Origins and Evolution of The Western Diet: Health ... Hominin Fossil Record: Plio-Pleistocene Diets As many as 22 hominin species may have existed since the evolutionary split between

©

Loren Cordain, Ph.D.

Professor

Colorado State University

Fort Collins, CO USA

Origins and Evolution of

The Western Diet:

Health Implications

for the 21st Century

Homo sapiens

H. neanderthalensis

H. antecessor

H. heidelbergensis

H. erectus

H. ergaster

Au.

rudolfensis

Au.

bahrelghazali

Au.

anamensis

Australopithecus

habilis

Au. garhi

Au.

africanus

Au. afarensis

P. robustus

Paranthropus

boisei

Ardipithecus

ramidus

Orrorin

tugenensis

Sahelanthropus

tchadensis

Kenyanthropus

platyops

P. aethiopicus

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Millio

ns o

f Y

ea

rs

The Hominin Fossil Record:

Plio-Pleistocene Diets

As many as 22 hominin species may have existed since the evolutionary split between hominins and pongids (5-7 MYA)

No universal diet existed, but rather varied by ecologic niche, season, geographic locale, availability of edible foods

Wood B. Palaeoanthropology: hominid revelations for Chad. Nature 2002:418:133-35

Pleistocene

Pliocene

H. floresiensis

Au. sediba

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet:

The Known – An Omnivorous Diet

Minimally Processed,

Wild Plants and Animals

!Kung Woman displays fruits

of her gathering: tamma melons,

grewia berries, tortoise, roots

The Diet of Our Closest Living Relatives

Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus

Primarily frugivorous

Diet varies by habitat & season

~3-5 % animal foods (small vertebrates & insects)

During the dry season meat intake may reach ~ 65 g/day in adults


An Omnivorous Diet – The Evidence

1. Schoeninger MJ, Moore J, Sept JM. Am J Primatol 1999;49:297-314

2. Teleki G. The omnivorous diet. . . In: Omnivorous Primates,Columbia Univ Press, NY, 1981

3. Stanford CB. The hunting ecology of wild chimpanzees: implications for the evolutionary

ecology of Pliocene hominids. Am Anthropol 1996;98:96-113.

Wild Chimps Eating Bushbuck

-12 -10 -8 -6 2 -4 -2 0

Chasmoporthetes

(Pliocene hyena)

Hyaena brunea

Crocuta-spotted hyena

Meganteron - sabertooth

Australopithecus africanus

P. Pardus - leopard

Paranthropus robustus

Homo

Theropithecus - Baboon

Papio sp. - Baboon

Procavia sp. - Hyrax

Suids

Grazers

Browsers

13C %o


An Omnivorous Diet – The Evidence Stable Isotopes

more C3 more C4

(Grasses, Sedges)

Lee-Thorp J et al. J Human

Evol 2000;39:565-76

A. africanus

“ It now seems inescapable that

all hominid species inhabiting the

S. African landscape from the late

Pliocene to the early Pleistocene

exploited foods of C4 grass origin

and were very likely all

omnivorous ”

Sponheimer M et al. Science 1999;283:368-70

Homo sapiens

H. neanderthalensis

H. antecessor

H. heidelbergensis

H. erectus

H. ergaster

Au.

rudolfensis

Au.

bahrelghazali

Au.

anamensis

Australopithecus

habilis

Au. garhi

Au.

africanus

Au. afarensis

P. robustus

Paranthropus

boisei

Ardipithecus

ramidus

Orrorin

tugenensis

Sahelanthropus

tchadensis

Kenyanthropus

platyops

P. aethiopicus

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Millio

ns o

f Y

ea

rs

Pleistocene

Pliocene

H. floresiensis

Au. sediba

Beginning at least 2.5 MYA, a number of lines of evidence indicate increasing reliance upon animal foods by some species of hominins

Mo

re A

nim

al

Fo

od


The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food?

How Much Animal Food?


Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence

Semaw S. et al. 2.5-million-year-old stone tools from

Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 1997;385:333-6

Oldowan Lithic Technology

First Appears 2.5-2.6 MYA


Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence Earliest Meat & Marrow Extraction (2.5 MYA)

SEM

Hammerstone

Percussion Pits

Scanning electron microscopy

of a stone cut mark on the medial

surface of an Alcelaphine bovid

(wildebeest/Hartebeest) mandible

made during tongue removal

Hammerstone pits on Bovid

right tibial midshaft made during

marrow extraction

De Heinzelin J et al. Science 1999; 284:625-29

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

Observed (65 kg Human) Expected (Similar Sized

Primate)

Org

an

We

igh

t (g

m)

Heart Heart

Kidney

Liver

Gut

Brain

Kidney

Liver

Gut

Brain


Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence The Expensive Tissue Hypothesis

Aiello LC et al. Curr Anthropol 1995;36:199-222.


Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence The Expensive Tissue Hypothesis

Chimpanzee

Modern Human

Australopithecine

Aiello LC et al. Curr Anthropol 1995;36:199-222.

INTERPRETATION:

Relaxation of selective pressure formerly requiring a large gut cause by:

Increase in dietary quality

Increase in energy density

Decrease in fibrous, high roughage plant foods

Increase in animal foods

Lake Turkana, Kenya

H. ergaster

1.65 MYA

Dmanisi, Georgia

H. ergaster/erectus

1.8 MYA Zhoukoudian, China

H. erectus

800,000 YA

Longgupo, China

H. erectus

1.9 MYA

Java

H. erectus

1.6-1.8 MYA

Java

H. erectus

~40,000 YA

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence

Northern Latitude Colonization

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: Increasing Animal Food – The Evidence

Evolutionary Biochemical Adaptations Similar to Carnivores

Cats Humans

1. Synthesis of Taurine Lacking Inefficient (Semi-conditional)

2. Synthesis of vitamin A

from beta carotene Lacking Inefficient

3. Desaturase enzymes Extremely low Low

4. Dietary B12 requirement Essential Essential

Cordain L et al. The paradoxical nature of hunter-gatherer diets:

meat based, yet non-atherogenic. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56 (suppl 1): s42-s52

Homo sapiens

H. neanderthalensis

H. antecessor

H. heidelbergensis

H. erectus

H. ergaster

Au.

rudolfensis

Au.

bahrelghazali

Au.

anamensis

Australopithecus

habilis

Au. garhi

Au.

africanus

Au. afarensis

P. robustus

Paranthropus

boisei

Ardipithecus

ramidus

Orrorin

tugenensis

Sahelanthropus

tchadensis

Kenyanthropus

platyops

P. aethiopicus

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Millio

ns o

f Y

ea

rs

Pleistocene

Pliocene

H. floresiensis

Au. sediba

Mo

re A

nim

al

Fo

od


The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food?


Clearly, plant:animal subsistence would have varied by season, geographic locale and food availability

Were there general trends?

The ethnographic data

Gray JP. A corrected ethnographic atlas. World Cultures J 1999;10(1):24-85.

Analysis included 229 World Wide Hunter Gatherer Societies

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Uncertain – How Much Plant Food?


!Kung Hunter-Gatherers

Butchering Giraffe

Clues From Historically

Studied Hunter Gatherers:

Cordain L et al. Plant to animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy

estimations in world wide hunter gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr, 2000, 71:682-92

Frequency Distribution of Subsistence Dependence

upon GATHERED PLANT FOODS in World Wide

Hunter Gatherer Societies (n = 229)

11

35

4245

3530

23

62 0

05

101520253035404550

0-5

6-1

5

16-2

526-3

5

36-4

5

46-5

5

56-6

5

66-7

576-8

586-1

00

So

cie

ties (

n)

% Dependence

Mode = (26-35%)

Median =(26-35%)

Only 13.5% of all

societies have

> 56%

subsistence

upon gathered plant

foods



Frequency Distribution of Subsistence Dependence

upon TOTAL (FISHED + HUNTED) ANIMAL FOODS

in World Wide Hunter Gatherer Societies (n = 229)

0 26

23

3035

4542

35

11

05

101520253035404550

0-5

6-1

5

16-2

526-3

5

36-4

5

46-5

5

56-6

5

66-7

576-8

586-1

00

So

cie

ties (

n)

% Dependence

Mode = (56-65%)

Median =(56-65%)

58 % of all

societies

have > 56%

subsistence

dependence

upon animal foods



Shortcomings of

Ethnographic Data

The majority of

ethnographic data is

subjective & not

quantitative

However, a few

quantitative studies

of hunter-gatherer

diet do exist

Bannock Indians (circa 1870)

% animal % plant

Population Location Latitude food food Reference

Aborigines

(Arhem Land) Australia 12S 80 20 McArthur, 1960

Ache Paraguay 25S 90 10 Hill et al, 1984

Anbarra Australia 12S 87 13 Meehan, 1982

Efe Africa 2N 44 56 Dietz et al, 1989

Eskimo Greenland 69N 96 4 Sinclair, 1953; Krogh & Krogh, 1914

Gwi Africa 23S 24 76 Silberbauer, 1981; Tanaka, 1980

Hadza Africa 3S 54 46 Blurton Jones et al, 1997;

Hawkes et al, 1989

Hiwi Venezuela 6N 78 22 Hurtado & Hill, 1986;

Hurtado & Hill, 1990

!Kung1 Africa 20S 33 67 Lee, 1968

!Kung2 Africa 20S 68 32 Yellen, 1977

Nukak Columbia 2N 61 39 Politis G, 1996

Nunamiut Alaska 68N 99 1 Binford, 1978

Onge Andaman 12N 81 19 Rao et al, 1989; Bose, 1964

Islands

MEAN 69 31

Without Eskimo, Nunamiut 64 36

The 13 Quantitative Studies of Hunter

Gatherer Animal: Plant Subsistence

Cordain L et al. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56 (suppl 1): s42-s52

Richards MP et al. Neanderthal diet at

Vindija and neanderthal predation: the

evidence from staple isotopes. Proc Natl

Acad Sci 2000;97:7663-66 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Neanderthal 1 Neanderthal 2

Wolf Actic Fox

Herbivore Bison

Deer

d1

5N

(%

o)



Clues From

Stable Isotopes: “The isotope evidence overwhelmingly

points to the Neanderthals behaving

as top-level carnivores”

Neanderthal Mandible, Vi-207 11.41

from Vindija (29,080 + 400 Yr BP)

Richards MP et al. Gough’s Cave

Human stable Isotope values

indicate a high animal protein diet.

J Archaeolog Sci 2000;27:1-3. 0

2

4

6

8

H. sapien1 H. sapien2

H. sapien3 H.sapien4

H. sapien5 Arctic Fox

Deer Auroch

Horse

d1

5N

(%

o)



Gough’s Cave Adult Cranium,

OXA 2796 (12,380 + 110 yr BP)

Clues From

Stable Isotopes:

“We were testing the hypothesis that

these humans had a mainly hunting

economy, and therefore a diet high in

animal protein. We found this to be the

case. . .”


Wild Plants

Highly Processed, Refined Foods

What are the Health

Implications?


Wild Animals

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten

These foods comprise (>70% energy)

in typical Western Diets

But were virtually unknown in

Ancestral Human Diets

Breads, Cereals, Rice and Pasta Dairy Products Added Salt

Refined Vegetable Oils Refined Sugars

(except honey) Alcohol

Cordain et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;71:682-92

Processed

Meats

Refined sugars, grains, vegetable oils and

dairy = 70.9% of energy in the U.S. food supply

Refined sugars, grains, vegetable oils and dairy represent

Neolithic & Industrial era foods that were not present in traditional

ancestral human diets

By default, their inclusion displaces minimally processed, wild

plant and animal foods.

15.71.4

3.1

3.3

4.8

0.8

10.623.9

17.8

18.6

Refined

Sugars Refined

Vegetable Oils

Vegetables

Fruits

Grains

Nuts, Seeds

Legumes

Eggs

Dairy

Meats,

Fish

Miscellaneous

Gerrior S, Bente I. 2002. Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, 1909-99: A Summary Report.

U.S.D.A, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Home Economics Research Report No. 55

Evolution of the Western Diet:

Neolithic (10,000 to 5,500 yrs ago) Food

Introductions

10,0

00

9,0

00

8,0

00

7,0

00

6,0

00

5,0

00

4,0

00

3,0

00

2,0

00

1,0

00

Years ago

0 66 100 133 167 200 233 267 300 333 Human

Generations

(30 yrs)

pre

sen

t

33

SUCROSE

WHEAT & BARLEY DOMESTICATED ~10,000 YRS AGO

WINE AND BEER

SHEEP, GOATS, COWS DOMESTICATED

FIRST DAIRYING EVIDENCE

FIRST SALT MINES


Industrial Revolution (~200 yrs ago)

1798

1828

1858

1888

1918

1948

1978Year

0 2 3 4 5 6 7 Human

Generations

(30 yrs)

20

08

1

REFINED GRAINS

HFCS

HYDROGENATED OILS

SUCROSE

REFINED VEGETABLE OILS

FEEDLOT PRODUCED MEATS


Industrial Revolution Processed Foods – The 20th Century

1898

1908

1918

1928

1938

1948

1958

1968

1978

1988

1998Year

O 2 3 4

Human

Generations

(30 yrs)

20

08

1

1900: HERSHEY’S CHOCOLATE BAR

1902: PEPSI

1906: KELLOGS CORN FLAKES

1911: CRISCO

1913: OREO COOKIE

1921: WONDERBREAD

1928: RICE KRISPIES

1932: CORN CHIPS

1941: M&M’s

1952: SUGAR FROSTED FLAKES

1969: PRINGLES CHIPS

Neolithic and Industrial Era

Foods: Nutritional Implications As Neolithic & Industrial Era foods

displace minimally processed, wild plant and animal foods, they adversely affect the following nutritional factors:

1. The Glycemic Load

2. The Fatty Acid Balance

3. The Macronutrient Balance

4. The Trace Nutrient Density

5. The Acid/Base Balance

6. The Sodium/potassium Balance

7. The Fiber Content

Disruption of these 7 nutritional

components fundamentally underlies

much of the chronic diseases in the

Western World

Item % total energy

Whole grains 3.5

Refined grains 20.4

TOTAL: 23.9

85 % of all grains are

consumed as refined grains



Contribution of Cereals

To Total Energy in the U.S. Diet


(Cereals)

Cereal grains which are

the seeds of grasses

(Poaceae) in their wild

state are:

1. Small

2. Difficult to harvest

3. Minimally digestible

without (a) grinding to

break down cell walls (b)

cooking to gelatinize

starch granules

Cordain L. Cereal grains: humanity’s double edged sword. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics

1999;84:19-73


(Cereals)

Bar-Yosef O. The Natufian culture in the Levant, threshold to the origins of agriculture. Evol

Anthropol 1998; 6:159-177.

Wright K. The origins and development of ground stone assemblages in Late Pleistocene Southwest

Asia. Paleorient 1991;17:19-45

Thus, the appearance of

crude grindstones and

mortars in the Middle East

(Natufians) and elsewhere

(10-15,000 years ago) heralds

the beginnings of humanity’s

use of cereal grains as a

staple food


(Cereals)

How Cereals Were Milled

until about 1880

Water or Draft Animal

Powered Stone Mill

100% extraction, unless

flour sieved of bran

Human Mortar & Grindstone

100% of flour (endosperm,

germ, bran) used – hence

100 % extraction

Evolution of the Western Diet: Industrial Food Introductions (Refined Cereals)

Steel rollers squeeze endosperm out of coating to leave germ & bran to be sieved off

Whereas, Stone mills pulverize & mix germ along with endosperm; bran remains unless sieved; flour particle size is mixed

Multiple breaks with steel rollers = uniformly small particle size

Steel Rollers to Mill Wheat

Invented ~1880

Stone Milling of Wheat

Storck J, Teague WD. A History of Milling. Flour for Man’s Bread. Minneapolis, Univ

Minnesota Press, 1952.

How Steel Roller Milling of Flour

Influences Fiber Content, Particle Size

& Glycemic Index

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

100 90 80 70 60 50 40

Flour extraction Rate (%) Flour Remaining

WHITE BREAD [steel milled particles] - 72% extraction: GI=70

FANCY PATENT FLOURS [steel milled

particles] 40-65% extraction: GI=70-80

WHOLE WHEAT KERNEL -100% extraction [fully intact particle] : GI=41

CRACKED WHEAT KERNEL (bulgur bread) - [cracked

particles] GI=52

WHOLE MEAL FLOUR[steel milled particles] - : GI=69

High Glycemic Foods ALMOST ALL REFINED GRAINS

HAVE HIGH GLYCEMIC INDICES

Rice Chex Cereal 89

Corn flakes 84

Pretzels 83

Rice Krispie Cereal 82

Rice Cakes 82

Rye bread 76

Waffles 76

Total Cereal 76

Graham crackers 74

Cheerios 74

Bagels 72

Short grain white rice 72

Corn chips 72

White bread 70

Whole Wheat bread 69

HIGH G.I. FOODS > 70

MEDIUM G.I. FOODS 55-70

LOW G.I. FOODS < 55

Foster-Powell K et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:5-56

High Glycemic Load Carbohydrates

Promote Diseases of Insulin Resistance

Type 2 Diabetes

Hypertension

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

Dyslipidemia (Reduced serum HDL

cholesterol, elevated triglycerides,

elevated VLDL, elevated small

dense LDL cholesterol)

Obesity

Gout

Liu S et al. Dietary glycemic load and atherothrombotic risk. Curr Atherosclerosis Rep 2002;4:454-61

Ludwig DS. The glycemic index. Physiological mechanisms relating to obesity, diabetes and

cardiovascular disease. JAMA 2002;287:2414-23.

The Metabolic Syndrome

Cereal Grains Are Net Acid

Producers

+ values = acid

-values = alkaline

Grains: Meats, Fish, Eggs

Brown rice 12.5 Trout 10.8

Rolled oats 10.7 Turkey 9.9

Whole wheat bread 8.2 Chicken 8.7

Spaghetti 7.3 Eggs 8.2

Cornflakes 6.0 Beef 7.8

White Rice 4.6 Cod 7.1

Dairy: Fruits

Parmesan cheese 34.2 Raisins -21.0

Processed cheese 28.7 Black currants -6.5

Hard cheese 19.2 Bananas -5.5

Cottage Cheese 8.7 Apricots -4.8

Whole milk 0.7 Vegetables

Legumes: Spinach -14.0

Peanuts 8.3 Celery -5.2

lentils 3.5 Carrots -4.9

Peas 1.2 Lettuce -2.5

Potential Renal Acid Loads of Foods (100 g portion)

Remer T, Manz F. Potential renal acid load of foods and its influence on urine pH.

J Am Diet Assoc 1995;95:791-97

Cereal Grains:

Acid/Base Balance

Kurtz I et al. Effect of diet on plasma acid-base composition in normal humans. Kidney Int

1983;24:670-80

The average western diet produces a slight chronic metabolic acidosis

Net Acid Yielding:

1. Cereal Grains = 23.9 % energy

2. Meats, fish = 15.7 % energy

3. Dairy = 10.6 % energy

4. Nuts, legumes = 3.1 % energy

5. Eggs = 1.4 % energy

6. Salt (NaCl) = 9.6 g/day

Net Alkaline Yielding:

1. Vegetables = 4.8 % energy

2. Fruits = 3.3 % energy

Neutral (but displace alkaline foods):

1. Refined sugars = 18.6 % energy

2. Refined Oils = 17.9 % energy

Cereal Grains:

Acid/Base Balance

Sebastian A et al. Estimation of the net acid load of the diet of ancestral preagricultural Homo

sapiens and their hominid ancestors. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:1308-16

The displacement of fruits and

vegetables by cereal grains

shifted hominin diets to net

acid yielding

Diseases promoted by a net

metabolic acidosis:

1. Osteoporosis

2. Hypertension

3. Kidney stones

4. Stroke

Refined Grains Reduce the Trace

Nutrient Density of the Western Diet

20 17

2

2520

33

18

50

24

0

20

40

60

80

100

Biotin Vit E Vit B3 Vit B2 Vit B1 Panto

Acid

Vit K

Whole wheat White flour

Perc

enta

ge

Enriched

Only since 1998 (not

the same as folate!)

Vitamin Depletion from Flour Milling

Vit B6 Folic

Acid

Hyperhomocysteinemia: low B6,

folate = Increased risk for CHD Enriched following WWII

Fo

late

F

oli

c A

cid

Mineral Depletion from Flour Milling

50

33

20 20 1810

75

20 22

0

20

40

60

80

100

Ca Cr Cu Fe Mg Mn Se Zn K

Whole wheat White flour

Perc

enta

ge

Enriched

Refined Grains Reduce the Trace

Nutrient Density of the Western Diet

Diseases: iron deficiency anemia (Fe),

osteoporosis (Ca), hypogonadal dwarfism (Zn)

Both Whole and Refined Cereals

Reduce Fiber Content

624

41

185

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Refined

Cereals

Whole Grain

Cereals

Fruits Non Starchy

Vegetables

To

tal F

ibe

r (g

ram

s)

10

00

kc

al s

am

ple

(n = 3) (n = 8)

(n = 20)

(n = 20)

Diseases: Constipation, appendicitis, hemorrhoids, deep vein

Thrombosis, varicoses veins, diverticulitis, hiatal hernia, gastro-

esophageal reflux

Ancestral Human Diet: Foods That Couldn’t Have Been Eaten

(Dairy)

Ever tried to approach a wild animal?

How about milking it?

Item % total energy

Whole milk 1.6

Low fat milks 2.1

Cheese 3.2

Butter 1.1

Other 2.6

TOTAL: 10.6



Contribution of Dairy Products

To Total Energy in the U.S. Diet


(Dairy)

10,0

00

9,0

00

8,0

00

7,0

00

6,0

00

5,0

00

4,0

00

3,0

00

2,0

00

1,0

00

Years ago

0 66 100 133 167 200 233 267 300 333 Human

Generations

(30 yrs)

pre

sen

t

33

SHEEP, GOATS, COWS DOMESTICATED

FIRST DAIRYING EVIDENCE


(Dairy)

Hiendleder S et al. Proc R Soc Lond B 2002;269:893-904 (SHEEP); Luikart G et al. Proc

Natl Acad Sci 2001;98:5927-32 (GOATS); Loftus RT et al. Mol Ecol 1999 8:2015-22 (COWS)

Evershed RP et al. Nature. 2008;455(7212):528-31

Dairy Foods:

Glycemic Index/Insulin Metabolism

MILK, SKIM MILK, FERMENTED MILK

AND YOGURTS HAVE LOW GLYCEMIC

INDICES

Skim Milk 32

Whole Milk 27

Reduced Fat Yogurt 27

Non Fat Yogurt 24

Fermented Milk (3% fat) 11

BUT PARADOXICALLY HAVE INSULIN

INDICES SIMILAR TO:

White Bread 100

Yogurt 115

Fermented Milk 98

Whole Milk 90

Skim Milk 90

Foster-Powell K et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:5-56

Ostman EM et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:96-100 Hoyt G, Hickey MS, Cordain L. Brit J Nutr

2005;93;175-77.

HIGH G.I. FOODS > 70

MEDIUM G.I. FOODS 55-70

LOW G.I. FOODS < 55

Nilsson M et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:1246-53

Dairy Foods:

Glycemic Index/Insulin Metabolism

CRONIC EFFECTS (Animals)

Intensely milk fed calves experience

insulin resistance, hyperglycemia and

glucosuria. Hostettler-Allen RL et al. J Anim Sci

1994;72:16073

CHRONIC EFFECTS (Humans)

24 8-yr boys consumed 53 g protein as

milk or meat daily for 7-d. “Our results

indicate that a short-term high milk, but

not meat, intake increased insulin

secretion and resistance” Hoppe C et al. Eur J

Clin Nutr 2005;59:393-98.

Health Effects: Dietary Interventions

Detrimental Effects

Nutritional Differences among Wild,

Grass Fed, Grain Fed and Processed Meats

Vs. Vs.

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Rarely Eaten

(Processed, Grain Produced Muscle Meats)

Prior to Agriculture, all animal foods consumed by humans were: Wild Animals

The entire edible carcass (all organs) was usually consumed

In Western countries rarely are meats other than grain produced muscle/processed consumed

Grain Produced & Processed Meats:

Year Round Staples in Western Diets

Hot Dogs

82 % Fat, 14 % Protein

Salami


Ground Beef


T-bone Steak


Bacon


Pork Ribs


Wild vs. Domestic

Animals

Body fat in wild animals

waxes and wanes

seasonally

With the advent of animal

husbandry 10,000 years

ago, it became possible to

attenuate or prevent the

seasonal decline in body fat

% by provisioning captive

animals with plant food

It also became feasible to

consistently slaughter the

animal at peak body fat %

Caribou

Seasonal Change in Wild Mammal

Body Fat % (by Weight)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Mature Bull Caribou Young Bull Caribou Mature Female Caribou

Month of the Year

Spiess AE. Reindeer and Caribou Hunters: An Archaeological Study. New York, Academic

Press, 1979.

Seasonal Change in Wild Mammal

Body Fat % (by Weight)

4.6 3.7 3.2 2.9 3.1 3.3 4.36.9

1216.6

11 9.3

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Month of the Year

For 7 months out of the year, the group mean body fat % is 3.6

For the entire year, the mean body fat % is 6.4

Spiess AE. Reindeer and Caribou Hunters: An Archaeological Study. New York, Academic

Press, 1979.

Wild vs. Domestic Animals: Body

Fat Differences

Whereas, wild

caribou body fat

ranges from (3.1

to 6.8 %)

Feed lot

produced cattle

are typically

slaughtered at

(25 to 30 % fat)

Wild Deer

Carcass Feedlot Cattle

Carcasses

Industrial Era Food Introductions:

Feed Lot Produced Beef As feed lot produced beef replaced

traditional grass, pasture and free range beef ~150 years ago the following nutritional factors were adversely affected:

1. The Fatty Acid Balance (increased ω6 fatty acids; reduced ω3 fatty acids

2. The Macronutrient Balance (More Fat/Less Protein)

3. The Trace Nutrient Density (Fat contains fewer vitamins & minerals than muscle or organs per calorie)

Disruption of these 3 nutritional

components may contribute to

many chronic diseases in the

U.S. and elsewhere

Literature Summary (n=7 studies) of ω-3 and

ω-6 Fatty Acid Differences between Grass

and Grain Produced Beef

12.2 28.5 38.5

285

9.539.1

6093.2

171

1.930

50

100

150

200

250

300

18:3n3 LC n-3 PUFA Total n-3 Total n-6 n6/n3

Grain Fed Beef Grass Fed Beef

mg

/100 g

beef

Long Chain (LC) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) =

20:5n3 (EPA), 22:5n3 (DPA), 22:6n3 (DHA)

Cordain L. Grass fed beef in the human diet: Applications to clinical disease, 2007

Vs.

100 g average grain produced steak:

28.5 mg LC ω-3 fatty acids

100 g grass produced steak:

60.0 mg LC ω-3 fatty acids

Diseases linked to reduced ω-3 fatty acids: CHD, the metabolic syndrome,

Certain cancers, autoimmune diseases, many inflammatory (“itis”) diseases

Replacing Fatty Grain Produced Beef

with Lean Grass Fed Beef: Potential

Health Effects: (Omega 3 Fatty Acids: EPA, DPA and DHA

Total Salt (NaCl) in the U.S. Diet (Grams per Day)

Source grams/day

Added in processed foods 7.2

Table salt and cooking use 1.4

Naturally occurring in foods 1.0

TOTAL: 9.6



Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Rarely Consumed

(Added Salt)

Salt was known to be

gathered on a dry lake bed in

China ~ 8,000 years ago

First inland salt mines appear

in Europe ~ 6,000 years ago

Hunter gatherers living near

the ocean dipped food in

seawater and used dried sea

salt

Inland hunter-gatherers

rarely used salt on a regular

basis

The first known salt mine in Europe

(6,200 - 5,600 years ago)

The Mountain of Salt

(Cardona, Catalonia, Spain)

Diseases linked to salt consumption: Hypertension, stroke, osteoporosis, kidney

stones, Menierre’s Syndrome, stomach cancer, insomnia, motion sickness, asthma,

exercise induced asthma

Weller O. Antiquity 2002;76:317-18.

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Rarely Consumed

(Added Salt)

Contribution of Refined Sugars to

Total Energy in the U.S. Diet

Item % total energy

Sucrose 8.0

High fructose

corn syrup 7.8

Glucose 2.6

Syrups 0.1

Other 0.1

TOTAL: 18.6



U.S.D.A. Economic Research Service, 2002. Food consumption (percapita) data system, sugars

Sweeteners, Washington D.C.

Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diet: The Known – Foods That Were Not Consumed

(Refined Sugars)

Crystalline sugar was first

produced from sugar cane

in Northern India in ~ 500

BC

Honey would have always

been part of the human diet,

but was only available

seasonally.

Thus, year round

consumption of refined

sugars would not have been

possible


(Refined Sugars)

Galloway JH. The Cambridge World History of

Food, Vol 1. Cambridge Univ Press, 2000, 437-49

http://www.candyparty.com/Sugar/rock_candy_natural.htm


Industrial Era Food Introductions (Refined Sugars)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1745

1760

1775

1790

1805

1820

1835

1850

1865

1880

1893

1905

1915

1922

1930

Year

Pe

r c

ap

ita

co

ns

um

pti

on

(lb

s.)

Per Capita Sugar (Sucrose) Consumption

in the Netherlands (1745-1937)


Industrial Era Food Introductions (Refined Sugars)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1815

1830

1846

1860

1870

1880

1895

1910

1915

1918

1920

1930

1940

1944

1946

1948

1952

1955

Year

Pe

r c

ap

ita

co

ns

um

pti

on

(lb

s.)

Per Capita Sugar (Sucrose) Consumption

in England (1815-1970)

WWI WWII

020406080

100120140160

1909-

19

1920-

29

1930-

39

1940-

49

1950-

59

1960-

69

1970-

79

1980-

89

1990-

99

2000-

09

All sugars

90 105

123 115

Annual Per Capita Consumption of

Refined Sugars in the U.S. (1909-2009)

113 112 109 127

148

64 %

141

Changes in the Refined Sugar Composition

in the U.S. Diet Since 1970

In 1960, 90 % of the refined

sugar in the U.S. Food

supply came from sucrose

With the advent of

chromatographic

enrichment technology

Beginning in the late 1970’s

it became economically

feasible to manufacture

high fructose corn syrup in

mass quantity from corn

starch Ion Exclusion Chromatography

columns for fructose syrup

manufacture

Cordain L et al. Hyperinsulinemic diseases of

civilization: more than just syndrome X.

Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 2003;136:95-112.

10283

64 66 65

019 50

6453

19 2022

22

16

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

1970 1980 1990 2000 2008

Sucrose High Fructose Corn Syrup Glucose

121 122

151 136

Annual Per Capita Consumption of

Refined Sugars in the U.S. HFCS has increased from 0.4 lb in 1970 to 64 lbs in 2000.

Total fructose (from sucrose & HFCS) has increased from

51.5 lbs in 1970 to 64.9 lbs in 2000 (26 %)



U.S.D.A. Economic Research Service, 2002. Food consumption (percapita) data system, sugars

Sweeteners, Washington D.C.

136

Diseases linked

to refined

sugars:

Metabolic

Syndrome (Type

2 diabetes, CHD,

dyslipidemia,

obesity, gout,

hypertension

Dental caries

Certain cancers


(Refined Sugars)

Cordain L et al. Hyperinsulinemic diseases of civilization: more than just syndrome X.

Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 2003;136:95-112.

Contribution of Refined Vegetable

Oils to Total Energy in the U.S. Diet

Item % total energy

Salad, Cooking Oils 8.8

Shortening 6.6

Margarine 2.4

TOTAL: 17.8




(Refined Vegetable Oils)

Vegetable Oils are

made via three

processes:

1. Rendering &

pressing (oldest)

2. Steel expeller

pressing (recent)

3. Solvent

extraction (recent)

Oils made from walnuts, almonds

0lives, sesame seeds and flaxseed

were first produced via rendering &

pressing ~ 5-6,000 years ago

However, except for olives most oils were

used for non-food purposes (lubrication,

Illumination, medicine)



O’Keefe SF. Cambridge World History of Food,

Vol 1. Cambridge Univ Press, 2000, 375-97

High pressure steel expeller

technology developed in the

industrial era + new purification

processes allowed non

traditional oilseeds to be

exploited (i.e. cottonseed –

Wesson oil -- 1899)

The hydrogenation process was

first developed in 1897 which

allowed vegetable oils to

become solidified to produce

shortening and margarine

Yielding novel trans fatty acids

Steel Expeller for the

Extraction of Vegetable Oils



0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1909-

19

1920-

29

1930-

39

1940-

49

1950-

59

1960-

69

1970-

79

1980-

89

1990-

99

Margarine Shortening Salad, cooking oils Total Vegetable Oils

Per Capita Change in Refined

Vegetable Oils in the U.S. (1909-99)

Total vegetable oil consumption has increased 459 % since 1909



Salad, Cooking Oil consumption has increased 1340 % since 1909

Margarine consumption has increased 488 % since 1909

Shortening consumption has increased 237 % since 1909

Vegetable oils are high in ω-6 fatty acids (linoleic acid), but low in long chain ω-3 fatty acids (EPA, DPA, DHA)

Diseases linked to high ω-6 (linoleic acid)/ low long chain ω-3 fatty acids :

Metabolic Syndrome (Type 2 diabetes, CHD, dyslipidemia, obesity, gout, hypertension), cancers, autoimmune diseases, virtually all inflammatory (“itis”) diseases



Humanity’s Evolutionary

Food Plate

Cordain L et al. Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in worldwide

hunter-gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:682-92

“My Plate” replaced the USDA

Food Pyramid in June 2011

Fresh Fruits Fresh Veggies

Nuts/Seeds Fish/Seafood Grass Produced

Meats

Healthful

Oils

Recommendations for a Contemporary Diet

Based Upon Paleolithic Food Groups

Thank You!

Documents

Origins and Evolution of The Western Diet: Health ... Hominin Fossil Record: Plio-Pleistocene Diets As many as 22 hominin species may have existed since the evolutionary split between