GRADE

4

Author: K. Arinaga Lesson #: 7

Unit Title: Earth System Science Time Frames: Two 50­Minute Periods

Outside the Classroom Walls: A Culminating Lesson

ABSTRACT Students will identify the four spheres that make up Earth system science and discover interconnections between them. Students will create a visual project with a partner to show examples of how the spheres connect and interact with each other based on evidence of changes within Earth systems. They will display their project and sphere cards in a gallery walk and explain what they have learned about Earth sphere interactions through their observations and classroom discussions.

PLANNING INSTRUCTION ASSESSMENT STANDARDS REFERENCES

BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS

Image courtesy of M. Ruzek.

Everything on Earth belongs to one of four spheres. All of the processes on Earth are driven by four spheres, the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere and biosphere. Together, they make up all of the components of our planet, both living and non­living. All of the spheres of Earth interact as matter and energy change and cycle through the system. Matter moves between Earth’s spheres. Sometimes, matter moves through many spheres before returning to a

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sphere. Energy moves between spheres. Energy also moves back and forth between spheres. Example 1: Rain from the hydrosphere falls from clouds in the atmosphere to the geosphere and forms streams and rivers that provide drinking water for wildlife and humans as well as water for plant growth in the biosphere. River action erodes banks of land in the geosphere and uproots plants from the biosphere on the riverbanks. Flooding rivers wash away soil.

Rain →Hydrosphere →Geosphere → Biosphere→Geosphere

Image courtesy of W. Siegmund.

Example 2: Volcanoes also spew a lot of gas and particulate matter into the atmosphere, as well as send hot lava flowing down mountainsides, disrupting the biosphere. Volcanoes, an event in the geosphere, releases a large amount of particulate matter into the atmosphere. These particles serve as nuclei for the formation of water droplets in the hydrosphere. Rainfall from the hydrosphere often increases following an eruption, stimulating plant growth in the biosphere. Particulate matter in the air of the atmosphere falls, initially smothering plants in the biosphere. Ultimately this enriches the soil in the geosphere and thereby stimulates plant growth in the biosphere.

Volcano →Geosphere → Atmosphere →Hydrosphere → Biosphere

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Image courtesy of U.S. Department of Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.

PLANNING Essential Questions

How does the interaction of spheres support life on our planet? How can Earth processes be explained as interactions among spheres? How do changes in one part of the Earth system affect other parts of the system?

Instructional Objectives

Students will: Identify the four spheres that are components of Earth system science. Explain interconnections between these spheres based on evidence of changes within Earth

systems as recorded in photographs from space. Create a visual project to show examples of how the spheres connect and interact with each

other. Collaborate and share ideas with other students. Summarize through discussions what they have learned about sphere interactions.

Key Vocabulary

Sphere interaction Interconnections

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INSTRUCTION Materials

Science notebook with past data. Terrarium model KWL Charts Earth Sphere Cards Supplies to create the students’ visual projects “Earth’s Systems and Spheres” worksheets “Earth’s Spheres Treasure” worksheet “Earth System Interactions Treasure” worksheet “Project Rubric” worksheet

Preparation

Download Big Idea 3: Earth's Systems Interact Video

Resources NASA:

NASA Images ­ Hawai‘i Island http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=9222

Connect the Spheres: Earth Systems Interactions http://pmm.nasa.gov/education/lesson­plans/connect­spheres­earth­systems­interactions

Bishop Museum: GRADES 3 ­ 4: WOW! Wonders of Water

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http://www.bishopmuseum.org/education/science_programs.html GRADES 4 ­ 5: Extreme Makeover: Earth Edition

http://www.bishopmuseum.org/education/science_programs.html Other:

Big Idea 3: Earth's Systems Interact Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BnpF0ndXk­8

Education Place: Graphic Organizer http://www.eduplace.com/graphicorganizer/

Teacher Vision: Graphic Organizershttps://www.teachervision.com/graphic­organizers/printable/6293.html

Thinking Place http://thinkingmaps.com/why­thinking­maps­2/

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ENGAGE

1. Pose the questions:

What are the four spheres? What do you know about spheres interacting with each other?

2. Have students generate their own questions. Elicit discussions that include students’ prior

knowledge, such as:

What spheres do you see when you are at the school playground or in your yard? Have students work in pairs or triads to answer these questions, develop more examples and

share with the class. Students can use their KWL chart to link what they already know about spheres.

1. Display a picture of Pu‘u ʻŌ‘ō and pose questions below. Have students work in pairs or triads to

answer these questions and share with the class. Provide students with the “Earth’s Spheres Treasure” worksheet to use during discussion.

What spheres do you see here? How are these spheres connected?

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Image courtesy of U.S. Department of Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.

4. Watch a video together to see how it links with what students already know and how they can

generate new questions. Students should have their “Earth Sphere Cards”, notes from other lessons to use as resources and their KWL Chart on hand. They take continuing notes during the video using their KWL Chart from “All in the Cards” to add new information in the L (Learned) column.

Play The Big 3: Earth's Systems Interact video to observe the events that shows how Earth

works as a set of interconnected spheres.

5. Students share the new information they learned from this video. During the sharing, they may add further notes to their KWL Chart.

6. For the next activity, students will work together using the “Earth’s Systems and Spheres”

Worksheet, “Task 1 – Identifying Earth’s Spheres,” to develop their own definition of each sphere.

7. Give students the opportunity to ask “wondering” questions in small groups and then share ideas with the whole class. How can they improve their definitions?

EXPLORE

1. Have students examine the picture below. Pose the question: What sphere interactions can you

infer from this photograph? To identify sphere interactions, think of one feature in the image at a time, decide which sphere it is a part of, then consider how it interacts with the other spheres.

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Image courtesy of Cisco.

2. With a partner, students practice describing interactions in this scene, tracing the movement of materials or energy through all four of Earth's spheres. Provide the “Earth’s System Interactions Treasure” sheet examples for students to use.

3. Circulate around the classroom listening to students discussions and questions to provide immediate

feedback and support those who need the help.

4. After several minutes, students may share their ideas and will have the opportunity to ask further questions. Chart student responses on large chart paper. When students are done sharing, allow students to point out the different spheres in the picture. Assist by providing feedback to students’ responses.

Possible Explanation of Interactions: Plants in the biosphere draw water from the

hydrosphere and nutrients from the soil in the geosphere, then release water vapor into the air of the atmosphere. Humans in the biosphere use farm machinery manufactured from geosphere materials to plow the fields, while the atmosphere brings precipitation in the hydrosphere to water the plants. Energy from the sun is stored by plants in the biosphere. When humans or animals from the biosphere eat the plants, they acquire the energy originally utilized by the plants to make the plants’ own food.

5. Continue exploring with the picture below and follow the same pattern of investigation.

Image courtesy of K. Arinaga.

Possible explanation of Interactions: Humans in the biosphere built a reservoir out of rock

materials named sandstone from the geosphere. Water in the reservoir of the hydrosphere is a water storage facility for the Upper Basin states of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming in the geosphere.

EXPLAIN

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1. Students will go outside to find several examples of ways that the Earth’s systems interact. Every time they identify an interaction, they will record it on their worksheet or in their science notebook. Assist students with their observations on spheres once they are outside.

2. After the students have recorded their observations in the science notebook or the “Earth’s Systems

and Spheres” worksheet (Task 2 – Interactions between Earth’s Spheres), bring the class together for a discussion. Students will share their observation in small groups and ask each other wondering questions, and then share with the class. This will be a great opportunity for students to ask each other questions.

3. Students are now ready to share what they know about sphere interaction with partners by creating

a visual project of a graphic organizer, poster or diagram. This project will show an example of how the spheres connect and interact with each other based on student observations outside of the classroom.

4. Provide each group with the “Project Rubric”. A rubric is an assessment guide that reflects content

standards and performance standards. Rubrics describe the features expected for student work to receive each of the levels/scores on the chosen scale. An assessment rubric tells us what is important, defines what work meets a standard, and allows us to distinguish between different levels of performance. Review the rubric and discuss each of the components. Check for student questions or comments about the project.

5. Students may visit specific websites for ideas on posters and diagrams and brainstorm ideas for

their project. Upon reviewing their brainstorming, partners select their design, plan and create their project with a partner. Websites may include:

Education Place Teacher Vision Thinking Maps

6. Students will use the “Project Rubric” worksheet to score their work, and then the teacher will give

his/her score with comments. Return work to students in preparation for gallery walk. Have students organize their projects for viewing.

7. Students will share their project in a gallery walk with class.

EXTEND

1. Students may share their project with other classes in their grade level.

2. Students may document their project by taking photos and adding them to their science notebooks.

EVALUATE

1. Evaluate students through observation of of their level of engagement during the multi­day lesson.

Assessment of student worksheets and science notebook assignments will also provided documentation of student learning.

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ASSESSMENT OPTIONS Formative Assessment

The KWL Chart will be used to assess students’ background knowledge and interest in the topic, or it can be used at various points throughout the unit to assess student progress. Students can track their own progress and help determine what they most need to work on to be successful.

Student observations in the science notebook or the teacher generated worksheet will be used to determine if student has met their instructional objectives at the end of an instructional unit. All entries are opportunities for formative assessment.

Summative Assessment

The “Project Rubric” worksheet will be used to assess final student product.

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CULTURE CONNECTION

Image courtesy of NASA.

Kumulipo

(Origin of Life) Kumulipo is a Hawaiian word, which can be translated as “beginning in darkness,” “source of life” or “basis of existence.” The ancient Hawaiian chant known as the Kumulipo describes the origin of the islands, the dawn of life, the birth of the first humans, and the relationships between humans and other life.

Image courtesy of K. Arinaga.

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Papakū Makawalu: The Methodical Holistic

Preview of the Hawaiian Universe Papahulilani is the space from above the head to where the stars sit. It is inclusive of the sun, moon, stars, planets, winds, clouds, and the measurement of the vertical and horizontal spaces of the atmosphere. It is also a class of experts who are spiritually, physically, and intellectually attuned to the space above and its relationship to the earth.

Image courtesy of K. Arinaga.

Papahulihonua is inclusive of earth and ocean. It is the ongoing study of the natural earth and ocean and its development, transformation and evolution by natural causes. It is also a class of experts who are spiritually, physically, and intellectually attuned to this earth and its relationship to the space above and the life forms on it.

Image courtesy of K. Arinaga.

Papahulimoku from the embryonic state of all life forces to death. It is the birthing cycle of all flora and fauna inclusive of man. It is the process of investigating, questioning, analyzing and reflecting upon all things that give birth, regenerate and procreate. It is also a class of experts who are spiritually, physically and intellectually attuned to things born and the habitat that provides their nourishment, shelter, and growth.

DIFFERENTIATION Emerging Learners

Students will need strong instructional support when learning how to understand text, the teacher will demonstrate how to use pictures as clues for making predictions.

Students can reread text through buddy reading. Teachers will help to guide emergent readers as they begin to recognize high­frequency words and

should keep sight words displayed on a word wall that grows as words are introduced. Pictorial and oral representations for vocabulary development will help to support students.

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Students can have more hands­on exploration and small group discussion about spheres and concepts of interactions.

Students can create a song or dance as their project to share with the class. Advanced Learners

Provide opportunities for students to extend their research and make connections beyond the scope of these lessons.

Create mixed media and/or graphic art depictions of the spheres and multiple interactions to present to other classes in grades four and five.

Students can create their own rubrics for their project. Students can create a song and dance as their project to share with the class.

English Language Learners

Teachers use clear, direct, simple English and a wide range of scaffolding strategies to communicate meaningful input in the content area to students.

Pictorial and oral representations for vocabulary development will help to support students. Students can be assisted to create their own rubrics for their project.

STANDARDS

Next Generation Science Standards Crosscutting Concepts:

Patterns ­ In grades 3­5, students identify similarities and differences in order to sort and classify natural objects and designed products. They identify patterns related to time, including simple rates of change and cycles, and to use these patterns to make predictions.

Cause and Effect ­ In grades 3­5, students routinely identify and test causal relationships and use these relationships to explain change. They understand events that occur together with regularity might or might not signify a cause and effect relationship.

Science and Engineering Practices: Asking questions for science and defining problems for engineering. Planning and carrying out investigations. Analyzing and interpreting data. Constructing explanations for science and designing solutions for engineering. Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information

Disciplinary Core Idea: 4­ESS2­1 Make observations and/or measurements to produce data to serve as the basis

for evidence for an explanation of a phenomenon. 4­ESS2.A Earth Materials and Systems: Rainfall helps to shape the land and affects the

types of living things found in a region. Water, ice, wind, living organisms, and gravity break rocks, soils, and sediments into smaller particles and move them around.

Common Core CCSS.ELA­Literacy.RI.4.4 Craft and Structure: Determine the meaning of general academic and

domain­specific words or phrases in a text relevant to a grade 4 topic or subject area.

Hawaii Content & Performance Standards III SC.4.1.2 Differentiate between an observation and an inference. SC.4.5.3 Describe how different organisms need specific environmental conditions to survive.

General Learner Outcomes

Self­directed Learner

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Community Contributor Complex Thinker Quality Producer Effective Communicator Effective and Ethical User of Technology

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EXTENSIONS

Students may create their own individual graphic organizer, poster or diagram with a different perspective.

Students may create an iMovie with photos of all graphic organizers, posters or diagrams for macs or Movie Maker for PC and share this with others.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

A New Hawaiian Island https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvpZ0pNWxAU&feature=youtu.be

Edith Kanakaʻole Foundation http://www.edithkanakaolefoundation.org/current­projects/papaku­makawalu/

Rubrics 4 Teachers

http://www.rubrics4teachers.com/

Kīlauea's East Rift Zone (Puʻu ʻŌʻō) Eruption 1983 to present http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/kilauea/summary/main.html

The­Interconnected Spheres of the Earth

http://hubpages.com/hub/The­Interconnected­Spheres­of­the­Earth

iMovie https://www.apple.com/mac/imovie/

Movie Maker

http://windows.microsoft.com/en­us/windows­live/movie­maker

Have students explore the Sphere Star matching interactive resource from Bishop Museum.

REFERENCES Arinaga, Kalei. (Photographer). (2015). Untitled. [Photograph] Beckwith, M. (Ed). (1951). Kumulipo a Hawaiian Creation Chant. Retrieved May 30, 2015 from:

http://blogs.ksbe.edu/adakina/files/2008/02/kumulipo­text.pdf Kanakaʻole Kanahele, P. (2004.) Papakū Makawalu. Retrieved from:

http://www.edithkanakaolefoundation.org/current­projects/papaku­makawalu/

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National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2015, March 30). [Untitled Images]. Retrieved March 30,

2015, from: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=3510 Takahashi, T.J., Heliker, C.C., and Diggles, M.F., (2003.) Selected images of the Puʻu ʻŌʻō­Kupaianaha

eruption, 1983­1997: Retrieved from: U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series DDS­80.

Pukui, M. K. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs and Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press,1983.

Ruzek, M. (Photographer). (1999). Earth Spheres. [Photograph] Tea plantation in Ciwidey, Bandung by Crisco 1492. (2014, August 21). Retrieved April 03, 2015, from:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tea_plantation_in_Ciwidey,_Bandung_2014­08­21.jpg#/media/File:Tea_plantation_in_Ciwidey,_Bandung_2014­08­21.jpg

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Name: _______________________________ Date: ______________________

KWL Chart

The purpose of the KWL is to activate students' prior knowledge by asking them what they already think they Know; then students (collaborating as a classroom unit or within small groups) set goals specifying what they Wondering or Want to learn more about; and after investigating, students discuss and note

what they have Learned.

Sphere What I Think I Know What I Am Wondering What I Have Learned

Atmosphere

Hydrosphere

Geosphere

Biosphere

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Name: ________________________________ Date: ______________________

Earth’s Spheres Treasure Sheet

Image courtesy of M. Ruzek.

The Atmosphere The atmosphere consists of the gases and particles suspended in the air. It provides the oxygen animals breathe in and carries off the carbon dioxide they exhale. The atmosphere filters out most harmful forms of sunlight and traps outgoing heat from Earth’s surface. The most common gases in our atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. The amount of the gases in the mixture varies above the different places on Earth. The atmosphere is one of the main features of Earth that is responsible for transporting heat & moisture, maintaining radiative balance, blocking out harmful UV rays, maintaining electrical balance, keeping a sufficient amount of heat necessary for the existence of life. The way the atmosphere works is one of the reasons why life exists here on Earth. The atmosphere and the oceans are the two mechanisms of Earth that transport heat from the equator and towards the poles. Moisture is brought to various locations on Earth by wind belts, air masses, and pressure systems. The atmosphere puts pressure on the planet. The amount of pressure becomes less and less the further away from Earth’s surface you are. When we think of the atmosphere, we mostly think of the part that is closest to us. At any moment in time, the overall condition of Earth’s atmosphere, including the part we can see and the parts we cannot, is called weather. Weather can change, and it frequently does. That is because the conditions of the atmosphere can change.

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The four main layers in Earth’s atmosphere are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the thermosphere. The layer that is closest to the surface of Earth is called the troposphere. It extends up from the surface of Earth for about 11 kilometers. This is the layer where airplanes fly. We experience almost all weather in this layer. About three­fourths of our atmosphere’s air is also found in the troposphere. The Hydrosphere The hydrosphere includes water that is on or close to the surface of Earth. This includes water in the oceans, lakes, streams, ponds, underground, ice sheets, snow, sleet, hail, clouds, and fog. Water continually circulates between Earth’s surface and atmosphere in what scientists call the hydrologic cycle, this is our water cycle. Energy from the sun drives the water cycle. Water is heated by the sun and evaporates, changing it from a liquid to a gas, called water vapor. Water vapor is invisible, but is all around us. As water vapor rises, it cools and condenses, which causes it to return to a liquid as tiny water droplets in the sky. This process is called condensation and is seen as clouds. When these water droplets get full and heavy, they drop from clouds back to earth as rain, sleet, hail, or snow, which we call precipitation. The sun is the reason that water continuously moves to different areas on earth and changes different states ­ solid, liquid and gas. The Geosphere The geosphere is considered the portion of the Earth system that includes the Earth's interior, rocks and minerals, landforms and the processes that shape the Earth's surface. The Earth's interior is arranged somewhat like a layer cake, consisting of a series of layers that change in density, mineral composition and thickness with depth. Biosphere The biosphere is simply the home of all known life that has ever existed in the universe. It includes all of the living things on Earth, including plants, animals, microorganisms, and extends from the deepest root systems of trees, to the dark environment of ocean trenches, to lush rain forests and high mountaintops.

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Earth System Interactions Treasure Examples

Sphere Interaction Interaction Effects

Atmosphere and Hydrosphere Air and Water

Water evaporating. Water condensing on surfaces (dew, frost). Clouds, fog, or snow Ripples and waves on water caused by wind.

Atmosphere and Geosphere Air and Soil

Soil dries due to water evaporating from soil. Dust swirls and dust clouds in the air. Air warms (or cools) the soil. Soil warms (or cools) the air.

Atmosphere and Geosphere Air and Living Things

Animals taking up oxygen (respiration). Plants taking up carbon dioxide (respiration). Plants giving off moisture (transpiration). Smoke created from wood burning by humans can

contribute to air pollution.

Atmosphere and Sun Air and Sun

Sun warms the air. Clouds blocks some of the Sun's dangerous rays

from reaching Earth. Smog blocks sun. Smoke blocks sun.

Hydrosphere and Biosphere Water and Living Things

Plants need to get fluids and nutrients from the ground up through their stems to their parts that are above ground level.

Animals drink water. Animals exhale water vapor. Animals and plants live in water.

Hydrosphere and Sun Water and Sun

Sun warms the water. Warm water evaporates more readily.

Hydrosphere and Geosphere Water and Soil

Infiltration occurs when rain or irrigation water is supplied to a field, it seeps into the soil.

Water eroding soil Soil runoff making water turbid (cloudy).

Geosphere and Biosphere Soil and Living Things

Plants using soil as a foundation to grow . Plants taking up nutrients from soil through their roots. Animals living in soil. Earthworms removing nutrients from soil. Plant parts, such as leaves, decomposing to form soil. Animals decomposing to form soil. Waste of living things adds organic matter to the soil. Humans make bricks using soil.

Geosphere and Sun Sun warms the soil.

Biosphere and Sun Living Things and Sun

Sun warms living things Sun powers photosynthesis Sunburn

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Name: _____________________________________ Date: ___________________________________

Earth’s Systems and Spheres

Directions You will be exploring your notes for information about the Earth’s Spheres. Starting with Task 1, use your notes from previous assignments to complete this worksheet with a partner.

Task 1 – Identifying Earth’s Spheres Use your notes from previous lessons to help you record the names of the four spheres shown and write description of each. Write the description in your own words; do not copy directly from the text. Use visual model of Earth’s Spheres.

1. Name the sphere:

Write the description in your own words:

2. Name the sphere:

Write the description in your own words:

3. Name the sphere:

Write the description in your own words:

4. Name the sphere:

Write the description in your own words.

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Earth’s Systems and Spheres (Cont’d)

Task 2 – Interactions between Earth’s Spheres Investigate the “Treasure” sheet to see examples of how Earth’s spheres can interact. Everything that happens on Earth depends on complex interactions between the Atmosphere, Biosphere, Geosphere, and Hydrosphere including the Cryosphere. For examples of how Earth’s spheres interact you may use the “Treasure” sheet information about the interactions between the spheres and look at the descriptions of the images. Choose two images from your Earth Cards to describe how Earth’s spheres are interacting in the photograph that you chose or what your have observed outside of your classroom. Image #1 Describe the image or observation you chose: __________________________________________________________________ How are Earth’s Spheres interacting in this image? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Illustrate the interaction:

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Task 2 – Interactions between Earth’s Spheres (Cont’d)

Image #2 Chose a second image or observation you chose: ___________________________________________________________ How are Earth’s Spheres interacting in this image? _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Illustrate the interaction:

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Name: ________________________________ Date: ____________________

Project Rubric

Score 1 2 3 4

Coverage of the Topic

Details on the poster have little or nothing to do with main topic.

Details on the poster relate to the topic but are too general or incomplete. The audience needs more information to understand.

Details on the poster include important information but the audience may need more information to understand fully.

Details on the poster capture the important information about the topic and increase the audience’s understanding.

Use of Graphics Graphics do not relate to the topic.

All graphics relate to the topic.

All graphics are related to the topic and most make it easier to understand.

All graphics are related to the topic and make it easier to understand.

Organization The information appears to be disorganized.

Information is organized, but titles and subheadings are missing or do not help the reader understand.

Information is organized with titles and subheading.

Information is very organized with clear titles and subheadings.

Layout and Design

Much of the information on the poster is unclear or too small.

Most of the information on the poster is in focus and the content is easily viewed and identified from 4 ft. away.

Most of the information on the poster is in focus and the content easily viewed and identified from 6 ft. away.

All information on the poster is in focus and can be easily viewed and identified from 6 ft. away.

Sources

Some sources are not accurately documented.

All sources (information and graphics) are documented, but information is incomplete or many are not in the desired format.

All sources (information and graphics) are accurately documented, but there are a few errors in the format.

All sources (information and graphics) are accurately documented

Mechanics

Many grammatical, spelling, or punctuation errors.

A few grammatical, spelling, or punctuation errors.

Almost no grammatical, spelling or punctuation errors.

No grammatical, spelling or punctuation errors.

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Rubric Score Summary

Rubric Score by Student: _____________ Student Comments: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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