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Bamboo Management and Utilization-Review 2013
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1
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Forestry
Research Center
Research Project On:
BAMBOO MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION IN
SELECTED DISTRICTS OF ETHIOPIA
Initially (in 2008) developed by Yigardu Mulatu (MSc ), Berhane Kidane
(MSc.), Demelash Alem (MSc.), Tesfayhe Hunde (MSc.),Seyum
Kelemeworek (PhD.), Alemayehu Rifera (MSc.), Abreham Yirgu (MSc.),
Yohans Adane (MSc.)and Abayneh Deraro (PhD.)
Revised (in 2011, Based on M & E report ) by Mehari Alebachew
Finally Revised (during the 2013 national research review, based on
progress of the project) by Yigardu Mulatu (PhD), Forestry Research Center,
Addis Ababa
April, 2013
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1. BACKGROUND AND JUSTIFICATION
Bamboo is a perennial plant, which belongs to the Poaceae (sometimes called ramineae)
family (Wong, 2004). In terms of taxonomy, it is considered as a giant grass.
Ecologically, bamboo plants have tree-like functions (Dwivedi, 1993; John & Nadgauda,
2002; Yuming et al., 2004).Bamboos range from the size of grass to a giant of 40 meters
in height and 30 cm in diameter (Dwivedi, 1993; Kosso, 2001). Once established, most
bamboo species continue to be perennial until they flower and then die (Lakshmana,
1994; John & Nadgauda, 2002).
Although many bamboo species are characterized by simultaneous flowering at long
intervals of up to 120 years, few studies have revealed the length of the flowering interval
for very-long-lived bamboo species by observing the whole life cycle of a single clone
(Isagi et al., 2004) and it is impossible to predict exactly when flowering is likely to
occur (Anantachote, 1988). According to Dwivedi (1993), the period between two
gregarious flowerings of bamboo species over the same area is believed to be rather
constant and is called the physiological cycle.
There are about 75 genera (Scurlock et al., 2000) and 1500 species of bamboos in the
world (Bystriakova et al., 2004), the largest proportion being in Asia, which account for
about 1000 species and covering an area of over 180 000 km2 (Scurlock et al., 2000).
Five hundred species in 40 genera are recorded in China (Yuming et al., 2004). On area
basis the largest proportion of bamboos are found in India, consisting of 136 species over
an area of ten million hectares (Jamaluddin et al., 1999).
Africa has about 43 bamboo species on over 1.5 million hectare of land (Kigomo, 1988).
But the diversity is the lowest, where five species representing five genera occur.
Madagascar has 40 species of which 32 are endemic. From the mainland Africa,
Tanzania has the largest number of species (4), followed by Malawi, Uganda and Zambia
(3 species each). The greatest potential wealth of bamboo (two co-occurring species) is in
East Africa, especially around Lake Victoria, and in southern Africa in Zambia and
Zimbabwe, while the countries of West Africa have only a single species of woody
bamboo, principally O. abyssinica, (Bystriakova et al., 2004).
On area basis, Ethiopia has the largest bamboo in Africa (Ensermu et al., 2000) and
contains 67 % of the bamboo in Africa (Kassahun, 2003). The bamboo species found in
Ethiopia are the African alpine bamboo (Yushinia alpina) and the lowland bamboo (O.
abyssinica). Yushinia alpina was previously called Arundinaria alpina (A.alpina). These
two species are indigenous to Ethiopia and endemic to Africa (Ensermu et al., 2000). The
solid-stemmed O. abyssinica covers an area of more than 800, 000 ha, which accounts
85% of bamboo area coverage in the country (Embaye, 2000). In Ethiopia, O. abyssinica
is prominent in river valleys and locally on the escarpment of western part of the country
such as the Benshangul Gumuze regional State (Ensermu et al., 200). It co-exists with
several other species especially the Combretum-Terminalia broadleaved deciduous
woodland vegetation common to this part of the country (Sebsebe Demsew et al., 2003).
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Bamboo has a considerable potential to the socioeconomic development and environmental
protection (Baghel et al., 1998; Kumar et al., 1998; Perez et al., 1998; Sharma et al., 1998;
Kumar and Sastry, 1999). It is becoming so increasingly important in the world’s forest economy,
because 1) it is a superior wood substitute, 2) it is cheap and efficient, 3) it is environmentally
friendly i.e. it has high potential for environmental protection and wide ecological adaptation 4)
the world forest is shrinking. Globally, 1 billion people live in bamboo houses; the economy of
2.5 billion people comes from bamboo. Annual trade earns 5-7 billion USD from bamboo
(tropical timber earns 8 billion USD) (Maxim, 2005).
The values of bamboo are being satisfactorily utilized by tropical Asian countries. For instance,
there are 25,000 bamboo based industries in India providing employment for about 20 million
people (CIBART, 2004). China, which has 4.2 million hectares of bamboo, generates an
approximate total of 40 billion birr annually. It earns US$ 130 million from export of edible
bamboo shoots. Annual export of woven bamboo is valued at 117 million. Bamboo is also
important raw material for many pulp and paper industries in China, India, Thailand and other
Asia countries. Bamboo provides major uses in the rayon, handloom, fishing and sericulture
industries, where it supports the livelihood of million of people (Kumar and Sastry, 1999).
However, bamboo resource of Ethiopia is underutilized and has been neglected by development
practitioners. Currently, its use is by far below its potential; Its uses have been customary and
mainly limited to hut construction, fencing and to a lesser extent production of handicrafts,
furniture, containers for water transport, and storage, baskets, beehive, firewood, fodder, house
utensils, and various art-facts, walking sticks (Embaye, 2004). In some localities farmers generate
income by selling raw bamboo culms and some communities like the Gumuz people in
Benshangul Gumuz region state use bamboo shoot as food.
The country should have potential to generate an approximate of 9.5 billion birr annually. Based
on the CSA (Central statistical Authority) survey of 1997 this output accounts for almost three
times of the gross value of production on handicrafts, urban informal sector operators and small
scale manufacturing establishments in Ethiopia. Based on detailed studies carried out in Ethiopia
(Luso consult, 1997; as cited by Pole, 2002), it would be possible to harvest one third of the total
stock every year on sustainable basis (3 million tones of oven dry biomass). This could be used to
supply part of the particleboard, fiberboard, pulp, furniture, construction and energy requirement
of the nation. Its potential for industrial use has yet to be popularized, as it is presently undertaken
in many tropical Asian countries (Embaye, 2000).
Currently, there is indiscriminate forest loose and depletion hence the unique bamboo resource
will be disappearing before its economical and environmental advantage is appreciated, unless
important reversing mechanisms could not take place (ibid, 2004). The current economic policy
of the nation strongly urges development practitioners to contribute to the economic development
of the country. By the year 2020, Ethiopia is envisioning to reach middle income group countries
of the world. In this regard bamboo can contribute more in generating income since it can be
processed in to products for domestic use and export market. It can also create employment
opportunity to a considerable portion of the society and harness environmental degradation
problems.
Despite these facts; research and development activities on bamboo resource of the country is
scanty. Bamboo is not included in tree planting programs in which millions of tree seedlings have
been established every year. Up to now only a very limited research works have been undertaken:
vegetative propagation of highland bamboo (Tesfaye Hunde and Yohannes Adane,
2005),propagation of lowland bamboo by seed (Kassahun Embaye et al, 2003), utilization-
4
suitability of Yushania alpina for oriented particle board (Seyum Kelemework, 2005), the use of
lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica)as re-enforcement in construction (Melaku
Abegaz, 2004) and ecological aspects and resource management of bamboo (Kassahun Embaye,
2003), Socioeconomic study (Ensermu et al., 2000) seed and fruit characteristics of lowland
bamboo (Demelash Alem, 2006), Natural Regeneration and Growth Habitat Assessment of
Lowland Bamboo in Mandura Woreda, Metekel Zone (Yigremachew Seyoum et al, 2007),
ongoing research activities by Pawe and Holetta Research Centers and, studies by the UNIDO
(United Nation Industrial Development Organization)/East African Bamboo Project (2006-2007).
As compared to the significance of the commodity (bamboo resource), the research conducted so
far is scarce. Information generated from the aforementioned research activities is an eye opener
to create awareness and plan further research. Currently there area many research questions from
different stakeholders such as farmers, investors and development practitioners on the
propagation, management and utilization of the resource. There is also a need to establish bamboo
plantations to fetch the benefits that can be accrued from the resource. Based on this
understanding the following eight research components are identified to be addressed under this
project proposal.
Research Gap
The following are research questions are not yet answered:
Propagation methods
Management methods for optimum yield stand dynamics
Suitability of bamboo for different products, nutritive value of bamboo shoots,
Important pests and disease and their control measures
Performance of introduced bamboo species in the country
Seed storage nature of lowland and highland bamboo
Economic contribution and ethno-botany of bamboo
2. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT
2.1. Long-term objectives
To develop improved technologies of bamboo for sustainable production and utilization
thereby contribute to environmental protection and food security of the country.
2.2 Specific objectives:
1) Determine the best propagation techniques for bamboo employing offset and layering
techniques
2) To develop an efficient micro propagation and in vitro regeneration protocol for bamboo
3) Investigate regeneration, culm characteristics and yield of bamboo under different
harvesting intensities
4) To determine best weeding frequencies on the early performance of O.abyssinia
seedlings.
5) Investigate and determine nutrient content of bamboo shoots
6) Evaluate the performance introduced bamboo species
7) Assess important pests and diseases.
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8) To determine the best storage medium and storage time for O.abyssinica and Yushinia
alpina seeds.
9) Develop silvicultural management techniques to maximize productivity of lowland
bamboo stands (Technique and intensity of harvesting)
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT The project is composed of six main components and six sub-components. The main components
include 1) Developing propagation techniques, 2) Bamboo stand characterization and
management, 3) Nutritive value of bamboo shoot, 4) Assessment of potential pests and diseases,
5) Performance evaluation of introduced bamboo species.
3.1 Rationale of project components and sub components
3.1.1 Developing propagation techniques for highland and Lowland bamboo in Ethiopia Success in plantation development relies on the combined applications of the various disciplines
in forestry, the most important aspect being the availability of quality planting materials
(seedlings). This is because; the performance of plants on reforestation (afforestation) sites
depends on the ability of the planting materials (seedlings) to adapt to the field conditions. It
must, therefore, be noted that the supply of quality planting materials through improved
techniques is a prerequisite for any successful large-scale forest plantation program.
According to Merlyn (2006), bamboos can be propagated either by sexual (reproductive) or
asexual (vegetative) means. Sexual propagation is by means of seeds. However, this is not
popular in the country due to the irregularity and rarity of flowering of common bamboo species.
Vegetative or asexual propagation makes use of different parts of bamboo plants as propagation
material. There are various methods of vegetative propagation described by various authors,
ERDB-DENR/FAO/UNDP (1994) and PCCARD (1991). These are: (a) Clump division, (b)
Basal Culm Division or Offset, (c) Culm cutting, (d) Branch cutting, (e) Ground layering, (f)
Branch Marcotting (air layering), (g) Tissue culture: Given these various propagation methods,
the most common method practiced in Philippines and Asian countries is culm cutting with some
procedural variations found practical and effective by individual propagators. Offset method is
found to be effective in propagating species where culm cutting is not so successful.
In Ethiopia, the indigenous knowledge of farmers in propagating bamboo is by using the offset
method. Offset method is superior to culms and culm cuttings (Tesfaye Hunde & Yohannes
Adane, 2005). However the problems in using this method are 1) excavating out offsets is a
Tire sum and labor intensive work 2) offsets are also difficult to transport for long distances
because of their heavy weight and long length, 3) Excavating out offsets can damage the
adjoining rhizome so the neighboring culms. Establishing large scale plantation by using this
technique is very expensive and unfeasible. Previous research works in the propagation of
bamboo in the country are not successful in bringing effective technique and hence further
research that focuses on different techniques that were not tested well in previous researches is of
paramount importance both on lowland and high land bamboo species.
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From experience, an offset of a highland bamboo weighs 20-30 kg. Minimizing at least the culm
weight by removing it at effective height can help. Producing seedlings from the stand itself while
the mother plant is within the stand can be another option, so evaluating the response of bamboo
for both ground and air layering and coming up to a decision is important.
Many important crop plants are increased vegetatively and grown as clones. Suitable methods for
vegetative propagation have been developed over many centuries. These traditional
‘macropropagation’ techniques (or ‘macro-methods’) which utilize relatively large pieces of
plants, have been refined and improved by research. For instance, methods of applying fine water
mist to prevent the desiccation of cuttings, better rooting composts and the control of temperature
in the rooting zone, have considerably enhanced the rate at which many plants of horticultural or
agricultural interest can be multiplied. In recent years, micro propagation techniques are also
advancing for plant multiplication (George et al. (eds.), 2008).
Over the centuries, villagers have replanted bamboos by dividing up clumps and their
underground stems or cutting up the underground stems (rhizomes) of clumping species.
However many species produce extremely large plants and it is not always easy to dig out pieces
for propagation. A number of other techniques have been developed for a variety of species in
many areas of the world. Many of them have been refined by appropriate research over the past
20years (Banik, 1995). Vegetative propagation has been found to cut costs of bamboo plantations
in comparison to the use of more conventional vegetative methods.
Starting from very recent years, the need of planting bamboo in larger scale than ever before has
become increasing in Ethiopia, accordingly, cost effective and efficient techniques of propagation
are required. Though, viability of seeds of O. abyssinica is relatively longer (three years,
unpublished works of the Forestry Research Center) and has higher germination rate, seeds are
not available on regular basis (LUSO, 1997; Azene Bekele, 1993). Besides, culms produced from
seed longer period (seven years) to reach harvestable size. Under these circumstances, other
techniques of propagation become important. Propagation methods by clonal/vegetative
propagation is cost effective and desirable for large-scale application (Reddy, 2006).
Several methods of vegetative propagation techniques using offsets, rhizomes, culm and branch
cuttings, layers, and macroproliferation of seedlings are being practiced for different species
(Banik, 1995; Kleinhenz and Midmore, 2001; Pattanaik et al., 2004; Othman, 2005). These
methods also suit to the requirements of farmers and non-government organizations (NGOs) for
their low cost and ease of management. Unlike tissue culture/micropropagation techniques,
macropropagation techniques do not requires laboratory facilities, expensive chemicals, etc.
(Jiménez and Guevara, 2007). Rhizome-based propagules can be directly planted into the field. In
the cutting methods, culm cuttings or branch cuttings of desirable sizes are planted in polybags or
nursery beds to raise saplings (Koshy and Gopakumar, 2005).
Clump-based vegetative propagation technique is a time-tested and widely practiced method in
Asia (NMoBA, 2004; Banik, 1995). A segment of the rhizome is severed or separated from the
parent rhizome and nurtured to develop into an independent source of planting material. The
detached portion of the rhizome carries all the elements needed for the growth of a new plant. It
may be separated with other parts of the plant such as rhizome offsets, roots and culm. Common
to all methods of rhizome-based propagation is the cutting away of a part of the rhizome from a
healthy and mature clump. Nevertheless, studies on vegetative propagating Ethiopian bamboo
species are limited.
7
Tissue culture techniques have offered many practical advantages to various aspects of
development in tropical forestry. These advantages include production of disease free plants as in
populous spp. (Ahuja, 1993), selection of mutant varieties and in vitro clonal propagation (Rani
and Raina, 2000), preservation of selected genotypes, somatic hybridization and genetic
engineering, as in white pine (Pinus monticola) (Percy et al., 2000). It has also been used as a tool
for the production of important secondary compounds from in vitro plant materials (Mulabagal
and Sheng, 2004). This is of great importance for commercialization of potential tree species. The
sole aspect of tissue culture that has so far been widely applied in tropical forestry is the
possibility of propagation of elite, endangered, or difficult to propagate trees (Pena and Seguin,
2001).
Micro propagation and morphogenesis have been attained through organogenesis or somatic
embryogenesis of many important trees (Steven and Ben, 1999). The development of successful
protocols for axillary budding (particularly for hardwoods), adventitious budding (particularly for
conifers) (Minocha et al., 1995) and somatic embryogenesis for a number of tropical tree species
(Raghavan, 1986; Anonymous, 1998), have been reported. However, unlike agricultural crops
and horticultural plants, tissue culture of forest species in the tropics is still lagging behind. This
is mainly because several difficulties arise, which can seriously affect the performance of
explanted tissues from trees. These problems include difficulties to obtain sterile explant
materials, tardiness of in vitro responses of explants, vitrification, browning of cultures, and
difficulties in acclimatization of plantlets to field conditions, and somaclonal variations. Despite
the profound research endeavors, tissue culture of bamboos is not yet advanced. Tissue culture of
bamboos has never been worked up on so far in Ethiopia.
3.1.2. Management of bamboo stands
3.1.2.1 Management of existing bamboo stands
Appropriate harvesting techniques are important to establish sustainable utilization and
conservation management schemes. Felling cycle and thinning are the key harvesting activities
that require appropriate decision. Thinning activities are important for bamboo culm vigor from
rhizome. These silvicultural operations depend on the rhizome characteristics; shoot recruitment
rate and density of stumps of the bamboo forest. Though there are no comprehensive rhizome
characterization studies done so far on Ethiopian bamboo species, rhizomes of highland bamboo
have relatively longer rhizome neck (spacer length) hence can be selectively harvested in area
basis by introducing different intensities.
In lowland bamboo, the rhizome is purely sympodial/ pachymorph, hence all the clumps are
congested; hence one should know what harvesting technique to employee before applying
different intensities. Proper harvesting of bamboo stands is important measure to maximize
productivity and increase stand value. If not harvest, the rate of increment in bamboo culms is
reduced due to the limited space available for the newly grown culms to survive (Parkash and
Xhanna, 1979). According to Kadambi (1949), after each cleaning and thinning there was an
increase in culm production on some species of bamboo. Harvesting is considered as one of prime
operation in bamboo plantation establishment for two reasons: it leads to the sustainable
production of culms and it can improve future pole production quantitatively and qualitatively
(Bamboo farming, 1994). A 4-year felling cycle was most widely used but in the Philippines a 2-
year cycle is practiced. However, the thinning and felling intensity should be determined based on
the species type and local biophysical conditions.
8
O. abyssinica (lowland bamboo) is a clump forming bamboo that extend 3-13 m high and 5-10
cm in diameter, nearly solid (Phillips, 1995). According to FAO and INBAR (2005), the major
portion of Ethiopia’s bamboo (85%) is the lowland bamboo found in the Combretum–
Terminalia-Deciduous woodlands of western Ethiopia together with other associated grasslands.
In Ethiopia, the species is found in two forms in the altitudinal limit of 1200-1800 masl: (1) dense
and as extended natural bamboo stand; with or without some scattered bushes/trees (2) sparsely
populated or scattered natural bamboo stands: found with bushes and scattered tree, constituting
roughly about 20% of vegetation (WBI, 2003) Appendix 1). Estimates by LUSO Consult reported
the number of culms per ha as 8124 or 19.53 t/ha dry weight (LUSO, 1997). If managed, a clump
produces 10-15 culms per clump per year.
According to the local community, as reported by Demissew Sertse et al. (2011), lowland
bamboo flowers every 30-35 years. During the 2010 mass flowering period that started before
seven years in, Guba and Mankusha areas of Metekel Zone caused mass death of over 85% of the
estimated total 400,000 ha bamboo in Benishangul-Gumz region (Demisew Sershe, 2010),
As O. abyssinica is a clumping bamboo species and has no management, stand congestion has
becomes a serious problem. Congested clumps pose a problem not only for the felling of the
culms but also of fire due to the enclosed dead and dry culms (Ram Prasad (1988). Congested
clumps do not allow new shoots to come up easily; even if any shoot comes up it becomes
malformed (Suwannapinunt, 1988). Many working plans prescribe retention of a
minimum number of old culms varying from 6 to 10 for providing support to the new culms (A.
N. Chaturvedi, 1988) and avoidance of unnecessary retention of the dead and dried culms in a
clump for quite a long period so as to allow the new shoots to come up in more beneficial way
Suwannapinunt, 1988). In most bamboo forests, the cutting cycle ranges from three to four years,
based on working convenience N. Chaturvedi (1988).
Development of new culms, however, takes place near the previous year’s culms. Consequently,
culms older than three years do not provide any support to the new culms.
Prescription for management of clumping bamboos are forwarded in different countries for
obtaining high productivity with the desired quality of culms. For instance in India, horseshoe
harvesting technique is recommended for G. hasskarliana, a sympodial type rhizome, as older
culms are often inside the clumps (Suwannapinunt, 1988). The clump is worked into a horseshoe
to enable a man to get into the clump easily and work on all three sides and harvest old (older
than three year old) culms. The frequency of cutting cycles is based on working convenience
(Chaturvedi, 1988). Studies have shown that the development of new culms is not peripheral. The
productivity of bamboo forests depends on the production and size of new culms. The
management, in general, involves a selective felling system with a felling cycle of four years in
Kerala, India with prescribed felling rules (Kumar, 1988). Culms less than two years old should
not be cut and removed; All the new culms and 25 percent of the old culms should be retained;
No clump should be clear felled except after flowering and when seeding has been completed;
Culms should be cut as low as possible leaving one internode above ground; Cutting should begin
from the side opposite to where new sprouts are emerging.
On the other hand, X-shaped harvesting techniques is a recommended technique due to the least
destruction and lower initial removal of bamboo culms for natural stands of Giaganthocloa
scortechinii (most extensively found clumping bamboo in Malaysia) bamboo clumps with
9
minimum number of 26 culms/clump (Abd. Razak and Azmy, 2009). The same report indicated
that higher number of culms and lower dying culms were produced employing X-shaped
harvesting technique as compared horse shoe shape harvesting (Abd. Razak and Azmy, 2009).
Harvesting is done by cutting culms older than three years while leaving the younger ones
since these are physiologicaly more active, have vigorous rhizomes and can produce more
culms (Ueda 1960; 1968). In management, therefore, the selection system with a three or four
year rotation is recommended and those culms more than three years old are harvested from
each clump. In bamboos with sympodial type of rhizome, older culms are found inside the
clumps, therefore the horseshoe harvesting technique is recommended (Suwannapinunt, 1988).
However, other Studies have shown that the development of new culms is not peripheral
(Chaturvedi, 1988).
In Ethiopia, information on the type of harvesting technique and harvesting intensity is lacking
for bamboo stands. Therefore, the objectives of this research is to determine the effects of (1)
different harvesting techniques and (1) determine the intensity of harvesting on productivity and
culm size of natural lowland bamboo stands from field experiment.
3.1.2.2. The effect of different weeding frequency on the early
Performance of O. abyssinica
Since lowland bamboo currently is flowering gregariously, plantation establishment and
subsequent management activities are important options to safeguard the extinction of this species
are indispensable. Taking the versatile use of lowland bamboo to the local community and its
potential to bring an additional household income to the farmers, this activity is believed to bring
a solid contribution to food security. Among the various management practices that should be
practiced on young seedlings, weeding is of a paramount importance.
Because resources are limited, different plants, if planted together, compete each other. And
hence optimum level of spacing is required to get better yield. As far as possible this competition
should be kept to the possible minimum through different management options (Dupreiz & De
Leener, 1998).The frequency of weeding and cultivation should also be looked for in order to
Identify optimum level of management for better performance of the species.
But there are no research works done on this species with this regard to plantation establishment
and management despite the indications that O.abyssinica could grow together with other species
and it is one of the shade loving plants especially during its establishment phases. Therefore
determining appropriate weeding frequency is very important for the growth and development of
the species since site specific managements are very important especially in the tropics
(Shreppers et al., 1998). Establishment of this type of experiment will also be used as a
demonstration site for the farmers so that they will use the technology for the development of the
species in the surrounding and to consider it as one of the economic species as the success of
Demonstration sites and bases will help encourage farmers to mobilize more technical inputs into
the production of bamboo resources and products (Yushan, 2001).
3.1.3 Evaluating bamboo for different end-uses
3.1.3.1 Bamboo shoots
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Ethiopian native bamboo species shoots are not widely used as edible food. However, bamboo
shoots are used very widely in Asian-Pacific countries for a long time. Shoots are famous for
various delicious dishes as main courses and ingredient. It’s considered as a healthy food rich in
nutrition, which contains about 16 kinds of amino acids. Bamboo shoots contains several nutritive
Substances that human body needs such as carbohydrate, protein, fat, fiber and many other
inorganic substances and vitamins. Moreover, bamboo shoots have certain extent of hygienic and
pharmaceutical values. In this research the nutrient values of Ethiopian bamboo shoots and
harvesting time will be determined. In addition to these best shoot preserving and fresh shoot
processing techniques will be identified.
3.1.4. Assessment of bamboo pests and disease
3.1.4.1 Bamboo disease
The productivity and suitability of bamboo is affected by different types of pathogens. These
pathogens can attack different parts of bamboo stands (Mahanan, 1997). Fungi is one of the major
responsible pathogen that affect seeds, rhizomes, root stem (culms and culm sheath),
flowers in the natural habitat and also in storage. Moreover, the bamboo litter is
colonized by a variety of fungal species which are saprophytic, sap staining and soft rot
fungi, several root pathogens and sheath rot fungi also perennate in the litter (Jamaluddin
and Tiwari, 1999).
3.1.4.2 Bamboo insect pests
Different parts of bamboo are affected by a variety of insect pests. The culms are more
susceptible to different types of beetles, termite and shoot borers than hard and soft woods, as it
does not contain toxic substances unlike the other species (Kassahun, 2003). Insect pests feeding
on the seeds may have an impact on the establishment of the new plantations. Bamboo under
storage condition either as culms or as finished products is very susceptible to different insect
Damage. From field observation, such problem is found to exist on Ethiopian bamboo species;
there are conditions in which standing bamboo culms are attacked by unidentified pests. It is also
recognized that it is limiting the end use by shortening the service life span of the products. This
might also have an impact on the performance and productivity of the species and will limit the
Uses and income that will be obtained from this resource in the future. Despite, these facts, there
is no any study conducted in the identification of this pest so far. Therefore at this juncture,
identification of the pests and their level of damage are important; as it is the primary work that
should be done before taking any preventive/controlling measures.
3.1.5. Performance evaluation of bamboo species
3.1.5.1. Performance evaluation of introduced bamboo species
There are about 1500 bamboo species in the world (Zhaohua, 2004); Africa alone has 43 species
(Kigomo, 1993). Ethiopia has narrow genetic diversity in this resource, it has only two species:
Yushania alpine and Oxytenantera abyssinica. With these limited species, it is very difficult to
sustainably supply bamboo raw material and products. Due to mysterious death of bamboo
Rhizomes after flowering and seed setting, some areas that were covered with bamboo are
currently devoid of the species. This is further aggravated by the increasing need for agricultural
and grazing land. Among the various measures that should be taken in averting these problems,
11
widening the genetic base of the resource is indispensable. These require introduction and
evaluation of different potential species from different parts of the world.
3.1.6 Effect of different storage conditions on germination and field Emergence of O. abyssinica and Yushinia alpina seeds. The poor viability of seed, flowering at long intervals and limited availability of seed is the
practical problem in bamboo propagation using seeds both Oxytenanthera abyssinica and
Yushinia alpine. Some studies have been reported on suitable methods for storage of bamboo
seeds (Somen & Steethakshmi, 1989). Therefore devising appropriate storage mechanisms is very
important. Seeds locally can be stored in different storage media such as bottle, sacks, plastic
Boxes, Tin boxes, polyethen bags, cloth bags and jute bags. The storage time for the seeds of the
species is not known.
3.2. Inputs of the project:
The project also includes capacity building (training, field and laboratory equipment, vehicle) and
human resource requirement. This project is expected to be financed by government budget.
3.2.1 Human resource (See Table 1) Table 1. Research staff available at Centers where the project is to be executed
S.N
Research
Centre
Discipline Qualification
PhD MSc BSc Diploma Others
1 FRC Silviculture 1
2 FRC Production Forestry 2 2 2
3 FRC Ecology 1
4 Holetta Forest Genetics 1
5 Holetta Forestry 1 1 2
6 Pawe General Forestry 2
7 Assossa General Forestry 2 1
8 Jimma General Forestry 2
9 D/Zeit General Forestry 1 2 1
Total 2 4 7 6 5
12
3.2.2 Facilities Table 2.The status of facilities currently available at centers’ where the project is to be
Executed
Center Facility Office Lab Green
house
Nurs
ery
Vehi
cle
Comput
er
Photocopier Cold
room
Store Communication Library/Information
FRC ** * ** *** ** *** * * * ** ** Pawe *** *** * ** ** ** Assossa ** *** * ** Holetta ** * ** *** * *** *** * *** *** *** D/Zeit ** *** *** * ** *** * None *** adequate
* In adequate ** modest/moderate
13
4. METHODOLOGY TO BE FOLLOWED 4.1. Developing propagation techniques for highland and lowland Bamboo in Ethiopia 4.1.1. Treatments (for highland bamboo)
1. Offsets (farmers method)
2. Rhizome, with out culm
3. Offset (two nodes)
4. offsets (four nodes)
5. offsets (six nodes)
Treatments (for lowland bamboo) 1. Offset
2. Rhizome (with out culm),
3. Offset (with two nodes) or stump,
4. whole culm and
5. Culm cuttings
6. Branch cuttings
Besides testing on the field, whole culm, culm cuttings and branch cuttings will also be evaluated
in nurseries on propagation beds for lowland bamboo. Experimental Design: RCBD, Number of replication=3; Number of plants per treatment=9,
Spacing between Plants: 4 m in the field. Under nursery condition raised beds will be used and
spacing between propaguoles for whole culm and culm and branch cuttings may be reduced to 20
cm based on the size of the propaguol.
Set 3: Tissue culture (Development of mass micro propagation protocols for Bamboo)
Methodology checklist
Basal media
Literatures suggest that bamboo responds so well to either of the following basal media:
Gamborge basal medium, the MS basal medium and the woody plant medium (WPM). However,
fine tuning of protocols developed elsewhere to Ethiopian condition is necessary. Fine tuning is
usually done by selection of the appropriate growth regulator and its amount that should result in
better performance the plant in vitro.
Growth regulators
Auxins: 2,4-D and NAA in various concentrations
Cytokinins: TDZ, Kinetin, Zeatin
Accessories: Activated charcoal, coconut water
PH 5.7
Explants
14
Shoot-tips, Leaves, Nodal buds, Seeds (if available0
Culture condition
In dark for somatic embryogenesis and in light for organogenesis
4.1.2 Data to be collected and analysis The data to be collected includes: date of shoot emergence; date of root emergence and root
length (using planting materials planted at the border so as not to damage the sample plants from
which subsequent data is to be collected); length, height and root collar diameter of the emerging
shoot;. Shoot recruitment rate against time, yield increment against time, shooting performance of
rear and fore ends of a rhizomes structure. The data will be summarized using MS-EXCELL
software and will be subjected for analysis using SPSS and Descriptive statistics.
4.1.3 Procedure: (Steps in site selection, production of planting materials
from different clonal propagation techniques and tending operations)
Site selection
The planting site to be used will be a well drained soil (gently slopped) and nearer to bamboo
forests and other vegetations so as to use them as plus plants (wind break). It will also be nearer
to a water source so as to provide supplemental watering for the four months period after
planting.
Bed Preparation and soil mix to be used
Planting beds should gently sloped or raised with multi-layered particles. A 3-layered structure
made using a layer of gravel, medium sized sand and fine sand will be used. The bottom layer
will be gravel followed by large size and medium sized sand; and the top will be fine sand. Each
layer will be 7-10 cm deep.
Preparation of planting material
Preparation of planting materialswas done by following the Tropical Bamboos Propagation
Manual by Ronald (2005), Manuals for Vegetative Propagation of Bamboos by Banik (1995) and
NMoBA (2004). Age of planting materials: all will be obtained from only one year old plants.
Rhizome with roots (Rhizome): In this method, the whole rhizome with the
accompanying root system will be severed from the parent rhizome.
15
Rhizome with roots and culm (offset) or the traditional method in Ethiopia: In
this case rhizome was severed together will all aboveground plant parts. The upper most part of
the culm was removed, so that bigger portion (12-15 node for big culms) and the corresponding
branches and leaves were retained with the rhizome.
Rhizome with culm-stock (Rhizome-offset): The procedure followed was similar to
that in propagation through offset. The difference was that only the base or lowermost portion of
the culm (2-3 nodes) was retained.
The whole culm method: The culm together with the stump (that keeps moisture and can
also produce new sprouts) was severed from the system. The top was cut with a slanting cut
leaving 12 to 15 nodes for big culms. All primary branches were pruned to two nodes.The
rhizome used in this method need not be big like the offset, rhizome-offset and rhizome methods.
Culms having smaller rhizomes than propagules used under the rhizome-based techniques were
selectively used.
Culm cuttings: culm segment of bamboos of 2 nodes bearing healthy branches were used
after trimming-off the branchlets to two internodes. The upper most and lower most parts of
culms were not included. Then the cuttings were planted horizontally.
Branch cutting (branches having aerial roots at the base): Prominent primary
branches with five-six nodes were used after trimming-off the branchlets to two nodes. The
cuttings were buried in prepared trenches by slanting roughly by 15o so as to leave its tip sticking
out.
Season of planting: Planting was done on 10 July, 2009, when the soil got sufficiently wet.
The farmers in the area plant bamboo under this moisture regime. This is the time for new shoots
to come out from the actively dividing buds. This is also the starting time of the winter season
hence adequate moisture is available starting from planting.
Regular tending operations
Fencing: The site was fenced to protect intervention by livestock, wild animals or human beings.
Watering: supplemental watering was done when there was no rain for more than a day in
September and October.
Mulching: A layer of mulch of sorghum straw was applied to plots to retain moisture and protect
them from weather extremes.
Weeding and hoeing: was done twice in the rainy season of 2009 (August and September) and
two times in 2010 rainy season (July and September).
16
Control stress factors: avoid extremes such as inadequate or too much water and temperatures.
Light availability for species that take longer periods to root and shade is beneficial. Shading,
when needed, should be such that 50-60% of sunlight reaches the bed. Shading should not be
continuous. It should be avoided during the rainy season or overcast days.
Data analysis
After data was summarized using MS-Excell, analysis will be made employing the different
functions of PASW Statistics 18 (latest version of SPSS, Predictive Analytical Software).
Descriptive statistics was used before the actual analysis to see into the distribution of
observations and outliers. Shapiro-Wilk’s (n<50) test value was used to check whether the normal
distribution of observations was fulfilled or not. The Levene’s test will also used to check
whether the assumption of homogeneity of variances was met or not. Univarate analysis of the
General Linear Model (Three-way-ANOVA, taking replication as one factor). Tukey's Honest
Significance Difference (HSD) test will be used when statistically significant differences
(p < 0.05) is observed.
Budget required for developing propagation techniques of lowland bamboo
Table 2. Budget requirement for developing propagation of lowland bamboo for the coming five years
Budget
code
Description 2013/14 2014/115 2015/16 2015/17 2015/18 Total
6113 Budge for
contract staff 8,000.00
8,500.00 9,000.00
8,000.00
10,000.00
43,500.00
6114 Casual laborer
8,000.00 7,500.00 6,500.00
4,000.00
3,000.00
29,000.00
6212 Stationary
1,000.00
1,000.00 1,000.00
1,500.00
1,500.00
6,000.00
6217 Fuel and
lubricants 4,800.00
4,800.00 5,525.00
6,000.00
7,000.00
28,125.00
6218 Farm supplies
3,500.00
4,000.00 -
- -
7,500.00
6219 Office
supplies 1,000.00
1,000.00 1,000.00
1,000.00
1,000.00
5,000.00
6221 Farm inputs
6,000.00 7,500.00 7,000.00
5,000.00 25,000.00
50,500.00
6223 Laboratory
supplies - - -
- -
-
6231 Perdium
5,000.00
5,000.00 5,600.00
5,600.00
5,600.00
26,800.00
6232 Transportatio
n 500.00
500.00 500.00
500.00
500.00
17
2,500.00
6241 Maintenance
2,000.00
2,000.00 2,000.00
2,000.00
2,000.00
10,000.00
6245 Barbed wire
8,000.00
7,500.00 -
- -
15,500.00
6271 Training
- - -
5,000.00
5,000.00
10,000.00
6313 Fixed asset
10,000.00
4,000.00 3,350.00
3,350.00
3,350.00
24,050.00
Total
57,800.00
53,300.00 41,475.00
41,950.00
63,950.00 258,475.00
Location: Assossa for lowland bamboo and Injibara and Tikur Inchini for highland
bamboo
Duration: 2013-2018 for lowland bamboo; 2008 -2013 for highland bamboo The trial for highland bamboo was established two years after the planned time (2008).
The trial plot for lowland bamboo was established at Assossa in 2008 but failed because
of flowering of the propaguoles. Because of these reasons that make the experiment not
to be accomplished in time, it is agreed (during the 2013 review period of EIAR) to
extend the experimental period and produce complete results for both Ethiopian lowland
and highland species
Responsibilities: Dr. Yosef Amha (Tikureinchine), Mohammed Dololo and Sintayehu Eshetu
(Assossa), Zebene Tadesse and Yared Kebede (Injibara), Dr Yigardu Mulatu (FRC)
4.2. Management of bamboo stands 4.2.1 Management of existing bamboo stands Treatments (for highland bamboo):
1. 0 % thinning intensity
2. 25% thinning intensity
3. 50% thinning intensity
4. 75% thinning intensity
5. Clear felling
For highland bamboo, the plot size to be used will be 20 m*2 0m., replicated 3 times, with in 0.6
ha of land.
Procedure: Select stands of highland bamboo that are homogenous in density;
Year 1: Mark the new shoots
Year 2: Mark the new shoots
Year 3: Mark the new shoots; remove all unmarked ones
Year 4: Start application of treatments
Year 5: Application of the treatments on 3 year old culms,
Remove all the remaining 4 year old culms from all the plots
18
Treatments (for lowland bamboo):
For lowland bamboo, harvesting in area basis is not a preferable silvivicultural practice, , rather
considering clumps is advantageous. Besides, technique of harvesting is another factor while
harvesting. Accordingly, there will be two experimental factors (Factor 1 with two levels and
Factor 2 with 6 levels) making 12 treatments when factorially combined and making the total
number of treatments 13, including the control (no harvesting technique and no harvesting
intensity applied).
Factor I: Harvesting techniques (2 levels):
1. Horse shoe harvesting technique;
2. X-shaped harvesting technique
Factor II: Harvesting intensity (6 levels):
1. 50% cutting of culms older than two years;
2. 75% cutting of culms older than two years
3. 100% cutting of culms older than two years;
4. 50% cutting of culms older than three years;
5. 75% cutting of culms older than three years;
6. 100% cutting of culms older than three years.
Three blocks each constituting sufficiently homogenous lowland bamboo stand and clump size
will be selected. From each block, 52 clumps will be identified and the thirteen treatments,
including the control, will be applied allocating four clumps per treatment. Accordingly, the total
number of clumps to be used for the study will be 156 in number. The experimental design will
be factorial randomized complete block design (RCBD).
19
Figure 1. (a) Mature plantation stand of lowland bamboo; (b) horse-shoe and X-shaped
techniques of harvesting of clumping bamboo species
20
Data to be collected
Initial data on the number of number of culms per plot, number of clumps per ha, number of
culms per clump, diameter and height of culms will be recorded prior to application of the
treatments. The number of newly coming shoots, number of recruited culms and number of
aborted shoots will be counted during the shooting season (June-September), after application of
the treatments. Time of shoot sprout; internode length, number of nodes, height, diameter, leaf
size (leaf width and length) of newly produced culms will be recorded. Diameter at breast height
and height of the newly recruited culms will be measure at the end of the shooting season
(September).
Data analysis
Data analysis will be made employing SAS 9. Descriptive statistics will be used before the actual
analysis to check the distribution of observations and to check outliers. One-Way-ANOVA and
two-way-ANOVA will used for mean comparison. Sigma Plot 10 will used to construct graphs.
Budget requirement
Table 2. Budget requirement for harvesting intensity for the coming five years
Budget
code
Description 2013/14 2014/115 2015/16 2016/17 20117/18 Total
6113 Budge for contract staff 0 0 0 0 0 0
6114 Casual laborer 10,000 9500 9000 10,000 9500 48,000
6212 Stationary 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 5,000
6217 Fuel and lubricants 4800 4800 5525 5590 6500 27,215
6218 Farm supplies 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 10,000
6219 Office supplies 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 5,000
6221 Farm inputs 0 0 0 0 0 0
6223 Laboratory supplies
0
0 0 0 0 0
6231 Perdium 5000 5000 5600 5400 5500 26,500
6232 Transportation 500 500 500 500 500 2,500
6241 Maintenance 2000 2000 2000 3000 3000 12,000
6245 Barbed wire 30,000 2000 2000 2000 2000 38,000
6251 Service charge 0 0 0 0 0 0
6256 Land rent 0 0 0 0 0 0
6271 Training 0 0 0 0 30,000 30,000
6313 Fixed asset 10,000 4000 3350 4600 3500 25,450
Total 66300 31800 31975 35090 64500 229,665
Location: Pawe for lowland bamboo and Injibara and Tikur Inchini for highland
bamboo
Duration: 2013-2018 for lowland bamboo; 2008 -2015 for highland bamboo The trial for highland bamboo was established two years after the planned time (2008).
The trial plot for lowland bamboo was established at Assossa in 2008 but failed because
of flowering of the experimental plot. Because of these reasons that make the experiment
not to be accomplished in time, it is agreed (during the 2013 review period of EIAR) to
21
extend the experimental period and produce complete results for both Ethiopian lowland
and highland species
Persons responsible (Researchers, TAS and other staff)
Yared Kebede (Pawe ARC), Yosef Amaha (HARC), Yigardu Mulatu (FRC);
Mohammed (AARC)
4.2.2 The effect of different weeding frequency on the early Performance of O.abyssinica seedlings under Pawe condition O. abyssinica fruits will be collected in December from the gregarious flowering of bamboo in
the surrounding and the seeds will be processed to extract seeds out of the fruits. They will be
raised in nurseries to produce seedlings to carry out plantation for the establishment of the
experiment. After the necessary land size is secured and cleared for the research, planting holes
will be prepared with 3m*3m spacing. The dimension of the holes will be 60cm wide, 60m deep.
This will be done two weeks before the onset of the rainy season. Equal sized seedlings in terms
of height and diameter will be selected and used for the experiment by grading while they are in
the nursery. The seedlings will be planted after the depth of soil moisture reached 30cm, which
mostly occurs after three to four days continuous rain. The field lay out will be arranged in
randomized complete block design
Where four levels of weeding (non-weeding, every month, every two months and every three
months) will be tried. Weeding will be made during the rainy season and during the dry season
they will be left as they are except data taking and other observations. The number of seedlings to
be used for each treatment will be 20. Other managements will be applied uniformly to all
experimental units. For the determination of different parameters six central seedlings will be
selected from each treatment in each block. Every month starting from the date of plantation,
height, root collar diameter, number of leaves, number of nodes and internodes will be counted or
measured. Survival count will be taken two times, two weeks after planting and at peak hot month
of the year (April). Starting from the second year, other than the above-mentioned parameters
number of newly emerged shoots from each planted sample seedling will be counted their
corresponding height and diameter at the ground level will be measured. Number of nodes and
their internodes will also be counted and determined.
Data to be collected
Survival count, root collar diameter, height, number of leaves and leaf area,
number of nodes and internodes, time of shoot after planting, number of shots
sprout, new shoot height, survival of new shots, diameter of new shoots,
observable disease and pests.
Data analysis:
Both descriptive and inferential statistics will be used. Data will be checked for normality and
homogeneity of variance and the necessary data transformation will be conducted. ANOVA will
be used to test the significance difference at P=0.05. Mean separation will be done for those
parameters which showed statistical significance difference using least significance difference
(LSD), which is built in SAS.
22
4.3 Evaluating bamboo for different end-uses
4.3.1. Bamboo shoots Sample collection
Fresh bamboo shoots will be harvested from six major bamboo areas namely Hagere-Selam,
Tikureinchine, and Assosa. Fresh shots will be harvested during the rainy season after new shoots
are emerging from rhizomes. Fresh shoots will be classified according to their sizes during
harvesting as follows: -large size, medium size and small size
5 kg weight of fresh shoot from each sizes and a total of 90 kg shoots will be collected from six
sites.
Samples handling
The following precaution will be taken to handle fresh bamboo shoots before testing nutrient
Values
1. Fiberization degree: guarantee the flavor and enhance preserving
2. Cutting area control: reduce the cutting area, which may cause wound respiration in
harvesting
3. Harvesting approach: select edge tools and shoot cell sprain
4. Moisture-molding technology; pilling up after harvesting guarantees the least
moisture diminishing.
The above mentioned precautions will be taken for two reasons:
To prevent the rotting that comes from the bacterial microorganisms invasion and
infection during harvesting time
To prevent the diminish of the physiological activity, to delay the reparation climax and
to avoid moisture diminishing and structure aging
Sample transportation and storage
Sample shoots will be transported by ice-boxes using ammonium liquid for preserving fresh
shoots. The nutrient values of shoots will be tested in Ethiopian Food Research Institute.
Data analysis & experimental design
Completely randomized design (CRD) with factorial experiment will be used to conduct this
experiment. Two factors (6 sites and 3 shoot sizes) are considering evaluating the effect of site
and shooting sizes on the nutrient values. Statistical analysis software (SAS) will be used to
analyze the data using analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure and Duncan’s multiple range
test (DMRT) is used for mean comparison. Based on the nutrient content of the shoots,
appropriate edible shoots grown in each sites will be identified and high grade (sweet shoot)
standard will be recommend.
4.4. Assessment of bamboo insect pests and disease
23
4.4.1 Bamboo insect pest survey Survey of insect pests attacking bamboo in different parts of the country will be made to collect,
identify and preserve economically important insect species. In this survey the type insect pest
attacking the plant, the time and season of attack, plant parts attacked, the stage of the plant
vulnerable to be attacked, the occurrence of the pest and the frequency of the pest infestation and
ecology in general will be recorded. Samples of insects and attacked bamboo plant parts are
collected. Specimens will be prepared for future reference. Information will be gathered from
local people and different sources. Informal questionnaires will be prepared and informants will
be asked to respond to them. In the survey, the environmental condition that favored the pest
attack and the frequency of the pest infestation will be gathered as much as possible from
different sources and informants.
Survey area: Injibara, Shenen for Highland bamboo and Pawe/ Mankush, Assosa for Low land
bamboo
4.4.2 Identification Important insect pest (s) found attacking the bamboo plant will be identified before any
subsequent works shall be followed. The insect feeding habit, attacking season, plant parts
Attacked etc., have to be well identified and literature review works shall also be well done to
Avoid duplications.
4.5.3 Study on Insect Biology and Population Dynamics The biology of the important insect pest should be well known that will help to find the weak
Point of the pest and to devise its control strategy. The biology of the insect could be achieved
from different sources (journals, books, internet, research paper reprints, etc.) and this will help to
reduce time, extra cost and redundancy. Biological study will be done in the laboratory and/or in
the field if sufficient information could not be retrieved from different sources mentioned above.
Data to be collected:
The biological study may include its life cycle, method of feeding, its reproduction methods,
seasonal abundance, insect ecology that favored its multiplication, its behavior, etc.
Data analysis methods
The method of analysis will be dependant on the type and quality of the data to be obtained.
Therefore appropriate software will be employed.
4.5.4 Insect Pest Control Activities Control method will be studied against the important insect pests found attacking the
bamboo tree, bamboo products and byproducts and which passed the identification
process. These control methods will encompass the cultural method (s), physical
method(s), biological method(s), chemical method(s) and a combination of above
mentioned appropriate methods. Data to be collected
Pre and post spray (or any control method) pest population, Number and type of other
pests, etc.
24
4.5.2 Bamboo disease survey Sample collection and isolation
Symptomatic plant parts will be collected from all parts of the plant and will be kept in
paper bags for transport to FRC laboratory for further laboratory works.
Segments or portion of these parts will be incubated in moist chamber at room
temperature for 2-3 days to initiate development of fruiting structures.
These masses of fruiting bodies that will emerge from the section will be transferred to
Petri plates containing 2% Malt Extract Agar (MEA) that is amended with streptomycin
and will be incubated at 250C. Isolation will be made by directly plating symptomatic
tissues onto MEA.
The pure culture will be stored in MEA slants at 50C.
Characterization and identification of isolates
Pure isolates from earlier activity will be transferred to water agar with sterile pine
needles laid on the surface to promote production of fruiting structure.
The plates undergo sporulation process will be incubated for 5-10 days under alternating
cycles of 12 h light and 12 h darkness at room temperature. Single spores will be made
from resulting fruiting structures by spreading spore masses on MEA in a drop of sterile
water.
The morphology of the single spore colony and spore features will use for the
characterization and identification of the species to the genus level.
Pathogenicity test
Each of the isolated fungi will under go inoculation trial in the respective plant part of
the same species on which isolation was made. Prior to inoculation, healthy and
asymptomatic plant parts will be selected and surface sterilized using either ethanol or
sodium hypochlorite.
The isolates that will under this trial will first grow on MEA for 10 days at 250C. Each
isolates will be treated in 10 plants and another 10 plants that are treated with sterile
distilled water or agar block will serve as control for the all the treatments. After 2
months of post inoculation, lesion length or appearance of symptom will be evaluated.
Re-isolation of symptomatic plant parts will be made in order to fulfill Koch’s postulate.
4.5. Performance evaluation of bamboo species and provenances 4.6.1 Performance evaluation of introduced bamboo species
Identifying potential species (from the already introduced once)
The bamboo species that are already introduced include: 1. Dendrocalmus gigantus- a giant bamboo as the name indicates:
2. Dendrocalmus brandisii
3. Dendrocalmus membranaceous
4. Dendrocalmus hamiltoni
5. Dendrocalmus Vulgaris var. vittata
6. Dendrocalmus tulda
7. B. vulgaris green
8. Guadwa amplexifolia
9. Dendrocalamus asper
10. Bambusa bambos
11. Phylostachyus pubsence
Planting material source for species 1 will be Munesa Shashemene Wood Enterprise, for the other species
the source will be the East African Bamboo Project of the Ministry of agriculture and Rural Development.
Multiply seedlings on propagation bed at FRC and Debre Zeit Research Center as
much as 48 seedlings per site can be obtained.
25
Group the species as highland type and lowland type, using references and their
preliminary performance in the nursery.
Prepare planting sites that can also nurse the new seedlings as much as possible
(nursery sites are preferable)
1. 16 plants will be planted per plot, and the experiment will be
replicated three times (48 seedlings per species per site).
The experimental design to be followed will be Completely Randomized Design
(CRD).
Data to be collected
Number of shoots; length, height and root collar diameter of the emerging shoot; number
of leaves, leaf size (diameter and width); culm diameter; shoot recruitment rate against
time, useable culm yield against time, internode length, number of nodes, height,
diameter of culms, mortality, disease and pest incidence/resistance
Data analysis: The data on the performance and soil conservation potentials of bamboo will be
Summarized using MS-EXCELL software and will be subjected for analysis.
Descriptive statistics will be used.
Location: This experiment was established in June 2010 at Chagni, Jimma and Holeta, and
before four years at Gambo). It will also be established this year (2013) at Alemaya, Tepi, and
Kulumsa.
Duration: Currently, there is more opportunity to test the species at newly opened centers and
higher learning institutes (researchers already employed to handle research on Non-Timber Forest
Resources), hence there is need of extend the duration of the trial for more years (up to 2018).
Persons responsible (Researchers, TAS and other staff) Yared Kebede (Pawe ARC), Yosef Amaha (HARC), Negash (JARC), Mohammed (AARC),
Eyasu (HU), Mussa (TARC), Getaneh (KARC)Yigardu Mulatu (FRC)
4.8. Effect of different storage conditions on germination and Field emergence of O. abyssinica and Yushinia alpina seeds
Seed collection and processing
Mature fruits of O. abyssinica and yushinia alpina seeds will be collected from at least twenty
five clumps for representativeness. Seed collection will be conducted in Pawe special Woreda,
Mandura, and Bullen districts for lowland bamboo and Masha and Dawro area for highland
bamboo since there exists gregarious flowering and seed setting of the species. Seed processing
will be done according to the method followed by Demelash Alem (2006). The fruits will be air-
dried and separated in to single fruits. The fruit aggregates will be threshed manually to extract
seeds. The seeds will be stored properly until initial germination test is carried out. Initial
germination test will be done using 100 seeds with four replications. These sample seeds will be
taken by thoroughly mixing the bulk seeds and taking randomly by hand. Approximately, equal
sized seeds will be used for the study in order to avoid the effect of seed size on the germination
test. The sample seeds will be taken out from bulk sample for initial germination test. The test
will be carried out in Pawe and Forestry agricultural research center laboratory simultaneously
with initial germination test, enough amounts of seeds (0.5kg per each collection medium) will be
stored and will be used in subsequent germination testing periods. The necessary storage medium
26
will be purchased or prepared locally. After initial germination test, seeds to be used for
subsequent germination test will be stored in different storage medium: such as stoppered glass
bottles, screw top plastic boxes, tin boxes, polythen bags (with mouth folded three times and
tied), mouth tied cotton cloth bags and jute bags. The experiment will be continued for 24
months, starting from the first germination test. At intervals of four months, seed samples will be
taken out from each storage container and will be tested for standard germination for two
consecutive years. Four hundred seeds in four replications of 100 seed each will be used in each
test (ISTA, 1996). The germination test will be conducted on non-toxic moist germination paper
on Petri dishes. Field emergence test will be conducted by sowing seed in potting mix of soil. The
Observation on germinating seeds/ emerging seedlings will be recorded until no seeds will
Germinate/emerge).
Initial moisture content and seed characteristics The initial moisture content will be determined by using 25 seeds in 5 replicates of 5 seed each.
For measuring seed size (seed length and width) 100 seeds were randomly selected from collected
seeds. These seeds will be divided in to five replicates of 20 seeds each and their size measured
using a caliper. To determine thousand seed weight, 5000 seeds will be taken randomly from the
collected seeds and divided in to five replicates of 1000 seed each. Each replicate will be weighed
using sensitive balance.
Germination test
Before conducting this test, the germinating medium, i.e. Petri dishes (9.5 cm diameter) with
moist blotting paper, will be set up in the laboratory Pawe Agricultural Research Center (PARC).
The pure seeds will be mixed, and randomly counted to select seeds for the germination test.
Germination test will be carried out using four replicates of one hundred seeds. Seeds will be
sown uniformly and will be watered as needed and will be kept moist but not wet, as this would
have negatively affected those (Kassahun et al., 2003). No seed treatment will be applied;
bamboo seeds do not have dormancy (Banik, 1994; Kassahun et al., 2003). Seeds will be
considered to have germinated after the emergence and development of the radical and plumule
from the seed embryo (FAO, 1985).
Each day the number of germinated seeds will be recorded, and the germinated seeds will be
removed so that they will not be counted again (Gulzar & Khan, 2001). Abnormal seeds, seeds
infected with fungus, and ungerminated seeds will be considered as non-viable. When no further
germination appeared, the total number of germinated seeds for each treatment/factor
combination will be added, to determine the germination percentage of bamboo seeds (Palzer,
2002). Ungerminated seeds will be inspected for viability and for the cause of any seed defect.
From the data collected, the other required germination parameters will be determined. Seed
viability will be determined by adding the values for the germination percentage and the viable
but ungerminated seeds during the germination period.
Germination energy
This will be determined in the seed viability test by recording the germination data until the
number of germinated seedlings declines or falls off.
According to Schmidt (2000), germination energy can be found in one of the three ways. These
include (1) by taking data up to the day of peak germination; (2) so as not to exclude germinable
seeds, it can also be regarded as lasting until daily germination falls to less than 25% of the peak
germination or (3) it can also be calculated based on the number of days required to attain 50% of
27
the germination capacity. Therefore, the germination energy of O. abyssinica will be determined
based on these three methods.
Germination value
The germination value aims to combine in a single figure total germination together with an
expression for germination energy or speed of germination. From the germination test data, the
germination value of O. abyssinica seeds will be computed according to the method of
Djavanshir & Pourbeik (1976):
GV =( DGs )GP
N 10
Where
GV= Germination value
GP= Germination percent at the end of the test
DGS= Daily Germination Speed, obtained by dividing the cumulative germination percentage by
the number of days since sowing.
DGS = The total obtained by adding every DGS figure obtained from the daily count
N= the number of daily count, starting from the date of first germination
10= Constant
Germination speed
According to FAO (1985), germination speed, which is expressed as peak values and is the
maximum mean daily germination (cumulative percentage of full seed germination divided by the
number of days elapsed since sowing date) reached at the time during the period of the test. The
value will be calculated from the germination values for the germination test.
Field emergence test
According to the randomization and lay out used for the laboratory word O. abyssinica seeds will
also be sown on the nursery soil bare rooted and their field emergence will be tested for each
storage time and storage conditions. To do so the nursery in our research compound will be used.
Except the treatment, all the necessary nursery activities will be carried out as usual. Those non-
germinated seeds will be scrutinized for the cause of failures.
Desiccation & storage under laboratory condition
Desiccate seeds by mixing with an equal amount silica gell Placing container under ambient
temperature (25-30). In this trial the Controls stock will be placed in similar containers with
vermiculite in place of silca gel. Seeds will be aerated by mixing once or twice daily to avoid
Anoxia. Dry the seed till targeted moisture content 50%, 70% and 80% of the initial moisture
content reaches. For Target moisture content calculation use the following formula
Weight of seed (g) at TMC= (100-MC after processing)
(100-TMC)*initial seed weight
When the target moisture content is reached a sample will be taken for germination and moisture
content determination. After determining the required moisture content, store the seed under
laboratory at +5 oC.
Experimental design
The experiment will be laid out in factorial randomized complete block design with four
replication. The storage materials will be arranged randomly in each replication in the laboratory.
The storage periods will also be randomly in each storage materials. The factors are storage
condition with six levels and storage time with seven levels and + 5 oC under FRC seed
laboratory, Addis Ababa.
The details of storage condition and storage period is given below
Storage condition storage periods (after seed collection)
28
T0= control
T1 = Glass bottles P1= 0 Months
T2= Plastic boxes P2=4 Months
T3 = Tin boxes P3=8 Months
T4= Polythen bags P4=12 Months
T5 =Cloth bags P5=16 Months
T6= Jute bags P6=18 Months
T7= Clay Pots P7 = 24 Months
T8= “Kil”
T9 = +5 oC FRC seed laboratory3 Data to be collected:
Germination percentage, seed viability, date of 50% germination, date of complete germination,
germination energy, field emergence of seeds, cumulative germination energy, observable pests
and diseases
Data analysis: data will be checked for normality and homogeneity of variance and the
necessary data transformation will be carried out to normalize the data. The SAS software will be
used for analysis and mean separation will be done using LSD, which is built in SAS.
5. Location of the project
Table 5. Location of the project (locations for lowland bamboo and highland bamboo)
S/N Research components/sub components Location
Highland bamboo Lowland bamboo 1 Component 1: Developing propagation
techniques for highland and lowland bamboo
in Ethiopia
Injibara,TikureInchine Assossa
2 Component 2: Bamboo stand management
2.1 Sub Component 1:Management of existing
highland bamboo and lowland bamboo stands
Injibara, Tikureinchine Assossa
2.2. Sub comp 2: The effect of different weeding
frequency on the early performance of
O.abyssinica seedlings under Pawe condition
3 Component 3: Evaluating bamboo for different
end uses
Bore/Hagereselam,Mash
a,Injibara and Shenen
Pawe ,Mandura and
Assossa
4 Component 4: Assessment of bamboo pests
and diseases
Sub component 1: Assessment of bamboo pests Injibara,Shenen Pawe,Mankush and
Assossa
Sub component 2: Assessment of bamboo
diseases
Injibara,Shenen Pawe,Mankush and
Assossa
5 Component 5: Introduction and evaluation of
bamboo species
Holetta, FRC, Debre-
Zeit
Chagni, Gambo,
Jimma
6 Effect of different storage condition on
germination and field emergence of bamboo
Dawro ,Masha Pawe
Table 6.Administrative boundaries of the research areas
S.
N
Research area Administrative
region
Administrative
Zone
wereda Agro ecology
1 Pawe Benishangule
Gumuze
Metekel Pawe special
wereda
lowland
29
2 Assossa “ Assossa Assossa lowland
3 Injibara Amhara Awi Banja highland
4 Shenen/TikueInchine Oromia West shewa Tikureinchine Highland
5 FRC Addis Ababa Bole Bole Highland
6 Holetta Oromia Special zone Welmera Highland
7 DebreZeit Oromia East Shewa AdaA midland
8 Jimma Oromia Jimma Zone Jimma midland
6. Expected outputs of the project
The best propagation techniques of both highland and lowland bamboos will be
identified;
Efficient micro propagation and in vitro regeneration protocol developed.
Regeneration, stand characteristics and yield of highland bamboo under different
harvesting intensities will be investigated;
Optimum harvesting intensity and techniques of lowland bamboo will be
determined
Nutritive value of bamboo shoots identified
The performance of exotic bamboo species will be known and the best
performing ones will be selected for different agro-ecologies;
Important pests and diseases of bamboo will be known;
The storage behavior of bamboo seed and its germination potential will be know
7. Institutional arrangement
The organizational structure of the project is to be seen in accordance with the business process
re-engineering of the institute that is currently underway. EIAR/Holetta will coordinate and
supervise the implementation of this project. The monitoring and evaluation team of Forestry
Research process, researchers, woreda agriculture officials and experts, farmers, potential
investors, small scale bamboo processors of the nearby research centers will be involved in
monitoring and evaluation of the project.
8. Duration of the project Duration of the project is five years (2008 – 2018 E.C.). Some of the project components will be
finalized in a year time; some others take 2, 3, 4 and 5 years.
Beneficiaries and impact
30
Beneficiaries of the project are farmers, investors, NGOs, GOs, handicrafts, cottage industries.
This project will have great economic, social and environmental role. It also has significant
impact on the target farmers’ livelihood. The outputs of the project have great potential for
scaling-up to a larger number of users/beneficiaries.
Economic benefits
Provide raw material for industries thereby increase the income of investors
Diversify and increase farmers’ income.
Create employment opportunities to the community
Social benefits
The community participation will increase as it is income generating plant
The output of the research will have great contribution in poverty alleviation as it
is income generating plant species with diverse products and services
Great number of the community including especially small income farmers,
investors, small
The project Number of beneficiaries specifying the major social groups that
benefit most
Environmental benefits
The output of the project will have great contribution to the environment as the
species has important characteristics for soil and water conservation and
environmental amelioration.
The project will also have great role in the conservation of remaining forest resources as it is
reports, progress reports, research project evaluating team report, review meetings and travelling
workshops.
10. Dissemination strategy The nationwide production package popularization program by the Federal Government, field
days, field visits, workshops, training of extensionists and farmers, technical manuals, leaflets,
posters, annual report, publications and mass media, Farmer’s Research Groups (FRGs) will be
used to disseminate the technologies to be generated by the project.
11. Monitoring and evaluation plan The mid term evaluation of the project will take place on June 2009 whereas the final
evaluation will be made in June 2012.The monitoring tools that are usually used by the
program include quarterly reports, annual Monitoring and Evaluation Plan
12. Milestone of the project Deliverables Date
(Month,
Year)
The storage behavior and germination potential of lowland and highland
bamboo seeds will be known
30/07/2013
The best propagation techniques for highland and 30/07/2013;
31
lowland bamboos will be identified;
30/07/2015
Efficient micro propagation and invitro regeneration protocol
developed.
30/06/2012
Regeneration, stand characteristics and yield of highland and lowland
bamboos under different harvesting intensities and techniques will be
investigated;
30/07/2013
Nutritive value and preservation techniques of bamboo shoots identified 30/01/2012
The performance of exotic bamboo species will be known and the best
performing ones will be selected for different agro-ecologies;
30/07/2013;
30/07/2018
The phenotypic variation of different provenances and genetic variability of
Ethiopian highland bamboo will be known and the best performing and with
Desirable characteristics will be selected.
30/07/2013
Important pests and diseases of bamboo will be known; 30/07/2013
Table 7. Work plan for old bamboo project
S.N Major Activities Quantity Measurement
Fiscical year
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
1 Seed collection kg 205 100 10
5
2 Seed extraction and storage kg 200 100 100
3 Conduct germination test lab month 8 2 3 3
4 Conduct germination test nursery month 8 2 3 3
5 Marking of new shoots ha 1.8 0.9 0.9
6 removing of un marked shoots ha 0.6 0.6
7 Conduct thinning ha 0.6 0.6
8 Lowland bamboo shoot collection area 1 1
9 Bamboo shoot nutrient analysis month 3 1 2
10 Protocol set up using tissue culture # spp 2 1 1
11 Seedling propagation in the nursery no 300 50 50 100 100
12 Propagation of seedlings in tissue culture using biotechnology no 1000 250
250 250 250
13 Identification of genetic variation using molecular markers month 8 2 2 2 2
14 Assessment of disease and pest location 4 2 2
15 Site clearing and preparation ha 1.5 1.5
16 Field layout and planting ha 1.5 1.5
17 Weeding and cultivation ha 5(3 times) 5 5 5
18 Watering ha 2.8(8xmonth) 2.5(24 x)
2.5(16X)
19 Conduct fencing and strengthening m2 3200 400 40
0 800
20 Data collection ha 10 5 5
32
21 Follow up and supervision month 8 24 24 24 24
22 Report writing no 5 1 1 1 2
23 Manuscript development for completed activities no 2 2
13. Budget requirement for the project
S/N Budget code Description Budget required
2004 2005
1 6113 Contract staff 0 0
2 6114 Casual staff 158584 202987.52
3 6212 Office supplies 17200 20778.88
4 6217 Fuel and lubricants 63726 81569.28
5 6218 Farm supplies 17200 22016
6 6219 17200 22016
7 6221 Inputs 23965.80 30676.224
8 6223 Chemicals 37840 48435.20
9 6231 Perdium 64500 82560
10 6232 Transport 8600 11008
11 6241 Maintenance 24510 31372.80
12 6245 Barbed wire 27520 35225.60
13 6251 Land rent 24080 30822.40
14 6256 Service charge 6020 7705.60
15 6271 Training 18920 24217.60
16 6313 Fixed asset 51600 66048
Total 561465.80 717439.10
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