PALAIOS, 2010, v. 25, p. 517–526

Research Article

DOI: 10.2110/palo.2009.p09-128r

PALYNOLOGY OF THE MID-CRETACEOUS MALHA AND GALALA FORMATIONS, GEBEL ELMINSHERA, NORTH SINAI, EGYPT

SALAH Y. EL BEIALY,1* MARTIN J. HEAD,2 and HAYTHAM S. EL ATFY 1

1Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura, 35516, Egypt; 2Department of Earth Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines,

Ontario, Canada L2S 3A1

e-mail: syelbeialy@mans.edu.eg

ABSTRACT

Palynological investigations of the mid-Cretaceous, delta-influenced MalhaFormation and superjacent transgressive Galala Formation exposed atGebel El Minshera, north Sinai, Egypt, have yielded a sparse butbiostratigraphically useful record of spores, pollen, and rare dinoflagellatecysts. A representative of the pollen genus Tricolporites, recovered 18 mabove the base of the Malha Formation, is post-Aptian in age. An intervalcomprising the upper Malha Formation and lower Galala Formation isdated as middle Albian/middle Cenomanian based on the occurrence ofElaterosporites klaszii at the base and Afropollis jardinus at the top. Apalynoflora from the upper Malha Formation, which includes ephedroidsas well as Elaterosporites, has affinities with the Albian–CenomanianElaterates Province. The presence of palynomorphs associated with activefluvio-deltaic settings supports a proximal deltaic environment for thedeposition of the Malha Formation, with the superjacent Galala Formationrepresenting a subsequent marine flooding of the delta. A distinctivemonospecific assemblage of the dinoflagellate cyst Subtilisphaera senega-lensis in the upper part (Cenomanian) of the Galala Formation reflects anecologically stressed, marginal-marine environment. This assemblageconstitutes the first record of the mid-Cretaceous Subtilisphaera ecozonein Egypt and indeed east of Morocco, and in deposits as young asCenomanian. The Malha and lowermost Galala Formations are charac-terized by type III–VI kerogen, which is gas prone but having little potentialto produce hydrocarbons. Spore-pollen color indicates thermal maturity atthe transitional to over-mature level, which is anomalously high whencompared with equivalent deposits in the region.

INTRODUCTION

This study represents the first attempt to date the fluvio-deltaicsandstone of the Malha Formation and the overlying marine GalalaFormation at Gebel El Minshera (30u179N; 33u459E), north SinaiPeninsula, Egypt (Fig. 1), using palynology. The Malha Formationoccurs throughout northeastern Egypt and constitutes the mainproducing reservoir in several oil fields in the Gulf of Suez (Alsharhanand Salah, 1997). In the Sinai Peninsula, it serves as an importantaquifer (Ghoubachi, 2006; El Osta and El Sabri, 2008). During the mid-Cretaceous, northern Sinai was a carbonate ramp that developed alongthe southern margin of the Tethyan Ocean (Wanas, 2008). The Gebel ElMinshera section represents the southern, more proximal part of thisramp, in which the siliciclastic, delta-dominated Malha Formationpasses upwards into the carbonate-dominated Galala Formation(Bachmann and Kuss, 1998; Bachmann et al., 2003). The area hasbeen tectonically active from the Early Cretaceous to the Eocene owingto regional compression in northeastern Egypt (Shaaban et al., 2006).

The Malha Formation has long been of controversial age due to itspredominantly continental origin and diachronous nature. In theEastern Desert and west of the Gulf of Suez, it has generally been

interpreted as Aptian or Albian based on invertebrates (Attia andMurray, 1952; Van der Ploeg, 1953; Awad and Fawzi, 1956; Fawzi,1960, 1963; Awad, 1961; Abdallah et al., 1965) and benthicforaminifera (Abd-Elshafy and Abd El-Azeam, 2010). In the west-central part of the Sinai Peninsula, the Malha Formation has beendated palynologically as Jurassic (Sultan, 1985) to Neocomian(5Berriasian–Hauterivian) (Kora and El Beialy, 1989). In northernSinai, its top is strongly diachronous, ranging from Barremian in thenorth to Albian in the south, based on evidence from ammonites,brachiopods, and foraminifera (Awad, 1961; Hume, 1962; Abu-Zied,2007, 2008).

In the Gebel El Minshera area (Fig. 1), a sandstone horizon withinthe Malha Formation was considered Lower Cretaceous by Farag andShata (1954) based on its stratigraphic position, while Farag andOmara (1955) suggested that the lower part of the formation might beUpper Jurassic. Aboul Ela et al. (1990a, 1990b) constrained the age ofthe formation from well-dated, subjacent Bajocian–Callovian depositsand superjacent marine Cenomanian deposits of the Galala Formation.More recent integrated biostratigraphic and sequence-stratigraphicstudies by Bachmann and Kuss (1998) and Bachmann et al. (2003),however, have indicated a late middle and late Albian age for depositsapproximately equivalent to the Malha Formation.

Given the diachronous nature of the Malha Formation, itsinconclusive age at Gebel El Minshera, and other questions surround-ing the mid-Cretaceous deposits at this locality, our study aims to: (1)use fossil spores, pollen, and dinoflagellate cysts to age constrain theMalha and Galala Formations at Gebel El Minshera (Fig. 2); (2)describe the major components of the terrestrial and marine palyno-flora; (3) assess the petroleum potential and thermal maturity of theinvestigated samples by means of spore-pollen coloration andpalynofacies analysis; and (4) use palynofacies analysis and assemblagecomposition to elucidate the depositional environment.

Malha and Galala Formations

The Malha Formation was originally defined by Abdallah et al.(1965) based on a section at Wadi Malha near the Abu Daraglighthouse, southeastern corner of the northern Galala Plateau, alongthe western side of the Gulf of Suez, north Eastern Desert. It representsthe uppermost unit of the Nubian Sandstone, and is partly equivalent tothe Nubian A of oil company nomenclature. In Sinai, the MalhaFormation is underlain by either Paleozoic or Mesozoic deposits (AlFar, 1966; Issawi et al., 2009).

The Galala Formation conformably overlies the Malha Formation. Itwas proposed by Abdallah and El Adindani (1965) for varicolored,gypsiferous shales, marls, and marly limestones on the Galala Plateau,west of the Gulf of Suez. The sequence in central Sinai was named theRaha Formation by Ghorab (1961), whereas its northern extent wastermed the Halal Formation by Said (1971). In the present study, weadopt the nomenclature of Issawi et al. (2009) in describing these depositsin Sinai under the term Galala Formation, because the Halal Formation* Corresponding author.

Copyright G 2010, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 0883-1351/10/0025-0517/$3.00

represents a minor facies within the general and overwhelming Galalafacies. We do not use the term Raha Formation, as it more properlydescribes Cenomanian rocks from central Sinai and the Gulf of Suezregion that are somewhat different in character (Kora et al., 2001).

Gebel El Minshera

The sedimentary sequence exposed in the Gebel El Minshera areawas first studied by Moon and Sadek (1921). Farag and Shata (1954)and Farag and Omara (1955) then described the almost 1450-m-thicksuccession exposed at the center of Gebel El Minshera from the Jurassicat the base (Aboul Ela et al., 1990a, 1990b) to lower Eocene at the top,with later basaltic intrusions and overlying Quaternary sediments.

The Malha Formation at Gebel El Minshera is ,55 m thick andcomprises mostly sandstone in the section we examined (Fig. 2). Thelower part is a pink to buff, friable, fine-to-medium-grained,ferruginous, poorly sorted sandstone. The middle part is cross-bedded,white to yellowish-brown, coarse-grained to pebbly, poorly sortedsandstone, intercalated with thin laminations of grey to black siltstone.The upper part is a white- to yellowish-white, poorly sorted andfractured sandstone. The section depicted by Bachmann and Kuss(1998) and Bachmann et al. (2003) was divided into Unit A (,35 m

thick) overlain by Unit B ($270 m thick). Their Unit A is deltadominated but has more variable lithology than what we define as theMalha Formation and includes beds of dolomitic limestone; thislithology is difficult to reconcile with our section but presumablyreflects lateral variability within this deltaic setting. The lowest 35 m oftheir Unit B may also equate to our Malha Formation. It containssandstones, some cross-bedded, as well as finer clastics. The boundarybetween units A and B is indistinct, apparently owing to missing deltaicsediments (Bachmann et al., 2003, p. 138). Bachmann et al. (2003)assigned Unit A to the upper middle Albian and the lower part of UnitB to the upper Albian, based on integrated evidence from benthicforaminifers, ostracodes, and sequence stratigraphy.

The lower part of the Galala Formation at Gebel El Minshera consistsof sand bodies intercalated with calcareous mudstones, shale, and thinbeds of limestone, with plant remains and oysters. The middle and upperparts comprise fossiliferous limestone, dolostone, marls, and mudstonesinterpreted as representing deposition on the inner shelf (Aboul Ela et al.,1990a). The Galala Formation was dated as late Cenomanian throughearly Turonian by Aboul Ela et al. (1990a) based on earlier paleon-tological studies (e.g., Awad and Fawzi, 1956; Fawzi, 1960, 1963; Abdouand Fawzi, 1966), whereas Issawi et al. (2009) assigned the entire GalalaFormation to the Cenomanian in their regional assessment of thisformation. Bachmann and Kuss (1998) and Bachmann et al. (2003)assigned a late Albian age to the lower part of their Unit B, whichappears to be partly equivalent to the lower part of the GalalaFormation. They placed the upper Albian–lower Cenomanian boundaryand the lower–middle Cenomanian boundary at 145 m and 220 m abovethe base of their section, respectively, again using a combination ofbenthic foraminifers, ostracodes, and sequence stratigraphy. It is difficultto correlate the section of these authors to ours, as noted above, but onthe basis of thickness alone, their base for the Cenomanian correspondsapproximately to the level of our sample G32, and their lower–middleCenomanian boundary to ,10 m above the top of our section.

SAMPLE PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS

The Gebel El Minshera section was measured and samples collectedfor palynology (by El Beialy) in 1993. Forty-three samples from theMalha and Galala Formations (Fig. 2) were processed at BrockUniversity, using standard palynological methods including digestionin cold hydrochloric acid (HCl) and cold hydrofluoric acid (HF). Nooxidation or alkali treatments were used. The organic residue wassieved at 10 mm using a nylon mesh. Microscope slides were mountedusing Elvacite 2044 acrylic resin. The sieved organic residue was firstsuspended in distilled water and allowed to dry on a cover slip. Thiscover slip was then inverted onto a microscope slide on which a fewdrops of Elvacite dissolved in xylene had been placed. Elvacite was usedbecause it has no appreciable fluorescence, in anticipation of futurestudies of the kerogen, including palynomorphs, by fluorescencemicroscopy to assess the preservational state and petroleum potential.A drop of liquefied phenol was added to all sieved and unsievedresidues to inhibit microbial growth.

Two slides were prepared from each sample to study palynomorphsand kerogen. About 200 specimens were counted in samples M6 andG39, but fewer specimens were recorded in the remaining samplesbecause these were poorly fossiliferous. All slides were examined fullyunder a 403 objective to establish the presence of any rare species.Observations were made with a Leica DM 2500 transmitted lightmicroscope and photomicrographs taken with a Leica DC 300 digitalcamera, all in the Department of Earth Sciences, Brock University,Canada. The stratigraphic distributions of taxa are shown in Figure 2and selected specimens are illustrated in Figure 3. A full list of taxaappears in Appendix 1. All microscope slides and residues are depositedin the Department of Earth Sciences, Brock University, Canada.

FIGURE 1—Location (inset) and geology of Gebel El Minshera, modified from the

Geological Survey of Egypt (1993). Formations cropping out at Gebel El Minshera

are assigned the following ages and nomenclature by Issawi et al. (2009): Safa

(Bathonian), Malha (Early Cretaceous), Galala (Cenomanian), Wata (Turonian), and

Matulla (Santonian). Surrounding post-Santonian deposits belong primarily to the

Duwi Formation (Campanian) and Sudr Chalk (Maastrichtian–Danian) but also

include the Esna (upper Paleocene–lower Eocene) and Thebes (lower Eocene)

Formations. Previous biostratigraphic studies of the Malha and Galala Formations

have been conducted in the Eastern Desert and Gulf of Suez and elsewhere on the

Sinai Peninsula.

518 EL BEIALY ET AL. PALAIOS

PALYNOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Only seven of 43 samples were palynologically productive. Thepalynofloral assemblages present in two of the Malha Formationsamples contain moderate numbers of miospores. Consistently present

miospores include smooth trilete spores, while sculptured forms arerare. Gymnosperm pollen includes Classopollis and nonaperturatepollen such as Araucariacites (Fig. 3I) and Balmeiopsis (Fig. 3J) inassociation with Ephedripites (Fig. 3L). Dinoflagellate cysts occur in asingle sample in the uppermost part of the Galala Formation.

FIGURE 2—Lithology, position of samples, and distribution of palynological taxa recorded in the present study at Gebel El Minshera. The numbers of specimens counted are

given to the right of the sample number. Samples M1–M9 5 Malha Formation; samples G10–G43 5 Galala Formation. The age interpretation of Issawi et al. (2009) is based

on regional extrapolation; that of Bachmann et al. (2003) on micropaleontologic and sequence stratigraphic evidence from another section at Gebel El Minshera that is not

easily related to ours.

PALAIOS MID-CRETACEOUS PALYNOLOGY OF NORTH SINAI, EGYPT 519

FIGURE 3—Palynomorphs from the present study of the Malha and Galala Formations, Gebel El Minshera. An England Finder reference (e.g., E36/2) follows the sample

(e.g., M5) and slide number (e.g., a, b) for each specimen. Photomicrographs are in bright field, except as noted. Various magnifications. Max. dia. 5 maximum diameter. A)

Deltoidospora sp., M5a, E36/2, max. dia. 53 mm. B) Trilobosporites laevigatus, G13a, J56/0, max. dia. 55 mm. C) Concavisporites sp., M5a, C57/0, max. dia. 43 mm. D)

Cibotiumspora jurienensis, M6b, J18/2, max. dia. 40 mm. E) Gleicheniidites sp., M6a, U50/2, max. dia. 35 mm. F) Triplanosporites sp., M6a, J33/1, max. dia. 38 mm.

G) Cicatricosisporites sp., M6a, U51/3, max. dia. 53 mm. H) Crybelosporites pannuceus, G13b, L34/0, max. dia. 40 mm. I) Araucariacites australis, G13a, F52/3, max. dia. 58 mm.

J) Balmeiopsis limbatus, M5a, B41/1, max. dia. 80 mm. K) Steevesipollenites sp., G13a, R51/1, max. dia. 33 mm. L) Ephedripites jansonii, M6a, W55/1, max. dia. 48 mm. M)

Elaterosporites klaszii, M6b, Q25/2, max. dia. 55 mm. N) Afropollis jardinus, M6a, N25/1, max. dia. 38 mm. O) A. jardinus, G13b, P20/3, max. dia. 30 mm. P) Tricolporites sp.,

M5a, D58/1, max. dia. 30 mm. Q) Subtilisphaera senegalensis, G39b, F38/1, length 50 mm. Differential interference contrast. R) S. senegalensis, G39b, U48/0, length 50 mm.

Differential interference contrast. S) Leaf epidermal tissue; elongate cells, rectangular shape, M5b, L29/1, height of photomicrograph 5 120 mm. T) Gymnosperm woody tissue

showing tracheid thickenings (spiral-scalariform), M5b, G27/2, height of photomicrograph 5 210 mm.

520 EL BEIALY ET AL. PALAIOS

Age Assessment

Within the Malha Formation, the lowest age-diagnostic assemblageoccurs in sample M5. A specimen of Tricolporites sp. (Fig. 3P)recovered from this sample suggests a post-Aptian age, as thisangiosperm pollen type is evolutionarily more advanced than pollenfrom older deposits, such as the shallow-marine Abu Ballas Formationof Aptian age in Egypt (Schrank, 1991). The presence of Elaterospor-ites klaszii (Fig. 3M) and the angiosperm pollen Afropollis jardinus(Figs. 3N–O) in sample M6 from the upper part of the MalhaFormation is significant. Afropollis jardinus has a range base withinthe lower Albian of Egypt, including the Eastern Desert, andworldwide (Doyle et al., 1982; Ibrahim et al., 2001, and referencestherein). It extends into the lower Cenomanian of northeastern Africa(Schrank, 1994), and middle Cenomanian of Egypt (Ibrahim, 1996),with most records from Egypt and the surrounding region being oflate Albian–early Cenomanian age (El Beialy et al., 2010). Elater-osporites klaszii is restricted to sample M6 and has its lowestoccurrence in the middle Albian worldwide (Schrank and Ibrahim,1995; Ibrahim et al., 2001, and references therein). Most publishedrecords give a highest occurrence in the lower or middle Cenomanian(Appendix 2), although fairly high numbers have been recorded in corematerial from the G Member of the Abu Roash Formation, WesternDesert, Egypt (El Beialy, 1994a) which is reliably dated as lateCenomanian (Hantar, 1990; Issawi et al., 2009). In Brazil, E. klasziialso has a highest occurrence in the upper Cenomanian (Herngreen,1974, 1975).

Within the Galala Formation, only sample G13, near the base of theformation, contains a diverse assemblage. In addition to land-derivedplant detritus and long-ranging miospores, the stratigraphically usefulA. jardinus and the pteridophyte spore Crybelosporites pannuceus arerecorded. Crybelosporites pannuceus (Fig. 3H) ranges from the lowerAptian of Egypt and elsewhere (Ibrahim et al., 2001, and referencestherein) to as high as the lower or middle Cenomanian of Egypt(Ibrahim, 2002). In sample G28, a single specimen of A. jardinus wasrecorded, indicating an age no younger than middle Cenomanian andprobably no younger than early Cenomanian.

Near the top of the Galala Formation, a single productive sample

(G39) contains a monospecific assemblage of the dinoflagellate cyst

Subtilisphaera senegalensis (Figs. 3Q–R). This species was originally

described from the Aptian of West Africa (Jain and Millepied, 1973),

and has since been reported from the Aptian–Albian through the

Cenomanian of the eastern marginal basins of Brazil (Arai et al., 1994,

2000), including the upper Cenomanian of the Potiguar Basin (Arai

et al., 2000). It has also been reported from the Hauterivian through

Barremian of Libya (Thusu et al., 1988), Hauterivian through lower

Cenomanian of Morocco (Below, 1981), and lower Cenomanian of

northwestern Africa (Below, 1984). Subtilisphaera senegalensis has

been recorded in Egypt from the Berriasian–Barremian (Mahmoud

and Deaf, 2007), and the Aptian and Albian (Omran et al., 1990;

Schrank and Ibrahim, 1995; Abdel-Kireem et al., 1996; Mahmoud

et al., 2007; Mahmoud and Deaf, 2007) through possibly the lower

Cenomanian (Omran et al., 1990) and lower or middle Cenomanian

(Ibrahim, 2002). Moreover, it has been reported from the Aptian

through lowermost Cenomanian of northern Sinai (Mahmoud et al.,

1999). An upper Cenomanian highest occurrence is therefore accepted

for this species, although most records are no higher than lower

Cenomanian. A record from the Turonian of the United States (Li and

Habib, 1996, unillustrated) is anomalously high and requires

verification. Consequently, the occurrence of S. senegalensis near the

top of the Galala Formation in our section (sample G39) constrains

this horizon to the upper Cenomanian or below and it is possibly no

higher than lower Cenomanian based on the most frequent records

elsewhere.

Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction

The Malha Formation represents deltaic sedimentation at theproximal (southerly) end of a carbonate ramp (Bachmann and Kuss,1998, approximately their Unit A) and is characterized by strong fluvialinfluence (Kerdany and Cherif, 1990). The recorded palynofloras aredominated by pteridophyte spores, accompanied by gymnosperm andrare angiosperm pollen, with some phytoclasts. Most of the pterido-phyte spores possess a thin exine and simple sculpture pertaining to ahydrophytic, aquatic, and littoral aquatic flora (Tschudy, 1969).Crybelosporites is comparable with spores of the extant hydropter-idacean genus Perotrilites and therefore referable to the Salviniaceae.Its presence (albeit as a single specimen) reflects freshwater environ-ments nearby (Schrank and Mahmoud, 1998). Gymnosperm pollen isdominated by Araucariacites, produced by conifer vegetation developedon the relatively dry hinterland, and associated ephedroids which arecommonly interpreted as xerophytes (Schrank and Mahmoud, 1998).The presence of woody debris (Fig. 3T) and especially leaf cuticle(Fig. 3S) in sample M5 suggests a setting close to the vegetationalsource because leaf tissues are vulnerable to destruction (Rich, 1989;Ercegovac and Kostic, 2006).

The Galala Formation at Gebel El Minshera reflects deposition inlagoonal and shoaling environments of the inner shelf (Hegab et al.,2001, referring to the Halal Formation). It represents a marine floodingof the delta and retrogradation of the shoreline in response to a secondorder sea-level rise (Bachmann and Kuss, 1998, approximately theirUnit B). A palynological assemblage from the base of this formation(sample G13) reflects a broad continuation of those paleoenvironmen-tal conditions inferred from the Malha Formation, with commongymnospermous pollen of the genus Classopollis possibly sourced bythe coastal vegetation (Heimhofer et al., 2008). Sample G13 containsmostly opaque organic fragments with subordinate brown to dark-brown structured phytoclasts, in addition to a relatively diverseassemblage of spores and pollen.

Higher in the sequence, assemblages are almost completely barren oforganic material, presumably owing to subsequent weathering andoxidation. Exceptions are samples G28 and G39; the former isdominated by dark-brown to black opaques, comprising well-preserved, equant non-structured fragments of varying size and form.A single specimen of A. jardinus was recorded. Sample G39 containsonly the palaeoperidinioidean dinoflagellate cyst Subtilisphaera sene-galensis (Figs. 3Q–R), which is recorded in large numbers. Subtili-sphaera is associated with brackish to coastal paleoenvironments in theAptian of the Kabrit-1 borehole, onshore northern Gulf of Suez(Mahmoud et al., 2007). Indeed, the genus has been associated withlow-salinity marine paleoenvironments in the mid-Cretaceous ofSenegal (Jain and Millepied, 1975), inner- and middle-shelf conditionsin the early to late Albian of NE Libya (Uwins and Batten, 1988), andrestricted marine conditions in the Aptian–Albian of Brazil (Carvalho,2004; Carvalho et al., 2006) where high abundances correspond tobrackish lagoonal facies (Carvalho et al., 2006). It is hence regarded asan opportunistic genus that flourished in lagoonal environmentsadverse to most other microplankton (Denison, 2005). The presenceof a monospecific assemblage of S. senegalensis in the upper part of theGalala Formation therefore indicates an ecologically stressed andrestricted marine paleoenvironment, consistent with the development ofprotected to restricted inner-ramp environments as interpreted fromother fossils and sedimentology (Bachmann and Kuss, 1998; Hegab etal., 2001). Our record of S. senegalensis is unusual in being associatedwith a shallow-water carbonate (G39 is a dolostone), which isconsidered an unfavorable lithology for this ecozone (Arai et al.,2000). No other organic remains, such as might indicate river input,were found in the assemblage.

Arai et al. (1994, 2000) noted almost monospecific assemblages ofSubtilisphaera, including S. senegalensis, occurring widely within

PALAIOS MID-CRETACEOUS PALYNOLOGY OF NORTH SINAI, EGYPT 521

epicontinental seas during the mid-Cretaceous. This Subtilisphaeraecozone, defined by Regali in 1989, has been recorded within theAptian–Albian of Brazil (Regali, 1989; Arai et al., 1994, 2000;Carvalho, 2004; Arai, 2005, and references therein; Carvalho et al.,2006), Aptian of Senegal (Jain and Millepied, 1975), and Hauterivian–Albian of Morocco (Below, 1981), implying that it was endemic innearshore low-latitude Tethyan waters (Arai et al., 2000). Our record ofS. senegalensis from Gebel El Minshera extends this Subtilisphaeraecozone substantially eastwards into Egypt (Fig. 4), and upwards intothe Cenomanian (Fig. 2).

Thermal Maturity

The thermal maturity of the Malha Formation was estimated byvisually comparing the color of smooth, thin-walled spores and pollenagainst the standard pollen-spore color chart scale of Pearson (1984).All specimens are dark-brown to very dark-brown in color (Fig. 3) andindicate a transitional to over-mature level of thermal maturationapproximately equivalent to vitrinite reflectance values of 1.2%–2.0%

(Batten, 1996). In terms of hydrocarbon generation, this places theMalha Formation approximately between the oil floor and the wet gasfloor (Batten, 1996).

Spores from the base of the Galala Formation (sample G13) aresimilar in color to those from the Malha Formation and imply similarthermal maturity. No smooth, thin-walled spores or pollen wererecovered from higher in the Galala Formation, preventing theestimation of thermal maturity for this interval. The pale color of S.senegalensis specimens in sample G39 (Figs. 3Q–R) is not a reliableindicator because these specimens have extremely thin walls andinherently greater transparency. Assuming a normal geothermalgradient of ,30 uC/km for this region (Kim et al., 1999), however,and given that the Galala Formation in our section is just 160 m thick,we would not expect the top of the Galala Formation to be significantlyless thermally mature than the underlying Malha Formation.

Kim et al. (1999) investigated the thermal maturity of the Malha andGalala Formations at Gebel El Minshera using both vitrinitereflectance and Rock-Eval pyroanalysis (Tmax). Measuring threesamples from the Malha and one from the lower Galala Formations(estimated from the height of samples above section base), they foundmean reflectance values of ,0.6%–0.7% with maximum values of,1.0%. These values imply early-mature to mature levels of thermalmaturity, compared with our higher transitional to over-mature levelsestimated from spore-pollen color. The Tmax results of these authorsimply even lower levels, within the immature range, but are thought tobe unreliable (Kim et al., 1999). It is difficult to reconcile our spore-pollen color observations with these reflectance values, which appearsignificant even allowing for subjectivity in estimating spore-pollencolor. Perhaps localized differences in heat flow within the Gebel ElMinshera area associated with post-early Eocene igneous activity areresponsible for this discrepancy.

Source Potential for Hydrocarbons

The dominance of degraded terrestrial organic material (spores,pollen, and phytoclasts) in productive samples of the Malha and basalGalala Formations allows the recognition of type III–VI kerogenwithin this interval, indicating that these deposits are gas prone buthave little potential to produce hydrocarbons (Batten, 1996).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Surface exposures of Mesozoic deposits throughout Egypt and theSudan are largely devoid of organic-walled microfossils owing to intensivearid weathering and accompanying oxidative destruction (e.g., Schrank,1987, 1991). The recovery of seven productive samples from a total of 43

investigated in the present study highlights this phenomenon, but alsoshows that perseverance can yield useful assemblages. Consequently, weare able to report on moderately well preserved assemblages of spores,pollen, and dinoflagellate cysts from outcrop samples of the Malha andGalala Formations exposed in the Gebel El Minshera area. Thepalynological evidence presented reveals the following:

1. The lower part of the Malha Formation is Albian or younger,based on the presence of the pollen Tricolporites sp. The Berriasianthrough Aptian stages are therefore missing from Gebel El Minshera,given that the underlying beds are Jurassic.

2. The uppermost Malha and lowermost Galala Formations aremiddle Albian to middle Cenomanian, based on the lowest occurrenceof Elaterosporites klaszii and the highest occurrence of Afropollisjardinus. Most records of these two palynomorphs are within the lateAlbian through early Cenomanian, which is the most likely age rangefor this interval of our section. Our results are broadly consistent with alate middle to late Albian age for this interval as determined frombenthic foraminifera, ostracodes, and sequence stratigraphy (Bach-mann et al., 2003). While our results do not disprove a Cenomanian agefor the Galala as accepted by Issawi et al. (2009), they contradict a lateCenomanian age assigned to the base of this formation by Aboul Ela etal. (1990a).

3. Comparison with palynofloras from stratigraphically equivalentunits in the African region suggests that the sporomorphs from theupper Malha and lowermost Galala Formations, which include thegymnosperms Classopollis, E. klaszii, and ephedroids, and theangiosperm A. jardinus, represent elements of the Albian–CenomanianElaterates Province (Herngreen et al., 1996).

4. The occurrence of Subtilisphaera senegalensis near the top of theGalala Formation indicates an age of late Cenomanian or older, withsome suggestion that it is no younger than early Cenomanian. This isconsistent with an early Cenomanian age assigned to the upper Galalapreviously (Bachmann and Kuss, 1998; Bachmann et al., 2003) and withthe assignment of the entire formation to the Cenomanian (Issawi et al.,2009). Our results, however, contradict a lower Turonian determinationfor the top of the Galala Formation by Aboul Ela et al. (1990a).

FIGURE 4—Distribution of the Subtilisphaera ecozone during the mid-Cretaceous

(modified from Arai et al., 2000, fig. 4). A, Gebel El Minshera (this study;

Cenomanian); B, Morocco (Hauterivian–Albian; Below, 1981); C, Senegal (Aptian;

Jain and Millepied, 1975); D, Sao Luıs Basin, Brazil (Aptian–Albian; Arai et al.,

1994); E, Ceara Basin, Brazil (Aptian–Albian; Arai et al., 1994); F, Potiguar Basin,

Brazil (Aptian–Albian; Arai et al., 1994); G, Araripe Basin, Brazil (Aptian–Albian;

Arai et al., 1994); and H, Sergipe Basin (Aptian–Albian; Carvalho, 2004; Carvalho

et al., 2006). Albian paleogeographic map after Smith et al. (1994).

522 EL BEIALY ET AL. PALAIOS

5. The Malha Formation represents a clastic facies deposited in acontinental fluvial environment. The spore and pollen association andpalynofacies all support this interpretation, and suggest a depositionalsetting close to the vegetational source. The Galala Formation signifiesa marine transgression, with the establishment of proximal carbonateramp sedimentary facies. A spore-pollen assemblage near the base ofthe Galala is similar to those of the Malha Formation, but with theaddition of common Classopollis pollen, possibly reflecting coastalvegetation. Samples higher in the section are largely devoid ofpalynomorphs, either reflecting strongly oxidizing bottom waters inthe shallow waters of the ramp during deposition, or the result of laterweathering.

6. A monospecific assemblage of the dinoflagellate cyst S. senega-lensis in the upper Galala Formation reflects ecologically stressedconditions in a restricted marine environment. This is the first record ofthe Subtilisphaera ecozone of Arai et al. (1994, 2000) in Egypt andindeed east of Morocco. This ecozone has previously been documentedmostly from the Aptian–Albian, and the present record is the firstoccurrence from deposits of putatively early Cenomanian age.

7. Spores and pollen in the Malha and lower Galala Formations aredark-brown to very dark-brown in color, indicating a level of thermalmaturity that is transitional to over-mature, approximately equivalentto vitrinite reflectance values of 1.2%–2.0% Ro. These values aresignificantly higher than vitrinite reflectance measurements from theMalha Formation at Gebel El Minshera and equivalent depositsthroughout Sinai (Kim et al., 1999). We speculate that post-Eoceneigneous activity at Gebel El Minshera was responsible for theanomalously high temperatures in the vicinity of our section.

8. Visual analysis of samples from the Malha and lowermost GalalaFormations reveals type III–VI kerogen, which is gas prone but withlittle potential to produce hydrocarbons. These observations agree withRock-Eval pyroanalysis results obtained by Kim et al. (1999) from theMalha and lower Galala Formations at Gebel El Minshera.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The first author is indebted to the Arab Fund Fellowships Program,Kuwait, for financial support through a Distinguished Scholar Awardthat allowed a one-year research stay at Brock University fromSeptember 2006. This study would not have been possible without suchsupport and generosity. M.J.H. acknowledges support from a NaturalSciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada DiscoveryGrant. We are grateful to David T. Pocknall, an anonymous reviewer,and the Associate Editor for their careful and constructive commentson the manuscript.

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APPENDIX 1

List of recorded taxa.

Microspores

Apiculatisporites sp.

Appendicisporites sp.

Cibotiumspora jurienensis (Balme) Filatoff 1975

Cicatricosisporites sp.

Concavisporites sp.

Crybelosporites pannuceus (Brenner) Srivastava 1977

Cyathidites australis Couper 1953

Cyathidites minor Couper 1953

Deltoidospora hallii Miner 1935

Deltoidospora sp.

Gleicheniidites sp.

Trilobosporites laevigatus El Beialy 1994

Triplanosporites sp.

Indeterminate trilete spores

Gymnosperm pollen

Araucariacites australis Cookson ex. Couper 1953

Balmeiopsis limbatus (Balme) Archangelsky 1977

Classopollis classoides Pflug emend. Pocock and Jansonius 1961

Classopollis sp.

Cycadopites sp. 1

Cycadopites sp. 2

Elaterosporites klaszii (Jardine and Magloire) Jardine 1967

Ephedripites jansonii (Pocock) Muller 1968

Ephedripites sp.

? Ephedripites irregularis Herngreen 1973

Eucommiidites sp. cf. E. minor Groot and Penny 1960

Eucommiidites sp.

Steevesipollenites sp.

Angiosperm pollen

Afropollis jardinus (Brenner) Doyle et al. 1982

Tricolporites sp.

Dinoflagellate cysts

Subtilisphaera senegalensis Jain and Millepied 1973

PALAIOS MID-CRETACEOUS PALYNOLOGY OF NORTH SINAI, EGYPT 525

ACCEPTED MAY 5, 2010

APPENDIX 2—Selected records of Elaterosporites klaszii from South America, Africa, and the Middle East.

Elaterosporites klaszii

Herngreen (1974, 1975) early Albian–late Cenomanian Brazil

Herngreen and Duenas Jimenez (1990) late Albian–early Cenomanian Colombia

Dino et al. (1999) late Albian–Cenomanian Brazil and Ecuador

Kotova (1978) Cenomanian Offshore west Africa

Masure et al. (1998) Cenomanian Ivory Coast and Ghana

Atta-Peters and Salami (2006) late Albian–early Cenomanian Ghana

Abubakar et al. (2006) Albian–middle Cenomanian? Nigeria

Bettar and Meon (2001) Albian Morocco

Thusu and Van der Eem (1985) Albian Libya

Uwins and Batten (1988) Vraconian–early Cenomanian Libya

Batten and Uwins (1985) Albian–Cenomanian Libya

Soliman et al. (1991) Albian/early Cenomanian? Egypt

Mahmoud et al. (2007) Albian–late Albian/early Cenomanian? Egypt

Sultan (1978, 1987) Albian–early Cenomanian Egypt

Ibrahim (1996) Albian–early Cenomanian Egypt

Mahmoud et al. (1999) Albian–early Cenomanian Egypt

Mahmoud and Deaf (2007) Albian–early Cenomanian Egypt

Aboul Ela and Mahrous (1992) late Albian–early Cenomanian Egypt

Aboul Ela et al. (1996) late Albian–early Cenomanian Egypt

El Beialy (1993a, 1993b, 1994b, 1994c) late Albian–early Cenomanian Egypt

Mahmoud and Moawad (2000) late Albian/early Cenomanian–early Cenomanian Egypt

Mahmoud and Moawad (1999, 2002) early Cenomanian Egypt

El Beialy et al. (2010) early Cenomanian Egypt

Atawy (2009) early? Cenomanian Egypt

Said et al. (1994) Cenomanian Egypt

Mahmoud (1998) Cenomanian Egypt

Pacltova and Lashin (1999) Cenomanian Egypt

Schrank and Ibrahim (1995) middle Albian–middle Cenomanian Egypt

Ibrahim (2002) late Albian–middle Cenomanian Egypt

El Beialy (1994a) late Albian–late Cenomanian Egypt

Schrank (1990, 1994, 2001) late Albian–early Cenomanian The Sudan and Egypt

Srivastava (1994) late Albian Arabian Gulf

El Beialy and Al-Hitmi (1994) late Albian–early Cenomanian Qatar

Ibrahim et al. (2000) late Albian–early Cenomanian Qatar

526 EL BEIALY ET AL. PALAIOS