization variables are recommended in future studies. It is suggested that, in futurestudies, in addition to self-reported subjective measures of performance, primary out-comes of socialization, such as role innovation, learning and acculturation, should beassessed by superiors and peers. Using more advanced statistical techniques, such ascausal modelling, procedures in future research will permit greater confidence in causalinference about the changes in the socialization process.

Acknowledgements

This study is part of a larger international project on career. The author would like tothank C.S. Granrose, T.K. Peng and Baba Maseo for their data collection in differentlocations.

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