UGC-NET Special Edition - Teaching AptitudeThere are eight questions in each set. Answers to questions in a set are provided at the end of each set. Questions have been compiled in such a manner that it is easy to follow and memorize. We recommend that you go to the answers only after you have attempted all the questions in the set.

1. The mean score on any class test is the result of:

(a) dividing the sum of all scores by the number of scores(b) determining the middle score when all the scores have been listed from the highest to the lowest(c) determining the most frequent score.(d) Adding all the scores and dividing by the most frequent score(e) Adding the highest and lowest scores and dividing by two 

2. The least justifiable use of the results of a standardized reading test is to:

(a) identify areas of pupil deficiency(b) evaluate the reading instruction programme.(c) Serve as a basis for report card marks(d) Serve as the basis for a parent conference(e) Serve as the basis for class groupings

3. Fifteen –year old Arvind has taken to wearing the same style sweaters that his teacher wears. This form of behaviour is known as:

(a) compensation(b) transference(c) indentification(d) regression(e) egocentrism

4. At least one third of the learning that will determine later levels of school achievement has already taken place by age six. This is a statement most closely associated with the writings of:

(a) Benjamin Bloom(b) Margaret Mead(c) Martin Mayer(d) Fritiz Redl(e) Nathan Glazer

5. Of the following, the most unreliable predictor of educational achievement is:

(a) inherited biological potential for learning(b) ethnic origin of parents(c) family background and training(d) classroom experiences(e) self concept.

6. All the following are acceptable goals for dealing with behaviour problems in the classroom, except:

(a) helping the child to improve his/her self-control(b) being impersonal and objective(c) understanding the offense(d) utilizing appeals to children that have personal implications(e) punishing, when necessary, in private

7. In preparing a fifth grade class to take a standardized reading test the teacher is best advised to:

(a) tell the children the test is very important and they should do the best they can(b) ditto key questions from a previous test and allow the pupils to answer them(c) do nothing (d) coach the below grade level readers, as the rest of the class will do well anyway(e) Give the pupils practice in answering questions similar to the type that will appear on the test

8. Of the following, the one situation that will cause the greatest difficulty for a child in the initial stages of reading instruction is :

(a) confusion of left and right directionality(b) possessing an IQ of 90(c) having older siblings who are successful readers(d) never having attended kindergarten(e) being an avid television watcher

Answers to questions on Teaching Aptitude:

1. (a) dividing the sum of all scores by the number of scores2. (c) Serve as a basis for report card marks3. (c) indentification4. (a) Benjamin Bloom5. (b) ethnic origin of parents6. (d) utilizing appeals to children that have personal implications

7. (e) Give the pupils practice in answering questions similar to the type that will appear on the test.8. (a) confusion of left and right directionality

9. Of the following essentials of learning the one that takes procedure over the other is:

(a) average intelligence(b) ability to read(c) an intact home(d) desire to learn(e) a good teacher

10. A child from a disorganized home will experience the greatest difficulty with:

(a) well structured lessons(b) independent study(c) programmed instruction(d) workbooks(e) short answer tests.

11. The normal twelve –year –old child is most likely to:

(a) have difficulty with gross motor coordination (b) have anxiety feelings about pleasing adults(c) confine his/her interests to the here and now (d) be eager for peer approval(e) be concerned with boy-girl relationship

12. During the first year of life a child’s height increases by about:

(a) Ten per cent(b) Thirty per cent(c) Fifty per cent(d) Eighty per cent(e) Hundred per cent

13. The term ‘identical elements is closely associated with:

(a) group instruction(b) transfer of learning(c) jealousy between twins(d) similar test questions(e) The scientific method

14. The statement least characteristic of first grade children is

that they are:

(a) too young to be taught classroom routines(b) not yet concerned with group approval(c) very concerned with adult approval(d) not concerned with neatness(e) curious and exploratory

15. The evaluation of personality is best made through the use of an: 

(a) inventory test(b) preference test(c) survey test(d) projective test(e) power test

16. The current movement of behavior modification, wherein tokens are awarded for correct responses, is a reflection of:

(a) Herbart’s Five Steps(b) Lock’s Tabula rasa(c) Thorndike’s Law of Effect(d) Thorndike’s Law of Exercise(e) Pavlov’s stimulus- responseAnswers to Questions on Teaching Aptitude:

9. (d) desire to learn10. (b) independent study11. (d) be eager for peer approval12. (c) Fifty per cent13. (b) transfer of learning14. (a) too young to be taught classroom routines15. (d) projective test16. (c) Thorndike’s Law of Effect

17. All of the following are true about phobias, except that 

(a) They are generated by an early emotional experience(b) The sufferer cannot the impulse to avoid them(c) The sufferer will resort to reckless activities to conceal them (d) They can be overcome(e) Acrophobia is a fear of open places agoraphobia is a fear of high places

18. When a pupil’s misbehavior persists even through the teacher punishes the child for each infraction, the teacher is probably practicing a policy of 

(a) retribution(b) corporal punishment(c) negative reinforcement(d) sarcasm(e) repression 

19. Saurabh and Suresh have the same mental age 8-0. We can conclude that

(a) they have the same potential for success in school.(b) they have the same IQ(c) their interests are similar(d) their ability to learn may be quite different(e) they copied from each other on the test

20. A child whose class is in a windowless room may have to be assigned to another class if he/she suffers from

(a) acrophobia(b) agoraphobia(c) claustrophobia(d) hydrophobia(e) toxophobia

21. The self adjective mechanism that teachers often unwittingly encourage is

(a) an attention –getting device(b) daydreaming (c) regression(d) fantasy(e) withdrawal

22. When an individual repeats those leanings that, in the past, proved to be highly satisfying such behavior can best be explained by the law of

(a) recency(b) frequency(c) readiness(d) effect(e) exercise

23. Children’s attitudes toward persons of different ethnic groups are generally based upon

(a) their parent’s attitudes

(b) the attitudes of their peer(c) the influence of television(d) their sibling’ attitudes(e) their religious affiliation

24. All of the following are sound mental hygiene practices, except

(a) asking pupils to correct their answers after their tests have been marked(b) discussing an individual pupil’s test marks with the class(c) asking parents to sign test papers so that that they are aware of their child’s marks.(d) Having pupil’s keep a record of their own test marks(e) Conferring with pupils about the results of a group of tests.

Answers:

17. (e) acrophobia is a fear of open places agoraphobia is a fear of high places18. (c) negative reinforcement19. (d) their ability to learn may be quite different20. (c) claustrophobia21. (a) an attention getting device22. (d) effect23. (a) their parent’s attitudes24. (b) discussing an individual pupil’s test marks with the class

25. All of the following advanced principles of child development that are closely allied to the stimulus response learning theory, except 

(a) Pavilov (b) J B Waston(c) Hull(d) Gesell(e) Skinner

26. All of the following can be signs that a child is gifted, except

(a) early development of a sense of time (b) interest in encyclopaedias and dictionaries(c) uneasy relationships with peers.(d) Easy retention of facts(e) High intellectual curiosity.

27. Frobel’s most important contribution to education was his development of the 

(a) vocational school(b) public high school(c) kindergarten(d) Latin School(e) Play school

28. Teacher tenure laws can best be justified because they

(a) protect teachers whose political views differ sharply with those of the community(b) Provide for stability of staffing(c) Allow an experienced teacher to plan creatively(d) Protect teachers from excessive requirements of principals(e) Prevent teachers from leaving to accept positions in higher paying school districts

29. All of the following are contributing to the crisis in urban schools except

(a) the rapid increase in school pollution(b) the disappearance of taxable property(c) the deterioration and decline of real property(d) the displacement of people(e) high mobility

30. of the following, the main purpose of state certification of teachers is to

(a) monitor the quality of teacher training institutions(b) provide for a uniform standard of entry-level teacher competency throughout the state(c) exclude from the profession those not trained in pedagogy(d) exclude from the profession those who are mentally unhealthy (e) provide a basis for acceptable performance based on teacher evaluation

31. The incorrectly associated pair is

(a) Joseph Lancaster –contract plan(b) Benjamin Franklin-academy(c) James B Conant –high school(d) Horace Mann –elementary education(e) Elizabeth Peabody – kindergarten

32. When parents ask teachers about their children’s television habits, it is best to suggest that they

(a) prohibit television viewing (b) use television for rewards and punishments(c) allow children to watch only those programmes selected by the parents(d) encourage family viewing and discussion of jointly selected programmes(e) give children freedom to selected whatever they want to see

Answers:

25. (d) Gesell26. (c) uneasy relationships with peers27. (c) kindergarten28. (a) protect teachers whose political views differ sharply with those of the community29. (a) the rapid increase in school pollution30. (b) provide for a uniform standard of entry-level teacher competency throughout the state31. (a) Joseph Lancaster –contract plan32. (d) give children freedom to selected whatever they want to see

33. Curriculum makers have the most difficulty when:

(a) there is an inflationary cycle(b) the nature of the student population is changing(c) parents are participants(d) teachers unions insist on input(e) school boards must their final approval

34. A school district has adopted a policy prevents teachers from marking the examinations of their own students. The most valid justification of this policy is that:

(a) teacher favour their pet students(b) some parents pressure teachers to give their children high marks(c) teachers should not be in a position to evaluate the results of their own teaching(d) this is the best way for principals to evaluate how well pupils are learning (e) pupils will have no reason to bring presents to their teachers

35. A major contribution of the Jesuits to education includes all of the following except:

(a) insistence on well trained teachers(b) repetition and memorization as teaching methods (c) self discipline(d) concentration on the early education of children

(e) emphasis on the classics as the basis of the curriculum

36. De facto school segregation is segregation that is primarily a result of:

(a) guidelines issued by the State Commissioner of Education(b) discriminatory zoning of a local school board(c) Residence patterns of the community(d) Federal education laws(e) Rulings of the courts

37. The educator who advanced the idea of the five formal steps in leaving was:

(a) Rousseau(b) Comenius(c) Pestalozzi(d) Herbart(e) Froebel

38. That the mind of an infant is a tabula rasa is the contribution of: 

(a) Plato(b) Horace Man(c) John Locke(d) J.J Rousseau(e) Johann Herbart

39. The disadvantaged child’s chances for success in school will be maximized when:

(a) he/she is given a high concentration of skills subjects(b) he/she is provided with vocational training earlier than other children(c) He/she is treated like any other child(d) His/her intellectual potential is discovered and his/her educational deficiencies are overcome(e) It is realised that he/she needs a separate class to meet his/her needs

40. “The individual develops through the head, the heart, and the hand”, this was the educational philosophy of:

(a) Herbart(b) Comenius(c) Pestalozzi(d) Froebel(e) Rousseau

Answer:

33. (b) the nature of the student population is changing34. (c) teachers should not be in a position to evaluate the results of their own teaching 35. (d) concentration on the early education of children36. (c) Residence patterns of the community37. (d) Herbart38. (c) John Locke39. (d) His/her intellectual potential is discovered and his/her educational deficiencies are overcome40. (c) Pestalozzi

41. Martin Luther’s greatest contribution to education was his:

(a) Ninety –Five Theses(b) Translation of the Bible into German(c) Advocacy of science curriculum for the universities(d) Concept of justification by good works(e) Advocacy of church control of schools

42. Of the following the statement that is least educationally valid is that:

(a) heterogeneous grouping is undemocratic(b) Drill periods should be brief(c) Study habits should be taught(d) Overlearning constitutes a waste of time (e) The quality of a student’s notes book should be a factor in formulating the student’s mark

43. In a kindergarten class it would be unreasonable to expect a child to:

(a) care for plants(b) clean up after clay work(c) bring an old shirt for painting activities(d) know when it is time to clean up (e) return a class library book to the shelf

44. Of the following, the best example of an anecdotal report is:

(a) “Tom is always fidgeting; he must be hyperactive”(b) “ On 12/1, 12/2, 12/4, during reading group time, Tom fidgeted in his seat"(c) “Tom doesn’t like reading; he always fidgets during a reading lesion”(d) “Tom is always fidgeting; his parents must be putting a lot of pressure on him”

(e) “Tom is a fidgeter”

45. The trial and error method of instruction is best enhanced by:

(a) role playing(b) programmed instruction(c) the developmental lesson(d) an audio visual lession(e) independent study

46. A parent of a fourth grader refuse to give permission for her child to go on a class trip. The teacher should first:

(a) refer the matter to the guidance counselor(b) confer with the parent to discuss the educational purpose of the trip (c) give the class a homework assignment for all parents to sign, giving reasons why each child wants to go on the trip(d) Ask another teacher in the same grade to take that child on the day of the trip(e) Tell the class that the trip will be cancelled if any child does not receive parental permission

47. All of the following are evidence of a good class audio-visual programme except:

(a) using globes and maps to teach geographic skills and concepts (b) developing a weekly list of recommended television programmes for home viewing(c) teacher previewing of all fimstrips to be shown to the class(d) allowing children to decide which educational television programmes they will view in class(e) providing study guides for class viewing of fims

48. An increase in comprehension skill is most likely to result from: 

(a) guided silent reading(b) guided oral reading(c) unstructured silent reading(d) the teacher reading to the class(e) listening to tapes of children’s stories

Answer:

41. (b) Translation of the Bible into German42. (d) Overlearning constitutes a waste of time43. (d) know when it is time to clean up44. (b) “ On 12/1, 12/2, 12/4, during reading group time, Tom fidgeted in

his seat"45. (e) independent study46. (b) confer with the parent to discuss the educational purpose of the trip47. (d) allowing children to decide which educational television programmes they will view in class48. (a) guided silent reading

49. In dealing with a class that is misbehaving, the teacher’s least effective course of action is to

(a) ask the principal to observe him/her and make recommendations(b) lower the grades of pupils who create the most serious infractions(c) isolate those most responsible for the misbehaviour(d) ascertain the extent to which his/her methods and/or curriculum are responsible(e) Ask the advice of his/her grade leader

50. A fourth grade child takes the possessions of pupils who sit near her. The teacher’s best initial step is to

(a) isolate the child in a corner of the room(b) make a note of this behaviour in the child’s permanent record(c) ignore the behaviour, as it will eventually disappear(d) arrange a parent conference to try to determine causation(e) assign the pupil to detention

51. All of the following are appropriate areas for pupil teacher planning except

(a) the day’s schedule(b) the selection of committees(c) the sequence in a skills programme(d) a class party(e) the selection of recreational reading

52. All of the following are examples of intrinsic motivation except

(a) encouraging pupils to help develop the aim of a lesson(b) permitting pupils to evaluate each other’s answers(c) utilizing pupils backgrounds and experiences(d) giving short quizzes at the beginning of a lesson(e) asking pupils to contribute to a class resource file

53. The most important objective of committee work is to have children

(a) practice parliamentary procedure(b) develop the leadership skills of the high achievers(c) develop skills of cooperative learning and problem solving (d) acquire factual information efficiently(e) learn socialization skills

54. All of the following statements about children are correct except that

(a) Older children in elementary schools are less prone to illness than younger children(b) Many children do not eat proper breakfasts(c) A child with an auditory handicap may be completely unaware of it(d) Children like teachers who are firm and consistent(e) Girls are superior to boys of the same age in mathematical abilities

55. All of the following are descriptive of good teaching except that

(a) Creative methods can used to achieve traditional goals(b) Teachers may fail to achieve satisfactory adjustment of some children despite use of optimum procedures(c) When given, a punishment should immediately follow the misbehaviour(d) Teachers should allow acting out children to handle manipulative materials(e) Teachers should refer all children with emotional problems to the guidance counsellor

56. A sixth-grade class includes a group of children reading on the fourth-grade level. Of the following, the best material to use with this group is a

(a) fourth-grade basal reader(b) tape recorder(c) high interest, low level book of stories(d) sixth grade workbook(e) local newspaper

Answer:

49. (b) lower the grades of pupils who create the most serious infractions50. (d) arrange a parent conference to try to determine causation51. (c) the sequence in a skills programme52. (b) permitting pupils to evaluate each other’s answers53. (c) develop skills of cooperative learning and problem solving54. (e) Girls are superior to boys of the same age in mathematical abilities55. (e) Teachers should refer all children with emotional problems to the

guidance counselor56. (c) high interest, low level book of stories

57. A child who frequently loses his/her place where reading can be temporarily helped by:

(a) allowing him/her to fingerpoint(b) giving him/her a card to place under each line being read(c) providing him/her with a large-print reader such as those used by the visually handicapped(d) letting him/her listen to taped stores(e) telling his/her parents that he/she needs glasses

58. Of the following activities in a science class, the one with least educational value is

(a) viewing a filmstrip(b) constructing a model(c) drawing a design(d) reading about a simple experiment(e) discussing a scientific principle

59. The operation of the class library should be the responsibility of

(a) The teacher(b) Volunteer parents(c) The children who contributed the books(d) Rotating committees of pupils(e) The school librarian

60. Group tests that have norms for each grade and that that are administered in accordance with uniform procedures listed in a manual of instruction are called

(a) School –wide finals(b) Quizzes(c) Standardized tests(d) Class tests(e) The WALS

61. In comparing the lecture and developmental lessons, all of the following are true except that

(a) there is more pupil activity in the developmental lesson(b) it is more difficult to ascertain pupil learning in a lecture lesson(c) the lecture method is more conducive to larger classes(d) slow children drive more benefit from a lecture than brighter children

to(e) motivation and summary are necessary in both lessons

62. A teacher notes poor attendance in class on Fridays, the day weekly tests are given. The teacher should

(a) call the parents of the absentees(b) schedule tests throughout the week(c) do nothing(d) tell the pupils that missing two tests will result in a failing mark(e) schedule all tests for Monday, after the children have had a restful weekend

63. When the majority of pupils in a science class is well below grade level in reading, the teacher should

(a) read to the class from the text book(b) plan many hands-on activities(c) show many filmstrips(d) prepare many dittoed sheets for the pupils to use(e) lecture to the class, using simple language

64. During the first parent teacher conference of the year, the teacher should do all to the following except

(a) take notes(b) include the child, when appropriate(c) encourage the parent to talk about her child(d) disagree with the parent’s philosophy of child reading(e) offer a cup of coffee or tea

Answer:

57. (b) giving him/her a card to place under each line being read58. (d) reading about a simple experiment59. (d) Rotating committees of pupils60. (c) Standardized tests61. (d) slow children drive more benefit from a lecture than brighter children to62. (b) schedule tests throughout the week63. (b) plan many hands-on activities64. (d) disagree with the parent’s philosophy of child reading

65. Career education should begin

(a) in kindergarten(b) in the third or fourth grades(c) when the child enters junior high school

(d) in high school economics classes(e) when the child begins to ask questions about jobs

66. Of the following birds of advice given by an experienced teacher to a new colleague, it would be best to ignore the one that state

(a) if you have a very shy child, don’t call on the child, wait until the child volunteers(b) give praise to even the poorest achiever; you can always find something worthwhile to praise(c) When a child misbehaves, first look for the reaction(d) Write an interesting question on the board for the pupils to answer as soon as they enter the room(e) Ask many “ how” and “Why” questions and not too many “what and who questions

67. To be successful with an overactive child, the teacher should

(a) Give the child extra written work so he/she will have a reason for remaining in his/her seat(b) Allow the child to leave his/her seat whenever he/she becomes restless(c) Provide the child with purposeful activities that legitimize the need for movement(d) Isolate the child from the class(e) Give the child a pass to the lavatory every half hour

68. The teacher of a class with a sizeable number of Spaniards notices that the Spaniards and the other children form two separate groups on the school playground. The teacher is best advised to

(a) ignore the situation(b) suggest that the principal organize a separate class of Spaniards (c) call a meeting of the parents and ask them what they think should be done(d) Organize those playground games that promote co-mingling (e) Plan a unit on “America, the Melting Plot”

69. A class assembly programme best contributes to educational goals when it

(a) presents a well known children’s play written by a talented author (b) features the best singers or actors in the class(c) is prepared by the teacher and based on his/her familiarity with the class(d) Is written by the children with help from the teacher, and is based on

one of the current learning activities of the class(e) Is praised by parents as being “just like a Broadway show”

70. When planning to develop the powers of creative thinking, the teacher should allow for all of the following experience except

(a) comparison of the treatment of a social studies topic in two textbooks(b) failure of an experiment in science(c) inability to locate a book in the school library(d) failure to solve a problem because of insufficient information(e) Solving of all problems through use of a well practiced formula

71. All of the following are applicable in good motivation except that it

(a) Should be brief(b) Should be relevant to the pupils(c) Should be related to the lesson that follows(d) Need not always come at the beginning of the lesson(e) Should always come from the teacher

72. Of the following statements above slow learners and bright children, the correct one is that(a) bright children are likely to have a higher incidence of emotional problems(b) slow learners are likely to have greater manual dexterity(c) slow learners are likely to be physically stronger(d) both groups are difficult to identify when very young(e) both groups strive for success in school

Answers:

65. (a) in kindergarten66. (a) if you have a very shy child, don’t call on the child, wait until the child volunteers67. (c) Provide the child with purposeful activities that legitimize the need for movement68. (d) Organize those playground games that promote co-mingling 69. (b) features the best singers or actors in the class70. (e) Solving of all problems through use of a well practiced formula71. (e) Should always come from the teacher72. (e) both groups strive for success in school

73. A small school assigns a class teacher to several hours of school library management. Of the following, the teacher’s top priority should be to make sure that

(a) no books are lost or damaged

(b) only books that are popular with the children are ordered (c) the card catalogue is in order(d) the library is used appropriately by maximum number of children(e) Children are quit while in the library

74. During a conference, the mother of the third grader asks the teacher how she can help improve her child’s reading ability. Of the following the poorest recommendation is that she should

(a) encourage the child to make regular visits to the public library (b) give the child books as presents for birthdays and special occasions(c) Take the child on trips to interesting places in the community (d) Read to the child(e) Severely limit the child watching of television

75. Creative writing should be an activity planned for

(a) only those children reading on grade level(b) only those children who can spell and who can write cohesive sentences(c) only those children who want to write for the class newspaper(d) all children(e) all children who consistently finish their regular language arts work on time

76. Student courts have not been widely adopted for the following reasons for this, the one most consistent with sound educational principles is that

(a) Children should not try to influence the behaviour of their peers(b) Children are too lenient with their peers(c) The teacher is really the ultimate authority, so courts are just shams (d) Student court usually mete out only punishments(e) Teachers are afraid that student courts will want to judge them too

77. Of the following possible procedure to procure to follow after the class has taken a spelling test, the teacher should not

(a) permit pupils to discuss the answers(b) correct the paper of the pupils who failed to finish the test(c) assign a drill to the entire class based on the most frequently misspelled words(d) Record the marks because 15 per cent of the class failed (e) Base some future language arts lesson on the results of the test

78. Of the following, the one least important to success in beginning reading is

(a) a clear and lucid speech pattern(b) normal vision and hearing(c) directionality(d) knowledge of the alphabet(e) a mental age of about six and one half years

79. Lesson planning should be guided primary by the consideration of

(a) meeting the needs of the average child in the class(b) creating a happy classroom environment(c) The curriculum goals(d) Providing pupils with work(e) Satisfying parents

80. The best procedure for a teacher to adopt with a pupil who frequently stammers in class is to

(a) Afford the child ample opportunity to recite to the class (b) Ignore the child(c) Suggest that the parents seek professional help(d) Suggest that the parents apply of home instruction(e) Keep the child after school for individual help

Answers:

73. (d) the library is used appropriately by maximum number of children74. (e) Severely limit the child watching of television75. (d) all children76. (d) Student court usually mete out only punishments77. (c) assign a drill to the entire class based on the most frequently misspelled words78. (d) knowledge of the alphabet79. (c) The curriculum goals80. (c) Suggest that the parents seek professional help

81. Of the following, the most promising step for a teacher to take in order to improve class discipline is to

(a) note specific infractions for class rules in the marking book(b) evaluate his/her material, methods, and approaches toe children(c) consult the class and agree upon a graduated series of punishments(d) call a class parent meeting to discuss the situation(e) refer the worst offenders to the guidance office

82. A small machine used in the reading programme to increase rate of speed is the

(a) mnemonic device(b) sphygmomanometer(c) tachistoscope(d) audiometer(e) stadiometer

83. A teacher should be catechized for all of the following practices except

(a) undermining the role of the parent(b) becoming overly friendly with pupils(c) exercising firm leadership(d) giving talented pupils special favours(e) excusing the poor behaviour of children from broken homes

84. Team teaching is chartered by all of the following except

(a) the use of master teacher(b) the use of large group lectures(c) group planning(d) inflexible groupings(e) differentiated personnel assignments

85. A paraprofessional may properly engage in all of the following activities expect

(a) assisting on parents night(b) conferring with parents about a child behaviour(c) making short answer tests(d) tutoring(e) distributing materials

86. The teacher introduces a problem-solving lesson with a good motivation and then asks for proposed solutions. No suggestions are forthcoming. The teacher is best advised to

(a) repeat the motivation until children respond(b) tell the student to read their text(c) show an interesting filmstrip(d) stimulate pupil thought by advancing a few personal proposals(e) assign the proposed solution for homework

87. Individual differences within a class are best handled by

(a) coaching slow children after school(b) giving the bright students free reading time(c) peer tutoring(d) organizing groups for specific purposes

(e) making each pupil fairly

88. A quite, reserved fourth grader brings roadmaps to school and looks at them whenever he gets a chance. The teacher should

(a) encourage the pupil to talk about them during a show and tell period(b) tell the pupil the leave the maps at home(c) take the maps away(d) plan a unit on maps and globes(e) call the mother to determine the reason for the behaviour

Answer:

81. (b) evaluate his/her material, methods, and approaches toe children82. (c) tachistoscope83. (c) exercising firm leadership84. (d) inflexible groupings85. (b) conferring with parents about a child behaviour86. (d) stimulate pupil thought by advancing a few personal proposals87. (d) organizing groups for specific purposes88. (a) encourage the pupil to talk about them during a show and tell period

89. The tightly structured lesson that is taught with little flexibility is least conductive to the learning of the student who

(a) is culturally disadvantaged(b) is hyperactive(c) has an 85 IQ(d) has a 125 IQ(e) is learning disabled

90. The discovery method of teaching is best exemplified by

(a) play activities(b) rote learning(c) independent study projects(d) the open textbook lesson(e) audio visual lesson

91. The best procedure for a teacher to follow when a pupil habitually calls out in class is to

(a) ask for a percent conference(b) put a demerit in the making book on each occasion(c) refuse to recognize the pupil even when he/she is acting appropriately(d) refer the pupil to the guidance counselor(e) call on the pupil to answer questions that are within his/her ability

level

92. Ramesh tells her teacher that three other girls, who the teacher knows are Ramesh’s friends, copy from each other on all the tests. Of the following the teacher is best advised to first

(a) give the three girls a zero on the last two tests(b) confer with Ramesh’s mother(c) try to understand why Ramesh said this(d) refer the three girls to the guidance counselor(e) ignore the remark

93. Most educators agree that oral reading

(a) comes naturally to good readers(b) is do difficult to do well that it is waste of time to teach it(c) is useful only for appreciation of poetry(d) requires an audience situation(e) is only for poor readers so they can hear their own mistakes and be motivated to correct them

94. After a lesson is taught the teacher’s lesson plan should be

(a) thrown away(b) annotated(c) filed for use by a substitute teacher(d) filed for use at the same time next year(e) sent to the supervisor for evaluation

95. Of the following, the least appropriate opening day activity is

(a) saluting the flag(b) assigning homework(c) outlining the day’s schedule(d) tending to class housekeeping(e) giving a brief quiz

96. The discovery method of learning is best exemplified by

(a) programmed instruction(b) experimentation in a science laboratory(c) team teaching(d) mainstreaming(e) individualized programming

Answers:

89. (d) has a 125 IQ

90. (c) independent study projects91. (e) Call on the pupil to answer questions that are within his /her ability level92. (c) try to understand why Ramesh said this93. (d) requires an audience situation94. (b) annotated95. (b) assigning homework96. (b) experimentation in a science laboratory

RESEARCH APTITUDEResearch: Research is the syst6matic andobjective analysis and recording of controlledobservations that may lead to the developmentof generalisations principles or theoriesresulting in prediction and possibly ultimatecontrol of events.Scientific research is a systematic andobjective attempt to provide answers to certainquestions. It is an essential and powerful tool inleading towards progress, A significantresearch leads to progress in some field of life.Research is born lout of human curiosity.Curiosity aroused to study movements,behaviour patterns etc. We can also defineresearch as "ideally, the careful unbiasedinvestigation of a problem, based in sofar aspossible upon demonstrable facts and involvingrefined distinctions, interpretations andusually some generalisations". Educationalresearch is the study and investigation in thefield of education or bearing upon educationalproblems. Since research is. a continuousproblem solving approach to learning it aimsand assists in achieving the goals throughanalysis and comprehensive-investigation.CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH1. It is always directed towards the solution ofaproblem.2. It is always based on empirical or observableevidences.3. It involves precise observation and accuratedescription.4. Gives emphasis to the development oftheories, principles and generalisations,which are very helpfulm accurate predictionsregarding the v~able under study.5. It is systematic, obsective and logical.Types of Research:There are many classifications of research.Some of the important classifications are:(i) Exploratory and conclusive research:Exploratory · or formulate researchaims at probing into phenomenon to

formulate a more precise researchproblem or to develop a hypothesis. Whileconclusive research tests these hypothesis .developed through exploratory researchand may suggest a new idea or a newopportunity.(ii) Fundamental or pure or basi.sresearch, applied research andaction research : A fundamentalresearch is the formal and systematicprocess where the researcher's aim is to .develop a theory or a model by identifyingall the important variables in thesituation and by discovering broadgeneralisations and principles about thesevariables. Applied research, applies thetheory or model developed theories but totest those existing theories in actualproblem situations. Action research hasrecently been popular in the field of socialpsychology, industrial psychology andeducation. In action research, researcherfocuses upon the immediate consequencesand applications of a problem of a theoryor a model.(iii) Historical research, descriptiveresearch and experimental research:Historical research describes what was.The process involves investigation,recording, analyzing and interpreting. theeverits of the past for the purpose of. discovering generalizations that arehelpful in understanding the past and thepresent and to a limited extent, inanticipating the future. Descriptiveresearch describes records, analyzes', andinterprets the conditions that exist,practices that prevail,. beliefs, points ofviews or attitudes that are held processesthat are going in effects that are beingfelt, or trends that are developing. Itinvolves some type of comparison orcontrast and attempts to discoverrelationship between existingnonmanipulated variables. It can be ofvarious types , like survey studies,interrelationship studies casualcomparative studies and developmentstudies. Experimental research describeswhat will be when certain variables arecarefully controlled or manipulated. Thefocus is on variable ~elationship .Deliberate mampulation is always a partof experimental method. Experimel'talresearch is the description and analysis of

what will be, or what will occur, undercareflilly controlled conditions in which 'one factor is varied and the others arekept constant and can be repeated byanother investigator, by the sameinvestigator or another occassion withnearly identical results.(iV) Experimental and non-experimentalresearch: This classification is based onthe nature of research. An experimentalresearch is one where the independentvariables can be directly manipulated by ,experimenter. It is further divided intotwo main types- Laboratory experimentand field experiment. A non experiinentalresearch is one where independentvariables cannot be manipulated andtherefore cannot be experimentallystudied. A non experimental research canbe divided into three main types- field,studies, expost factor research and sUFVey"research.LABORATORY EXPERIMENT: It is thestudy of a problem in a situation in which somevariables are manipulated and some arecontrolled in order to have an effect upon thedependent variable. The variables which aremanipulated are known as in'dependentvariables and the variables which are controlledare known as extraneous ot'relevent variables.Thus in ~ laboratory e~periment the effect ofmanipulation of an iridependent variables uponthe dependent variable is observed undercontrolled conditions.FIELD EXPERIMENTS: It is a study carriedout is a more or less realistic situation or fieldwhere the experimenter successfullymanipUlates one or more independent variablesunder the maximum possible controlledconditions.FIELD STUDY : It is a study whichsystematically discovers relations andinteractions among variables in real lifesituations such as school, factory, comm~nitycollege etc. It field study the ihvestigatordepends upon the existing conditions of a fieldsituation as well as upon the selection of subjectfor determining the relationship amongvariables.EXPOST FACTO STUDY : In this theinvestigators attempt to trace an effect whichhas already occurred to its probable causes. Theeffect becomes the dependent variable and theprobable causes become the independ~ntvariable. The investigator has no direct control

over such variables.SURVEY RESEARCH : It is a techniquewhere, the investigator or researcher studiesthe whole population with respect to certainsociological and psychological variables.Depending upon the ways of collecting data,survey research can be classified into differentcategories, namely, personal interview, mainquestionnaire, panel technique arid telephonesurvey.

STEPS OF RESEARCH(a) Identification of research : The very 1ststep of research is to identify the subject andnature ofthe problem.(b) Proposal of Action : After identifying thesubject or the problem, we proposed an action planto solve the problem or find a sblution for that.(c) Constructing hypothesis: Hypothesis is atentative explanation for 'an observation,phenomenon, or scientific problem that can betested by further investigation. It is a conceptthat is not yet varified but that if true wouldexplain certain facts or phenomena.Characteristics of hypothesis:(i) It should state the relationship betweenvariables.(ii) It must consist of known facts.(iii) ft can be tested. .(iv) It must be dear in its concept.(v) It must be objective and specific.(vi) It shoUld be amendable to testing with ina resonable time.So our next step is to construct a hypothesis forresearch and after that he plans to explain iteither based em laboratory experime'nt or fieldexperiment.(d) Collection of data: The researchercollects data either in experimental way or innon experimental way, for his problem.(e) Presentation of data: The next step is torepresent the collected data in logical mannerso that he or anyone else will be able to analysethat easily. Most general way' of presentation ofdata in scientific or social research is to maketable of the collected data in certain way whichshows the relation between variables.(f) Analy~is of data: The analysis is done inboth ways statistical and descriptive analysis.(g) Declaration of Result: Mter analysingthe data, the researcher declares the result ofthe research.Paper: It is an essay or dissertation read at aseminar or published in a journaL It is a formalwritten composition intended to published,

presented, or read aloud or a scholarly essay.Article : It is a nonfictional literacy ,composition that forms an independent part ofa publication, as of a newspaper or magazine.Workshop: A meeting at which a groupengages in interisive discussion.a:nd activity ona particular subject or project. 'Semiriar : ' A conference for discussion ontraining' on a specific subject.Conference : A formal meeting for diSCUSSIonor debate.Symposium: A meeting or conference fordiscussion of a topic, especially one in which theparticipants form an audience and makepresentation.Dissertation : or Thesis : A treafiesadvancing a new point of view resulting fromresearch; usually a requirement for anadvanced academic degree.Thesis and its format : One of the mClstgeneral format for thesis is given below. The listof contents and chapter are almost same forevery subjectiuniversity. In some cases one ortwo heading may be irrel~vant or one or twomore heading may be required. We can dividethe whole thesis in four parts :(i) Introduction(ii) Explanation of the topic-(iii) Details of research & its result(iv) Refererice ,md appendices.Think about the plan of chapters and decidewhat is best for your research. Then make alist, in point form , of what will go in ea.chchapter. Always represent the text of thesis inlogical order. Make a plan for each chapter andsection, the result will probably be clearer andeasier to read.The different heading may be the following:(i) Copyright Waiver : This' gives theuniversity library the right to publishyour work. '(ii) Declaration : This page declares thatthe thesis is your own work and is nottaken from any other's work.I(iii)Title Page: The format of this page maybe Title/Author "A thesis submitted forthe degree of Doctor of PhilosQphy infaculty of Sci encelT he ... University"/date.(iv) Abstract : This part is most importantpart of the thesis it is most widelypage. It is best writtentowards the end. It should be selfcontained and contains a consisedescription of the problem(s) addressed.

Your method of solving, result andconclusion.(v) Acknowledgements: It is the thanksgiving page to all the people who helpedin the research or whose work you used'for your research.(vi) Table of content: Introduction startsfrom page 1, the earlier pages shouldhave different numbering system.(vii) Introduction : This gives the detailsabout the topic its importance. Thismust be very interesting. You should notbore the reader. Never overestimate thereader's familiarity with your topic.(viii) Literature Review : Where did theproblem come from? what is alreadyknown about the problem? If you havebeen keeping up with the literatUre asyou vowed to do three years ago, and ifyou have made notes about importantpapers over the year, then you have somegood points for the review.(ix) Materials and Methods : This variesfrom thesis to thesis and may be absentin theoretical thesis. It explains themethods used for research.(x) Theory(xi) Results and Discussion: The resultsand discussion are very· often combinedin thesis. The division of results andDiscussion material into chapters isusually best done according to subjectmatter. In most cases your result needdiscussion. What do they mean? Howcan they fit into existing body ofknowledge? Are they consistent withpresent theories? Do they give newinsight? Do they suggest new theories ormechanism?(xii) Conclusion : Generally abstract alsocontains conclusion in very briefform. Asummary of conclusions may be put inpoint form after the result and discussionchapter.(xiii) Reference and Appendices(xiv) BibliographyQUESTIONS I1. Who said that members of the samespecies are not alike?(a) Darwin (b) Herbert Spencer(c) Best (d) Good2. A st;:ttistical measure based upon theentire population is called parameterwhile measure based upon a sample isknown as

(a) sample parameter(b) inference(c) statistic(4) none of these3. Generalized conclusion on the basis of asample is technically known as.(a) statistical inference of externalvalidity of the research(b) data analysis and interpretation(c) parameter inference(d) · all of the above4. A researcher selects a probability sampleof 100 out of the total population. It is(a) a cluster sample(b) a random sample ..(c) a stratified sample(d) a systematic sample5. Aresearcher divides the populations intoPG, graduates and 10 + 2 students andusing the random digit table he selectssome of them from . each. This istechnically called(a) stratified sarp.pling(b) stratified random sampling '(c) representative sampling(d) none ofthese6. The final result of a study will be moreaccurate if the sample drawn is(a) taken randomly(b) fixed by quota(c) representative to the population(d) purpOSIVe7. A researcher selects only 10 members asa sample from the total population of 5000and considers it good because(a) he was a good researcher(b) he was guided by his supervisor(c) the populations was homogeneous(d) all ofthese8. Area (cluster) sampling t echnique is usedwhen(a) popul~tion is scattered and large sizeof the sample is to be drawn(b) population is heterogeneous(c) long survey is needed(d) (a) and (c)9. A researcher divides his population intocertain groups and fixes the size of thesample from each group. It is called(a) stratified sample (b) quota sample(c) cluster sample (d) all of the above10. Which ofthe following is a non-probabilitysample ?(a) Quota sample(b) Simple random sample

(c) Purposive sample(d) (a) and (c) both11. Which t echnique is generally followedwhen the population is finite ?(a) Area sampling technique(b) Purposive sllmpling technique(c) Systematic sampling technique(d) None ofthe above12. Validity of a research can be improved by(a) eliminating extraneous factors(b) taking the true representative sampleofthe population(c) both of the above measures(d) none ofthese13. Field study is related to(a) real life situations(b) experimental situations(c) laboratory situations(d) none of the above14. Independent variables are not marupulatedin(a) normative researches(b) ex-post facto researches(c) both ofthe above(d) none ofthe above15. The research antagonistic to ex-post factoresearch is(a) experimental studies(b) normati~e researches(c) library researches(d) all ofthe above16. Who is regarded the father of scientificsocial surveys?(a) Darwin (b) Booth(c) Best (d) None oft.hese17. Attributes of objects, events or thingswhich can be measured are called(a) qualitative measure(b) data(c) variables(d) none ofthe above18. The process not nE;ededin experimentalresearches is(a) observation(b) controlling(c) manipulation and replication(d) . reference collection19. The experimental study is based on thelaw of(d) single variable(b) replication(c) occupation(d) interest ofthe subject20. All are example of qualitative variablesexcept

(a) religion and castes(b) sex(c) observation(d) interest of the subject21. An example of scientific knowledge is(a) authority ofthe Prophet or great men(b) social traditions and customs(c) religious scriptures(d) laboratory and field experiments22. A teacher encounters various problemsduring his professional experiences. He should(a) resign from his post ' in . suchsituations(b) do research onthat problem and finda solution(c) avoid the problematic situations ,(d) take the help of head ofthe institution23. A research problem is feasible only when(a) it is researchable(b) it is new and adds something to knowledge(c) it has utility and relevance(d) all of these24. Formulation of hypothesis may not be necessarym(a) survey studies(b) fact finding (historical) studies(c) normative studies(d) experimental studies25. Studying the social status of a populationa researcher concluded that Mr. X issocially backward. His conclusion is(aJ wrong (b) right(c) inaccurate (d) biasedNote: Such studies are conducted mrelative terms.26. A good hypothesis should be(a) precise, specific and conslstent withmost known facts(b) formulated in such a way that it canbe tested by the data(c) of limited scope and should not haveglobal significance'(d) all of these27. Hypothesis can not be stated in(a) null and question form terms(b) declarative terms(c) general terms(d) directional terms28. Logic of induction is very close to(a) the logic of sampling(b) the logic of observation(c) the logic of the controlled variable(d) none of the above29. In order to augment the acc~acy of thestudy a researcher

(a) should increase the size of the sample(b) should be honest and unbiased(c) should keep the variance high(d) all of these30. All causes n?n ,sampling errors except19(a) faulty tools of measurement(b) inadequate sample(c) non response(d) defect in data collection31. Total error in a research is equal to(a) sampling error + non-sampling error(b) [(sampling error) + (non - sampling error)t(c) only samp'ling error(d) sampling error x 10032. The probability of a head and a tail oftossing four coins simultaneously is(a) 118 (b) 116(c) 114 (d) 116433. Which of the fQl10wing is a primary sourceof data? '(a) Personal records, letters, diaries,autobio-graphies, wills, etc.(b) Official records-governments' documents,information preserved bysocial-religious organizations etc.(c) Oral testimony of traditions andcustoms(d) Allofthe ahove34. For doing external criticism (forestablishing the authenticity of data) aresearcher must verify:(a) the signature and handwriting of theauthor(b) the paper and ink used in that periodwhicltis under study(c) style of prose writing of that period(d) all of the above35. The validity and reliability of a researchwill be at stake when-(a) The author wh,o is the source of informationis biased, . incompetent ordishonest(b) The incident was reported after a longperiod of time from that of itsoccurrence(c) T4e researcher himself is notcompetent enough to draw logicalconclusions(d) All ofthe above36. While writing research report aresearcher(a) must riot use the numerical figures innumbers in the beginning ofsentences

(b) must arrange it in lpgical, topical andchronological order(c) must compare his results with thoseof the other studies(d) all of the above37. A researcher wants to study the future ofthe Congress I in India .. For the studywhich tool is most appropriate for him?(a) Questionnaire (b) SchedUle(c) Interview (d) Rating scale38. Survey study aims at:(i) knowing facts about the l!Xistingsituation(ii) comparing the present status with thestandard norms(iii) criticising the existing situation(iv) identifying the means of improvingthe existing situation(a) (i) and (ii) only(b) (i), (ii), and (iii)(c) (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)(d) (ii) and (iii) only39. Seeing a very big rally it was reported thatJD will win the election, the conclusionwas based on :(a) random sampling(b) cluster sampling '(c) systematic sampling(d) purposive sampling40. The per capita income of India from 1950to 1990 is four times. This study is(a) social (b) horizontal(c) longitudinal (d) factorial41. It is an example of negative correlation:(a) an increase iiI population will lead toa shortage of food grains(b) poor intelligence means poorachievement in school(c) corruption in India is increasin·g(d) poor working condition retards output45.If you are doing experiment on a largegroup of sample which method ofcontrolling will you adopt?(a) matching(b) randomization(c) elimination and matching both(d) elimination .The other name of independent variablefor an experimental research is/are(a) treatment variable(b) experimental variable(c) manipulated variable(d) all of the above46.The historical research is different fromexperimental research in the process of

(a) replication(b) the formulation of the hypothesis(c) the hypothesis testing(d) all of the above47.The reVIew of the related study . isimportant while undertaking a researchbecause(a) it avoids repetition or duplication(b) it helps in understanding the gaps(c) it helps the researcher not to drawillogical conclusions(d) all of the above48. Which of the following is not thecharacteristic of a researcher?(a) He is a specialist rather than ageneralist(b) He is industrious and persistent onthe trial of discovery(c) He is not inspirational to his chosenfield but accepts the reality(d) He is not versatile in his interest andeven in his native abilities(e) He is versatile in his interest, even inhis native abilities(f) he is objective49. Collective psychology of the whole period isa theory which(a) can explain all phase of historical21development(b) means the psychology of the wholesociety(e) means psychological approach of datacollection(d) all oftl1.e above50. Bibliography given in a research report(a) helps those interested in furtherresearch and studying the problemfrom another angle(b) makes the report authentic(e) shows the vastknowledge of the researcher(d) none ofthe above51. If the sample drawn does not specify anycondition about the parameter of the ·. population, it is called(a) selected statistics(b) distribution free statistics(c) census(d) none of the aboveANSWERSI1 · 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10(a) (e) (a) (b) (b) (e) (e) (d) (b) (d)11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20le) (e) (a) (e) (a) (b) (e) (d) (a) (d)21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

(d) (b) (d) (b) (e) (d) (e) (a) (d) (b)31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40(b) (b) (d) (d) (d) (d) (a) (b) (b) (e)41 42 · 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50(a) (b) (e) (b) (d) (d) (d) (d) (a) (a)51(b)EXPLANATORY ANSWERS I12. (c): When we study about an event by 5. (b): Division of population on the basis oftaking a sample from the population it class, income, education level etc isis cal.led · statistic and a group . of called stratification and every memberstatistical measures is called statistics. of ea~h stratum has equal chance of4. (b): In random sampling technique every being selected by the researcher. Innumber of the population has equal this way characteristics of variouschance of being selected. strata are identified and studied.6. (c): The more the sample represents thepopulation the more accurate are theresults of the study. Sample can be mademore representative either by increasingthe size of the sample or by followingmore rellable method of sampling.7. (c): If characteristics of the population ishomogeneous a small sample may beenough for study because it mayrepresent the whole population easily.8. (d): When long survey is being done andpopulation is scattered over a large areathen researcher selects various groupsfrom the whole area. The selection ofthese groups is bailed on the discretionofthe researcher.14. (c): In normative researches only data arecollected from the survey and afteranalysing them results are declared.Thus there is no need of manipulatingindependent variables. In ex-post facto researcheffects are already known andresearcher studies the. causes lyingbehind these ' effects. Here tooindependent variable are notmanipulated.15. (a): Studies opposite to ex-post facto areexperi-mental ones where variouscauses are first presented and theireffects due to manipulation of the singlevariable are seen. .16. (b): Reference collection is not needed inexperimental studies because aresearcher relies only on his ownresults which may be different from theprevious studies.22. (b): It is but natural to face variousproblems in life and seeking solutionsto these problems is a must. A true

teacher always tries to get solution ofhis problem by doing formal or informalresearches.25. (c): Such type of studies are alwayscomparative in nature. He should saythat Mr. X is socially or economicallybackward as compared to Mr Y.32. (b): If there is only one coin the probabilityof its being head and tail is 50% - 50%.If coins are two then each will have 25%chance of getting down head and tail.Now if coins are four this chance will be12Y2% each and so on.37. (a): Questionnaire is most appropriate techniquefor studying such problemsbecause a large sample of thepopulation can be covered in a shortperiod by mailing it to the respondants.41. (a): When one variable is increasing andthe other one is decreasing thencorrelation will be negative, zerocorrelation means variables areindependent of each other and inpositive correlations direct relationshipis seen in both the variables42. (b): In cross-sectional studies population ofvarious ages, sex or religions is takenand their attributes are collected. Thenwhich attribute is common to aparticular group is identified byaveraging the attributes.

INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGYOVERVIEW OF COMPUTERS1. COMPUTERSComputers were originally invented to carryout numerical calculations in the 19308-408.Later they were gradually developed to processaU kinds of data. such 8S numbers, texts, andother types of media.A computer system consists of two types ofcomponents: hardware and software.Hardware is the equipment used to performthe necessary oomputations and includes thecentral processing unit (CPU), monitor,keyboard, mouse, printer, and 80 on.Software consists of programs written inprogramming languages that control thehardware to carry out variolls tasks.Whatever a computer needs to process areeventually translated into binary numbers,consisting of Os and le. The programs aretranslated into lists of instructions working onthe binary numbers.2. HARDWARE

Major hardware components of a computerinclude memory, processing unit, and input!output devices.Memory is the place w here the programsand data are stored. It can be imagined as anordered sequence of storage locations calledmemory cells. Each cell has a unique address,which is like a serial number of the cell in thememory.The data stored in a memory cell are calledthe contents of the cell. Program treated as aspecial type of data. The concept of "storedprogram", let a program be stored in thememory before they can be executed.A memory cell contains a sequence ofbinary digits, or bits. Each bit is either a 0 ora l. A sequence of eight bits is usually called abyte, which represent a character, such theones on a keyboard.To store a value i.nto a certain address means togive it new contents (so the previous one isgone). To retrieve a value from a memory cellmeans to copy the contents to another placewithout destroying it.In a computer, there are several types ofmemory. There is the distinction between mainmemory and secondary memory - the former isfaster and smaller, but the latter is cheaper, andoften removable. At the current time, the formeris usually in silicon chips, while the latter inhard disks, floppy disks, CDs and 80 on.There are two types of main memory: RAM(random access memory) and ROM (read·onlymemory). Their differences are that thecontents of RAM can be modified, and areusually volatile i.e., will be lost when thecomputer is switched off. On the otber band,secondary memory is not volatile.In the following, ~main memory" meansRAM.The terms used to quantify storagecapacities:1 byte (B) = 8 bite.1 kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes, i.e .. 2 10 bytes1 megabyte (MB) = 1024 kilobytes, i.e., 220 bytes1 gigabyte (GB) = 1024 megabytes. i.e .. 230 bytes1 terabyte (fB) = 1024 gigabytes, i.e., 2"0 bytesIn a computer, most. of the operations areperformed by a CPU (central processing unit.),though there are computers wit.h multipleCPUs. A CPU has two tasks: coordination of allcomputer operations and performing arithmeticand logical operations on data.The CPU follows the instructions containedin a program (written in a computer·

understandable language). In each step. theCPU fetches (i.e., retrieves) an instruction,interprets its content to decide what to do, andthen do it, which may mean to move data fromone place to another, or change data in a certainway. Other common operations includeaddition, subtraction, multiplication, division,comparison, and so on.CPU usually executes instructions oneafter another, but can also jump to anothermemory cell according to an instruction.At the current time. a CPU is in a singleintegrated circuit (I C), or call it a chip.A computer uscs its inputJoutput (I/O)devices to communicate with human uscs andother computers.For a human user, the usual input device isa keyboard and a mouse, and the usual outputdevice is a monitor (display screen), and aprinter. The human-computer interaction(Hef) can either happen in a command-lineuser interface. or a graphical user interface(GUl).A computer network carries outcommunications among computer systems.There are different types of networks: localareanetwork (LAN) and wide area network (WAN).The Internet connects computers allover theworld. which supports the World Wide WebCNWW), am'ong many of its usages.To connect to another computer, acomputer needs a modem (modulatorldemodulator), or some other network device, totranslate between its intemallanguage and thelanguage used in the network communication.The communications can go through all kindsof cables, or wireless.3. SOFTWAREIn a computer, there is a software that occupiesa special position: the operating system (OS).With respect to it, all other softwarca areapplication softwares. which are managed andsupported by the OS.When a computer is turned on, it starts byexecuting part of the OS that is stored in aROM, which then loads the rest of the OS fromhard disk and starts it. This process is called"booting".When running, an OS has the following mainresponsibilities: * comm uweating with the user, * allocating resources (CPU time, memoryspace, printer usage .... ).* connection 1/0 devices With runningprograms. * transferring data between main andsecondary memory.

In summary. we often say t.hat the OSmanage processes and resources.At the current time, the most often used OSinclude UnixlLinux, Microsoft Windows. andMacintosh OS. It is possible for a ~mputer tohave more than one as stored in its memory.but usually only one can be used at a time.An application software uses the computerto accomplish a specific task. They are usuallypurchased on CD. and installed into thecomputer (so itia stored in memory and knownto the OS), before they can be used in thecomputer.The CPU, in a machine language, in whicha program is in binary code. eventuallyexecutea every software. Since programs in thislanguage are not easily understandable by ahuman user, the same program is usually alsodescribed in other, more human-readablelanguages.One type of them is a88Cmbly language. inwhich the instructions are represented bysymbols and numbers.Another type of language are more humanoriented,called "higher· level languages", whichare closer to mathematicaJ languages andnatural languages (such as English), as wellumachi,ne-independent .Typical exampJes of high-level languageinclude FORTRAN, ALGOL, COBOL, BASIC,Pascal, LISP, Prolog, Perl, C, C++, and Java.Special programs accomplish thetranslation fr,om high-level languages andassembly languages into machine languages:compilers, interpreters, and assemblers. Acompiler translates a soUrce program in a highlevellanguage into an object-program in themachine language. An interpreter interpretsand executes a program in a high-levellanguage line by tine. An assembler translate8a source program in an assembly language inti!?an object program in the machine language . .A high-level language usually comes withmany readymade common programs, so theuser can include them in programs, neitherthan rewrite them. The program responsible forthis is called a "linker". It links user objectprograms and related "library programs", andproduces executable programs.There are software packages ca lled"integrated development environment" (IDE)which organize all the related software (e.g.,editor, compiler, linker, loader, debugger)together to support t he development of asoftware.

During the execution of a program inmachine language, it typically get some inputdata from the memory, process them accordingthe predetermined procedure, then store someoutput data into the memory, and display someinformation to the user.4. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENTSClitware developing, also called programming,is .li problem-solving prOcess. It usually consistsof the following major steps:1. Specify the p roblem: to state theproblem clearly and unambiguously.2. Analyze the problem: to identify thecorresponding outputs.3.Design t he algorit hm: to develop a listof steps, called an algorithm, that willstart with the input and stop with theoutput:4. Implement t he algor ithm: to write aprogram in a language according to thealgorithm.5. 'Test the program: to verify that theprogram indeed produces the desiredresult in selected testing cases.6. Maintain the program: to update theprogram according to new information.Very. often, steps in the above procedureneed to be repeated to filed the errors found in theprocess.EXAMPLEKilometer-mile translation.1. Specify the problem: a survey of maps,some with dIstances in kilometer, whileothers with miles. All result should be inkilometer.2. Analyze the problem: distance in milesshould be cOnverted into kilometers. Tberelationship is that one mile equals 1.609kilometer. Therefore, the input is a milesvalue. the output is the correspondingkilometer value.3. Design the algorithm: there are threesteps: (i) get the distance in miles,(ii) times 1.609 to that number. and(iii) display the result.4. Implement the algorithm5. Test the program: run it with severaldistances in miles as input, then check theoutput.6. Maintain the program: unnecessary forthis problem.The World-Wide Web:Its Uses as a Teaching Tool'World-Wide Web represents a new concept intechnology, the library on your desktop, the

dictionary at your fingertips, the sound at yourear. There is nothing that we hear or see thatwill not be available through WWW'.Why Use the Web?The World· Wide Web (or the Web) is one of themost accessible tools available for academicianto use. It allows an easy means of publishingmaterial, it has a low learning curve, themajority of its brow del'S are graphical and userfreindly,and above all it is free to most peoplein Higher Education.The Web works on a client-server prinCIple.The user launches their browser (e.g. Netscape)on their machine, which in turn interrogates aserver retrieving files. Files are located viatheir Uniform Resource Locator (URL)-aunique address detailing the protocol fortransferring the data, the domain name of theWeb server, and the pathname/filename of theactual document. The Web presents a head-oncomparison with traditional multimedia·authoring tools such as Tool Book, HyperCard.Director, and 80 on. Academies who wish tocreate simple computer·aided learningcourseware often face the decision of whetherthey should go down the path of learning amultimedia-authoring tool and distributing thematerial on a CD-ROM or floppy disk; orwhether they should move to the Internet andutilise the multimedia and hypertextcapabilities of the Web. To clarify this a bitmore, it is useful to list the advantages anddisadvantages of multimedia authoring tools(MM) when compared with the Web.Advantages of MM authoring1. Most of them have very sophisticatedediting tools and background scriptinglanguages.2. Most will allow run-time versions to bedistributed without the need for thirdparties to have the full version of thesoftware they were created in (e,g.HyperCard player, etc.).3. Due to their long history of developmentthere is 8 substantial amount of supportingmaterial and publications to help aprospective author.4. The author tends to have control over thedata, restricting its distribution, as well asthe end-users' abilities to alter material.Disadvantages ofMM authoring1. Every authoring package has itslimitations; often limited to a singleplatform: poor in handling hypertext.2. Unless the author creates specialised

importing features most of the data used inthe final product will be locked into thepackage making subsequent editing aproblem.3. The life-expectancy of these products isquestionable.strides in making the authoring softwaremOn! easy to use, it should still be noted thatthe learning curve for some products is stillvery high.Advantages of the Web1. Assuming one has access to a Web server(usually your institution's mainframe),publication of ma ter ial (not includinlcopyright costs) IS free.2. HTML. the mark-up la nguage used increating World-Wide Web documents. illvery easy to learn.3. The Web uses non-propriety standards thUlgiving the site a longer life expectancy: e.,.text is in plain ASClI. HTML is a sub-setolSGML, graphics appear 8S JPEG or GIF,etc. It is subsequently cross-platform (i.e.the same document can be viewed througha Macintosh, a Windows machine, a UNIXbox. and even a dumb terminal using suchbrowsers as LYNX though this necessitateethe loss of multimedia elements).4. Once established, the material is madeavailable to an international audienceamounting to millions (with no extradistribution costs).5. Linking from the document is not restrictedto data elsewhere on the machine's harddrive or the CD-ROM the program isdistributed on, but can be international Inturn. if you are thinking of creating avirtual environment for your students, theWeb will allow to link, with ease, to otherUniversities.6. Software needed for the Web is free in most4. The potential audience is limited by thedistribution process (e.g. cost and speed of 7.producing CD-ROMs), and the platformrequirements.cases (both browsers and servers) or verycheap, and are easy to use.The Web can deliver multimedia (includingvideo and audio) elements in additio:l totext. Additionally, plug-ins for the variousbrowsers allow users to interact with VRMLsites.5. If the product is upgraded this would have tobe in conjunction with a re-issue of a newversion, entailing all the problems of 8.

advertising these changes, plus a renewedround of distribution.6. Although software houses have made greatEditing of existing files is straightforward.Furthermore, as it works on a clientiserverbasis there is no onus on the developer to reoissue upgrades.Disadvantages of the Web1. At present, the screen design facilities andanimation capabilities of the Web are not asadvanced as those provided with most of theauthoring packages. However,Macromedia's Shockwave goes someway toaddressing this; as does Java; or the moreuser friendly JavaScript. Cascading stylesheets may aid the screen layout process inthe near future.2. Access on networks is slow (probably themost consistent criticism levelled atpublishing on the Internet). However, inanswer to this, it tlhould not be forgottenthat HT11L flies can be read from localnetworks or bard drives thus dispensingwith the reliance on the speed of theInternet. Academics wishing to provide onlinetutorials or notes via the Web couldeven distribute their files on floppy disks.3. By opening up access to an internationalaudience there are ·serious implications forcopyright issues. A developer wishing topublish on the Web will probably have toagree world rights on the material t!tey use.In short, the technical problems, thoughstill there on the Web, are far outweighed by theadvantages of using it, making it a moreattractive prospect for the development of CBLmaterial than traditional multimediaauthoringpackages (though it should be notedthat manufacturers of the latter are constantlyseeking ways to deliver traditional multimediapackages through Web browsers).

INTERNETThe term Internet stands for InterNetworkSystems. It is a global network ofnetworks. It consists of thousands ofinterconnected computer networks. TIle growthof the Internet is phenomenal. The Internet isbeing viewed as a phenomenon unparalleledsince the invention of the printing press thatushered in a revolution in the production,circulation and exchange of information. Thetechnical foundation of the Internet allows it tokeep expanding almost indefinitely.The Internet has been compared with a

tidal wave that will wash over the computerindustry snd many others and drowning thosewho don't learn to swim in its waves. As thecomputer has become a part and parcel ofmodern offices the Internet will force itself intothe very texture of our life by the turn of thecentury. For millions of users the world over,Internet has become a means of cross-bordertransfer of information. It facilitates directcontact between researchers from differentcountries. It is an exceptional means ofcommunication. It offers an opportunity toevery individual to exercise power in a way thatno information structure has ever provided.Information put on the Internet becomesinstantaneously available and which can beaccessible to millions of individuals.No single individual or organisation owns theInternet. Its management is completelydecentralised. It is entirely managed byindividual and organisational volunteers. Eachnetwork meets the expenditure for theinstallation and operating costs as well as thoseof connecting up with the other networks_

USES OF THE INTERNETThe list of services available on the Internet isexpanding everyday. It has come to be thesingle unparalleled dt!vice for rmding solutionsto all sorts of problems. Image, sound and texttravel easily on the Internet. Users from allover the world can discuss back and forth. TheInternet can arrange a round table conferenceat much lower cost. It has already become anew medium of business. Some importantapplications of the Internet are:E-mail: E-mail is the most widely usedInternet service and it has abolished the notionof distance. To send a message through E-mailone has to type a message and it would travelinstantly over the network to whomever onewishes. An electronic mailbox that is anaddress, which specifies the source ordestination of an electronic mail message, is theessence of electronic mail. This mailbox,. astorage area that keeps the message until theuser reads it. An e-mail message can includetext, graphics, voice and video.FTP: File Transfer Protocol (FTP), a client·server protocol allows a user on one computersystem to t.ransfer files to and from anothercomputer system over a TeptIP networkregardless of the platforms the users or the host.(remote) site are using provided the user knowsthe address of the host computer and has some

kind of idea of the information stored there.Usenet: Usenet originally implemented in1979-80 has grown to develop as the largestdecentralised information utility in existence. Itencompasses government agencies,universities, high schools, business houses ofall denominations and individuals. Usenet hasemerged 8S one of the important segments ofthe Internet. There are innumerable topics. Atypical Use net message may contain plain textandlor encoded binary information. Eachmessage has a series of headlines which defmethe source bfthe messagc, its destination, timeand location of posting, what route it has takenover the network and 80 on.Chatting interactively in real time: It ispossible to speak (VOICE) in real time on theInternet provided one uses the right kind ofsoftware. The quality of the audio depends onthe application, the speed of the computer andthe compression method used. Standardcompression protocols are: CSM, CVSD ANDRTP. In a full duplex conversation, one canspeak and hear the other person at the sametime. In half duplex, only one person can speakat a time.TelNet: One can access other computers viathe Internet by using TeLNet· one of the mostimportant protocols of the Internet. TelNetprovides the user an opportunity to be on onecomputer system and do work on another·which may be very near or thousands ofkilometers away.Acquiring .software ; The Internet is theworld's biggest software library and it ispossible to acquire software from the Internet.The software which are available free from theInternet are known as freeware a nd anotherkind is known as shareware software which isavailable for nominal charge.World Wide Web (WWW): There is anincredible amount of inform.ation on theInternet and it is growing exponentially. As anyindividual or organisation does not control theInternet there is no master record of itsinformation resources. WWW,aproductofthecontinuous search for innovative ways ofsearching information, is a mecha nism thatlinks together information stored on manycomputers throughout the world. One of theimportant characteri stics of the WWWdocuments is their hypertext structure createdby Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) asimple data format. HTML lets one easily linkwords or pictures in one document to other

documents and the resulting bypertextdocuments are portable from one platform toanother. HTML works on matter where thedocuments are stored - whether in the samecomputer or elsewhere on the Net. One will justhave to click on a phrase or icon in t he firstdocument with one's mouse for the Internet tofetch the related documents on the computer'sscreen. The system requirements for running aWWW server are minimal. WWW provides away to interconnect computers runningdifferent operating systems. The simplicity ofthe HTML used for interactive documents allowsa user to contribute to the expanding databaseof documents. The possibilities for hypertext inthe WWW environment are endless.ISSUES OF CONCERN * As the Internet is growing 80 are host ofethical concerns abo ut it. Certainlyresearchers and scholars - the early usersof the Internet - would like to protect theInternet from censorsh ip. But law·enfol'cing age ncies particularly in thosecountries where the Internet is widelyused are considering means to curbimpersonators, pirates and otherimproper users. At present censorship ismainly intended to protect childrenagainst indecent material. * Advertisement on the Net is anotherthorny issue. By its interactive nature itis more persuasive. * In the beginning, everything that wasavailable on the Net was free. It wasintended to provide help to researchersaround the world. But as the popularity ofthe Internet is growing a number of pay -service networks are appearing. * Problems of copyright and security havealready surfaced. * The continuation of the Internet as ademocratic information infrastructureseems to be threatenerl by the notoriousweb-based terrorists who attempt tospread disinformation and the softwaregiants who are trying to define theWebonomics. * Some people think that Internet mayeventually end up in being a medium ofideological propaganda. However, suchconcerns do not seem to he well foundedunlike other technologies of the past it isdiversifying rather than a centralisingforce. * The rising popularity of the Internet iscreating traffic jams and at certain timesof the day the networks are so crowdedthat it is practically impossible to connectwith certain server.The In~rnet is still evolving. The realInternet of the future may bear very littleresemblance to today's Internet. The growth of

the Internet has not followed any planned pathin the past. But one thing about its future canbe said with certainty that it is poised to bemuch bigger and exponentially faster.

SPACE SCIENCE AND COMMUNICATION MILESTONES1962 : Indian National Committee for SpaceResearch (INCOSPAR) formed by theDepartment of Atomic Energy and work onestablishing Thumba Equatorial RocketLaunching Station (TERLS) started.1963 : First sounding rocket laUIlched fromTERLS (November 21, ] 963).1965 : Space Science & Technology Centre(SSTC) established in Thumba.1967 : Satellite Telecommunication EarthStation set up at Ahmedabad.1968: TERLS dedicated to the United Nations(February 2, 1968).1969: Indian Space Research Organisation(ISRO) formed under Department of AtomicEnergy (August 15, 1969).1972 : Space Commission and Department ofSpace set up. ISRO brought UIlder DOS (JuneI, 1972).1972-76 : Air-borne remote sensingexperiments.1975 : ISRO becomes Government Organisation(Ap,il1, 1975).First Indian Satellite, Aryabhata, launched(Ap,il19, 1975).1975-76SateUite Instructional Television Experiment(SITE) conducted.1977 Satellite TelecommunicationExperiments Project (STEP) carried out.1979: Bhaskara-I, an experimental satellite forearth observations, launched (JUIle 7, 1979).First Expel'imental launch of SLV-3 withRahini Technology Payload on board (August10, 1979). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.1980: Second Experimental launch ofSLV·3.Rohinisatellite successfully placed in ol'bit.(J uly 18,1980).1981 : First developmental launch of SLV-3.RS-Dl placed in orbit (May 31,1981)APPLE, an experimental geo-stationarycommunication satellite successfully launched(June 19, 1981).Bhaskara·II launched (November 20, 1981).1982: INSAT·lA laUIlch~d (April 10, 1982).Deactivated on September 6,1982.1983 : Second developmental launch ofSLV·3.RS-D2 placed in orbit (April 17 , 1983).INSAT·IB, launched (August 30, 1983).

1391984 : I ndo-Soviet manned space mIssion (April1984).1987 : First developmental launch of ASLVwith SROSS-] satellite on board (March 24,1987). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.1988 : Launch of first operational IndianRemote Sensing Satellite, lRS-lA (March 17,1988).INSAT-IC launched (July 21, 1988). Abandonedin November 1989.Second developmental launch· of ASLV withSROSS·2 on board (July 13, 1988). Satellitecould not be placed in orbit.1990: INSAT·I0 launched (June 12, 1990).1991 : Launch of second operational RemoteSensing satelUte, IRS·LB (August 29, 1991).1992 : Third developmental launch of ASLVwith SROSS-C on board (May 20, 1992).Satellite placed in orbit.. INSAT-2A, the ft.rstsatellite of the indigenously built. second·generat.ion INSAT series. launched (July 10,1992).1993 : INSAT·2B, the second sateUite in theI NSAT·2 series, launched (July 23,1993). Firstdevelopmental launch ofPSLV with IRS·IE onboard (September 20, L993). Satellite could not.be placed in orbit.1994 : Fourth developmentallaunc.b of ASLVwith SROSS-C2 on board (May 4, 199--1).Satellite placed in orbit. Second developmentallaunch ofPSLV with IRS·P2 on board (October15, 1994). Satellite successfully placed in polarsun synchronous orbit.1995 : I NSAT·2C, the third satellite m theINSAT·2 series, launched (December 7,1995).Launch of third operational Indian RemoteSensing Satellite, IRS·IC (December 28, 1995).1996: Third developmental launch of PSLVwith IRS·P3 on board (March 21. 1996).Satellite placed in polar sun synchronous orbit.1997: INSAT·20, fourth sateUite in the INSATseries. launched (June 4. 1997). Becomesinoperable on October 4. 1997. (An in-orbitsatellite,ARABSAT·IC, since renamed INSAT.2DT, was acquired in November 1997 to partlyaugment the INSAT system).First operational launch otPSLV with IRS·] Don board (September 29, 1997). Satellite placedin orbit.1998: INSAT system capacity augmented Withthe readiness of INSAT-2DT acquired fromARABSAT(January 1998).1999 : INSAT·2E, the last satel lite In themultipurpose INSAT-2 series, launched by

Ariane from I{Ourali French Guyana (April 3.1999).fndian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS·P4(OCEANSAT), launched by_ Polar SatelliteLaunch Vehicle (pSLV·C2) along with KoreanKITSAT-3 and German OLR·TUBSAT fromSriharikotn (May 26, 1999).2000: I NSAT-3B, the first satellite in the thirdgeneration INSAT·3 series. launched by Artanefrom KQurou French Guyana (March 22, 2000).2001: Successfulllight test ofGeosynch..ronolisSatelhte Launch Vehicle (OSLV). (April 18,2001) with an experimental satellite GSAT·} onboard.Successful launch of PSLV·C3 (October 22,2001) placing three satellites India's TES,Belgian PROBA and German BI RD. in to Polarsunsynchronous orbit.2002 : Successful launch of INSAT-3C byAriane from Kourou. French Guyana (January24,2002).ISRO's Polar Satell.tte Launch Vehicle, PSLV·C4, s uccessfully launched KALPANA·lsatellite from Sriharikota (September 12, 2002).Succcssfullaunch ofINSAT-3A by Arlane fromKourou French Guyana, (April 10, 2003).The Second developmental launch ofGSLV-02with GSAT-2 on board from Sriharikota (May 8,2003).Successful launch of INSAT -3E by Ariane fromKourou French Guyana, (September 28, 2003).ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV.C5, successfully launched RESOURCESAT·!(lRS-P6) satellite from Srihankota (October 17,2003).India launchesEOUSAT. exclusive satellite foreducatitma1services. (September 2004)India recognised the potential of spacescience and technology for the socio-economicdevelopmentofthe society soon after the launchof Sputnik by erstwhile USSR in 1957. TheIndian space efforts started in the sixties withthe establishment of Thumba EquatorialRocket Launching Station nearThiruvananthapuram for the investigation ofionosphere using sounding rockets. The IndianSpace Research Organisation (ISRO), wasestablished in 1969 under the Department ofAtomic Energy. The Government of India gavefillip to the space activities by formally settingup t.'le Space Commission and the Departmentof Space (DOS) in June 1972 and ISRO was alsobrought under Department of Space.Over the last three decades, India hasachieved an enviable progress in the design,

development and operation of space systems, aswell as using the systems for vital seryices liketelecommunication, television broadcasting,meteorology, disaster warning and naturalresources survey and management. The spaceprogramme has become largely self-reliant withcapability to design and build its own satellitesfor providing space services and to launch themusing indigenously designed and developedlaunch vehicles.The successful first test flight of Geosrynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)from Sriharikota on April 18, 2001 was themost significant milestone of the Indian spaceprogramme. The launch unequivocallydemonstrated India's capability to placesatellites into geo-synchronous transfer orbits.India is among the si" nations in the world toachieve such a capability. The launch of OS LVis the culmination of efforts of several DOScentres and other institutions that involvedcomplex interfaces between scientific andtechnological disciplines, industries andresearch institutions.Another important milestone during theyear was the succeasfulflight of PSLV-C3 onOctober 22, 2001 from Sriharikota. In this fifthconsecutively successful flight, PSLV placedthree satellites - India's Technology ExperimentSatellite, TES, Belgian PROBA and GermanBIRD into their intended polar sun·synchronous orbit. The requircment of a higherorbit for the Belgian PROBA compared to othertwo satellites was successfully met by a flight.manoeuvre. Both German and Belgiansatellites were launched under commcrcialagreements. The flight has clearly establishedthe reliabil\ty of PSLV for launching not onJythe Indian remote sensing satellites, but also,multiple satellites thus making it an attractivevehicle for the international space communityto launch their satellites. PSLV is also used fora geo-synchronous transfer orbit mission forlaunching India's l\1ETSAT in 2002·03.The INSAT system for telecommunication,television broadcasting and meteorology hasreceived further boost during the year with t.hesuccessful launch ofINSAT·3C on January 24,2002. INSAT·3C will not only augment thepresent INSAT system but also continue theservices of some of the satellites that need to bephased out at the end of their mission life.INSAT is one of the largest domesticcommunication satellite systems in the worldwith five satellites, INSAT·2C, INSAT·2DT,INSAT·2E, INSAT·3B and INSAT·3C. The

INSAT system also includes a few transpondersleased Crom other agencies for meeting thecurrent demands.Planning of IN SAT -4 series of satellites hasbeen initiated based on detailed discussionswith the various users. Seven satellites areproposed in the INSAT-4 series. Experimentalcommunication satellites, OSATa, are built,which are launched during the developmentaltest flights of GSLV. Besides the use of INSATfor telecommunication, broadcasting andmeteorological s~rvices, emphasis is beinggiven for using the system for grassroots levelapplications like developmental communicationand satellite·based training. New initiatives'have been taken for using INSAT fOI"introduction of tele·medicine to make specialitytreatment accessible to the population anremote areas.The Indian remote sensing satellite system,IRS, which has the biggest constellation ofsatellites, continues to provide space-basedremote sensing data for 8 number ofapplications in India and abroad. IRS system,at present, has five satellites, namely, LRS-lC,IRS·1D, IRS·P3, fRS·P4 (OCEANSAT) andTechnology Experiment Satellite (TES). TheTES has given further fillip to advance thetecbnolo~ of remote sensing in India. It hasenabled testing new satellite hardware anddemonstrating newer remote sensingtechniques. It incorporates a panchromaticcamera providing a spatial resolution of up to1 m. Remote sensing satellites like RESOURCESAT,CARTOSAT·I and CARTOSAT·2, isprogressing well. They will not only continuethe services of the present IRS satellites but8.lso enhance the service capabilities.CARTOSAT·l is already in service.The remote sensing applications continueto expand to several new areas; the data hasbeen used to assess damage due to floods,earthquakes, etc. and for helping in reliefoperations.Remote Sensing Data Policy (RSDP) wasannounced which helps in streamline theavailability of remote sensing data from indianand-foreign satellites to users in India.The launch of two satellites . one of Belgiumand another of Germany - on board PSLVmarks an important event during the yearunder commercial marketing of India's spacecapabilities. Data from IRS satellites continueto be received by several ground stationsworldwide. The lease agreement of

transponders on board INSAT·2E toINTELSAT has continued.

SPACE TRANSPORTATIONSpace Transportation system includes thesatellite launch vehicles to place satellites likeI NSAT and IRS Bnd scie ntific satellites in therequisite orbits as well as the sounding rocketsfor carrying out short duration scientificexperiments. India made a modest beginning inthis area with the launch of a 75 mm diametersounding rocket in 1963 for investigation ofionosphere over the gee-magnetic equator overThumba, near Thiruvananthapuram. Sincethen, India has established a s ubstantialcapability in the design, development andoperationalisation of a series of soundingrockets for scientific investigations, PolarSatellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV, for launchingIndian remote sensing satellites and GeosynchronousSatellite Launch Vehicle, GSLV,for launching geo.stationary communicationsatellites.EARTH OBSERVATIONS SYSTEMEarth Observations System (EOS) is animportant space infrastructure that has beenestablished by the Department of Space (DOS).The system, which was commissioned in 1988with the launch of Indian Remote SensingSatelHte, IRS· lA, has the world's largestconstellation of five satellites (IRS·} C, fRS·l D.IRS-P3, IRS-P4 and TES) presently in 'operation. It provides space-based remotesensing data in a variety of spatial resolutionsand spectral bands meeting the needs of variousapplications.The EOS definition, development, operationand ita application are co·ordinated by theNational Natural Resources ManagementSystem (NNRMS), for which DOS is the nodalagency. NNRMS is an integrated resourcemanagement system a imed at optimalutilisation of country's natllral resources by aproper and systematic inventory of resourceavailability using EOS data in conjunction withconventional techniques. NNRMS is supportedat the national leve l by the PlanningCommittee of NNRMS (pC·NNRMS), whichprovides guidelines for implementation of thesystem and also oversees the progress of remotesensing applications for natural resourcesmanagement in the country. The NNRMSactivities are guided by ten StandingCommittees, namely, (i) Agriculture & Soils,(ii) Bio-Resources (iii) Geology and Mineral

Resources (iv) Water Resources (v) OceanResources (vi) Cartography & Mapping (vii)Urban Management (viii) Rural Development(ix) Technology & Training and (x) Meteorology.Each of the Standing Committee is chaired bySecretaries of the re spective Governmentdepartments and includes experts from major Modular Opto-electronic Scanner (MOS)user departments. Ground reIOiullOl'l (m) 1S69x139fi 623,11.523 523lCfi44SPACE SEGMENT No. of 8p«:tU.l bliimls Satellites in Operation: There are 5 spectral (nm) 765-768 log·IOto U;00-1700Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites in Swath (km)operational at.. present· IRS·lC, IRS-lD,IRS·P3,IRS-P4 and Technology Experiment Satellite X-ray Payload(TES). IRS-IB, which was launched in August - Three Pointed Proportional Counters (PPC)1991. was decommissioned during the year in Energy range of2-20 keYafter it served for more than 10 years, even . X·ray Sky Monitor (XSM) 10 Energythough it was designed for only three years life. range 2-8 ke VIRS-1C and IRS-1D: IRS-IC and IRS-ID. IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT).· IRS·P4 spacecraft waswhich .r. identical, were launched inlaunched on board PSLV-C2 10 May 1999. ItDecember 1995 .nd September L997carries the following payloads:respectively. They carry three cameras. Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM)Panchromatic Camera (PAN), Linear Imaging Sensor Parameters SpecificationsSelf Scanner (LISS-III) and Wide Field Sensor Spatial Resolution (m) 360(WiFS) with foUowing specifications:Swath {km) 1'120PAN ~ WLl~S Repetitivity (days) 2VNIR " SWIRLocal time of equator 12 nool11 ~lIa ,. 23,1) 70.5 ". Crossing (bra) ReaoIuUon {mJSV0'8lh (\on) 7. '" , .. 81. Spectral Bands (nm) 402-422; 433·453;Speroal Band 0.6·0.76 0.62·0.159 1.~1.7 0.62·0.68 480-500; 500-520;(MlCI'OMJ 0.62·0.68 0.77-0.86 545-565: 660-680;0,77·0.86 745-785: 845-885IRS-PS IRS·P3 w8s1aunched Multi-frequency Scanning Microwave 10 March L996 on boardIndia's PSLV. It carries n Wide Field Sensor Radiometer (MSMR)(Wi.FS), Modular Opto-electronics Scanner Frequency (Gflr.) 6.G 10.6 '8 21(MOS) developed by the German Space Agency. SIl8tJ.a1 Re80lubon (kro) '20 80 40 40DLR, and an X·ray astronomy instrument. The Swath (km) 1360details of the payload are as follows: Temp. Resolution 1,0 dCR KIRS-P3 is operated in earth pointing mode forthe operation ofWiFS and MOS and Dynamic Temp. Range 330 dog J.: In the sky·pointmg mode for the operation of the X-ray Technology Experiment Satellite (TES)instrument. TES was launched on board PSLV -C3 on OctoberWide Field Sensors (WiFS) 22, 2001. The satellite, weighing lL08 kg, is anllond ·3 0.62·0.68 micron~ experimental satellite to demonstrate andBond-'I 0.77·0.86 microns validate, in orbit, technologies that could beBand·~ I.M-1.70 microns used in the future satellites of ISRO. Some ofGround nllJOlution 182xl66 (red .. dthe technologies that are being demonstrated m

m near TES are attitude and orbit control system, high mfn-red);246xl86 m (shorlwo\'1! infratorquereaction wheels, new reaction controlred) system with optimised thrusters and a singleSWBth 810 kmpropellant tank, light woi!ight spacecraftstructure, solid state recorder, X-band phased143array antenna, improved satellite positioningsystem, miniaturised TIC and power systemand, two·mirror·on·a:'cis camera optics. TESalso carries a panchromatic camera with aspatial resolution of 1 m.FOLLOW-ON SATELLITES FOR EARTHOBSERVATIONIRS-P6 (RESOURCESAT-l), IRS·P6(RESOURCESAT·l) is launched by PSLV in2002·03. It will carry the following payloads:(i) a multi·spectral camera USS·3 providing23.5 m spatial resolution in four spectralbands with a swath of 140 km,(ii) a high resolution multi·spectral cameraLISS·4 providing 5.8 m spatial resolutionoperating in three spectral bands and(iii) an Advanced Wide Field Sensor (A WiFS)with a spatial resolution better than 70 min three spectral bands and providing aswath of 740 km.IRS·P6 will not.only provide service continuityto IRS·1C and IRS·IO but also enhance theservice capa,bilities in the areas of agriculture,disaster management, land and waterresources, with better resolution imageries.mS-P5 (CARTOSAT -1), lRS·P5 is launchedby PSLV in 2003·04. The satellite is primarilyintended for advanced cartographicapplications. IRS·P5 will have twopanchromatic cameras on board with 2.5 mresolution with a swath of 30 km each. Thesecameras are mounted with a tilt of +26 deg and-5 deg along the track with respect to nadir toprovide stereo pairs of images needed for thegeneration of Digital Terrain Model (OTM)/Digital Elevation Models (OEM) of the requiredregions. The data products will be used forcartographic applications, cadastral mappingand updating, land use and other GISapplications. The satellite has a revisitcapability of 5 days, which can be realised bysteering the spacecraft about roll axis by 26degrees.During tbe year tbe equipment paneldesign bas been finalised. Various componentsare under development and testing.Ground Segment: The ISRO Telemetry,

Tracking and Command Network (lSTRAC)monitors and controls aU the IRS satellitesbesides other low earth orbit satellites. ISTRAChas a ni!twork of ground stations located atBangalore, Sriharikota, Port Blair.Thiruvanantbapuram, Mauritius andBearslake witb multi·mission SpacecraftControl Centre at Bangalore. TIC stations atBrunei and Biak have a]so been added recently.ISTRAC. at present tra.cks, monitors andcontrols IRS·IC,IRS·ID, IRS·P3, JRS·P4 andTES. ISTRAC was extensively used forconducting various demonstrations on TES.The payload operations on IRS·IC and IRS·IDare carried out over the Inman stations atShadnagar in India as wp.ll as foreign datareception stations at Fairbank (USA), Seoul,Korea, Cotopaxy (Ecuador), Dubai, NeustraJitz(Germar.y), Norman (USA), Tokai (Japan) andRiyad (Saudi Arabia). On an average abou~ 350to 400 payload operations a.re being carried outper month.IRS·P3 payload operations are being carried outfor about 250 times per month over Shadnagarin India, Neustralitz and Wallops (Germany)and Maspolamas (Spain).SATELLITE DATA ACQUISiTION,PROCESSING AND DISSEMINATIONThe Nap.onal Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA),Hyderabad, oontinues to receive remote sensingdata from the Indian satellites, IRS·IC, IRS·lO,IRS·PS, IRS·P4 and the TES as well as the USNOAA·14, Landsat·5 and European ERS·2.The Data Reception Station (ORS) of NRSA atShadnagar, has been further augmented toreceive data from TRS·P5 (CARTOSAT) andIRS·P6 (RESOURCESAT).Aerial Remote Sensing: NR5A operates twoaircraft that have been modified for multi·sensor operation with high performance workstation and digital photogrammetry system togenerate data products. Aerial remote sensingservices provided by NRSA is availed by severalagencies for aerial photography, mapping,infrastructure planning, aeromagneticsurveys,large scale base maps and topographicand cadastral mapping. Some of the aerialsurveys carried out include aerial photographyof nine towns of Gujarat that were affected bythe earthquake in January 2001, twenty seventowns in Andhra Pradesh, seven districts inMadhya Pradesh, three towns of Rajasthan,Bangalore peripheral areas and flood affectedareas of Orissa. Low altitude flightR forairborne geophysical survey for Atomic Mineral

Division and nights carrying SyntheticAperture Radar have also been carried out.Re mote Sensing Data Policy: TheGovcrnmen~ has announced, a Remote SensingData Policy (RSDP) in order to streamline theavailability of remote sensing data from Indianand foreign satellites to users in India. As perthe RSDP. Government's permission will berequired for operating remote sensing satellitesin India and for distribution of satellite imagesin India. The NRSA, Hyderabad, will be thenational acquisition and distribution aeeney forall satellite data within India. NRSA can enterinto agreements for distribution of data fromforeign satellite in India. Antrix Corporation,the commercial agency under the Departmentof Space, will license the use of IRS capacitiesoutside India.The announcement of RSDP is animportant step towards making transparent.the procedures of satellite data distribution,including those from high·resolution imagingsystems. I t would help to regulate the process ofimage distribution so that Indian users are notdenied access to valuable satellite basedimageries, which can be used in thedevelopment of natural resources.Remote Sensing Applications: Space-basedremote sensing, because of its synoptic andrepetitive coverage of large areas as well asproviding data in a quantifiable manner hasenabled monitoring and assessment of variousnatural resources. Today space· based remotesensing is used for several areas of resources,survey and management. Projects of nationalrelevance in different application themes arebeing carried out with the involvement of useragencies at central and state levels.Some of the major applications to whichremote sensing is being used in the country arehighlighted in the following paragraphs.Crop Acreage llnd Production Estimation(CAPE): CAPE was initiated in 1995 with thesponsorship of the Department of Agricultureand Cooperation. Under this project, multi·datelRS satellite data are used for pre-harvestacreage and production estimation for majorfood crops as well as cotton. The estimates areprovided far kharif rice in Bihar. rabi dee inOrissa, mustard in Assam, Gujarat, Haryana,Rajasthan and West Bengal, wheat in Bihar,Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh and sorghum inMaharashtra.FASAL: Based on the success of CAPE. an

enlarged and comprehensive scheme known asForecasting Agricultural output using Space,Agrometeorology and Land based observations(FASAL) bas been taken up. FASAL now coverskharif rice in Orissa as a pilot project as well asforecasting kharif rice production at thenational level. It is proposed to set up a FASALNCCF(National Centre for Crop Forecasting)under the aegis of the Ministry of Agriculture.DroughtAssessmentand Monitoring: Based onthe data collected by the satellites on thevegetation indices and ground basedinformation, fortnightly bulletins on cropconditions depicting ag,ricultural drought arebeing issued for eleven slates, and at sub·district level for sb: stales during kharifseason.Flood Mapping: The Flood Mapping. usingsatellite imageries are being undertaken since1987 to help Department of Agriculture andCooperation and State Relief Agencies andCentral Water Commission. Under this, floodprone river basins of Brahmaputra, Kosi,Ganga, Indus, Godavari and Mahanadi arecovered and near real time inundation anddamage estimation maps are generated.Forest Monitoring: The Forest Survey ofIndia carries out the forest cover mapping on1:250,000 scale on a biennial basis. Karnataka,Andhra Pradesh and Mo.harashtra have usedsatellite based dala for preparation of forestworking plans. A biodiversity characterisationat landscape level has also been taken up in fourregions of the country, namely, North·EasternHimalaya, Western Himabya, Western Ghatsand Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Theactivities related to preparation ofbiome levelecological zone maps and topographical detailsare nearing completion. The project is beingundertaken with the sponsorship of theDepartment of Biotechnology.A few medicinal plant colonies in theHimalayas like Hyppophae rhamnoides,Ephedra gerardiana and Taxus baccata havebeen mapped.Irrigatron Command Areas: Under thesponsorship of the Central Water Commission,14 large irrigated commands covering fivestates (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Maharashtra,Rajasthan and West Bengal) extending to anarea of 3.12 Mha (million hectare) have beentaken up for monitoring using satellite data. Sofar evaluation of seven command areas hasbeen complete·d.Snow-melt Run-otl'Prediction: Forecastingand monitoring of Snow-melt Run-off for the

Satellite River Basin is being carried out since1994 with the sponsorship of Bhakra-BeasManagement Board. The forecast is made everyyear by the first week of April, which is furtherupdated subsequently.Integrated Land and Water ResourcesDevelopment: Generation of data forIntegrated Mission for SustainableDevelopment (IMSD) for 84 Mha area covering175 districts located in 28 States have beencompleted and similar work has been extendedto Koraput- Bolangir-Kalahandi (KBK) region ofOrissa. The Department of Land Resourcesunder the Ministry of Rural Development isnow working towards institutionalising IMSDfor implementation.Wasteland Mapping: The WastelandMapping has been carried out in five phasesduring 1986-2000 on a 1:50,000 scale under thesponsorship of the Department of LandResources under the Ministry of RuralDevelopment. 13 categories of wastelands inthree broad categories have been identified - (A)Barren rockylsheet rock.; (B) Gullied arealravines; and (C) Minmglindustrial wastelands.A wasteland atlas of India has been generatedand the information is used for planning severaldevelopmental programmes. A digital data baseis also now being created .National Drinking Watel' Mission: Underthe sponsorship of the Department of DrinkingWater of the Ministry of Rural Development,maps showing prospective zones of groundwater occurrence and recharge are beingprepared on 1:50,000 scale ill six states (AndhraPradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,Chattisgarh, Kerala and Rajasthan). So far 930maps have been prepared out of the 1800 mapsrequired. The maps are integrated with GISdata base and identify areas and sites forlocating borewells.Coastal Studies: Information on Coastal wetlands, land forms, land use, shore line changes,etc, have been mapped on 1:250,00011 :50,000scales for the Ministry of Environment andForests. Coral reef maps on 1:50,000 scale forGulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Palk's Bay,Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar islandshave been generated. Mapping of featuresbetween High Tide Line (HTL) nnd Low TideLine (LTL) and land use feaLures for a strip of500 m from HTL, on 1:25,000 scale, underCoastal Regulation Zone has also been carriedout. The maps are used for preparing coastalzone management plans and for formulating

regulations on construction along HTL.Use ofIRS-P4 (OCEANSAT) Data: An endto-end task of using IRS·P4 data foroceanographic, marine-atmospheric and coastalenvironmental applications has been taken up.Several agencies like Department of OceanDevelopment, Indian MeteorologicalDepartment, National Institute ofOceanography, Central Ma.rine FisheriesResearch Institute, etc., besides several StateDepartments are participating in this task. TheOcean Colour Monitor (OCM) of IRS-P4provides data on Chlorophyll distribution andprimary productivity for locating potential fishzones, sea surface velocities,suspendedsediment movement, coastal landforms, coralreefs, etc. The Multi-frequency ScanningMicrowave Radiometer (MSMR) on board thesatellite provides data on humidity over oceans,water vapour content, winds, rain rate, fluxes,sea ice, etc.Disaster Management: Landslide HazardZonation (LHZ) Mapping: Landslide HazardZonation (LHZ) mapping on 1:25,000 scale isbeing carried out for all major pilgrim andtourist routes in the Himalayan region inUttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh. Databasehas been created for the entire 2000 km longcorridor and LHZ maps have been prepared.The routes covered include: RishikeshRudraprayag-Chamoli-Badrinath, RishikeshGaumukh,Rudraprayag-OkhimathKedarnath ,Chamoli-Okhimath andPithoragarh-Malpa, all in Uttarancha1; ShimlaManali,Shimla-Sumdo and Dalhousie-Brahmaurin Himachal Pradesh. The maps are used byState Public Works Departments (PWD), BorderRoads Organisation and some NOOs.Gujarat Earthquake: The space basedimagery along with aerial remote sensingprovided inputs to the Gujarat StateAdministration during the Earthquake inJanuary 2001 in terms of locating the worstaffected towns, to assess the changes in theterrain features and damage assessment. Thesatellite news gathering terminal was alsomoved from the Space Applications Centre andset up at Bhuj which was the only link tillFebruary 2, 2001 to co-ordinate rescue andrelief operation.National (Natural) kesourcesInformation System: A spatial informationinfrastructure organised around GIS forfacilitating developmental planning anddecision making at DistrictJStatelNational

level is being implemented for the PlanningAuthorities. Already NRIS has beenimplemented for 30 districts and four statenodes. The NRrs comprises 22 spatial layersand 8 non-spatial layers pertaining to naturalresources as well as socio-economics.

QUESTIONS1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) -A. The computer's primary processinghardware wh,ich interprets and executeprogram instructions and manages thefunction of input, output and storagedevices.- B. is considered to be heart of thecomputer.C. may reside on a single chip on thecomputer's motherboard, or on a largercard inserted into a special slot on themotherboardD. All the above2. The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)-A. is the component of CPU.B. performs arithmetic and logicaloperations.C. Both A and BD. None of the above3. DataA. A a collection of unorganized-itemsthat can include letters, numbers,symbols, images and sounds thatcomputer process and organize it intomeaningful information.B. is a set or-standards for controlling thetransfer of business dOCUID€nte, suchas purchase orders and invoices,between computers.C. Both A and BD. None of the above4. E-MAILA. stands for electronic mailB. stores purchase orders and invoices,between computers.C. Both A and BD. None ofthe above5. ED!A stands for Electronic Data Interchange(ED!)B. is a set of standards for controlling thetransfer of business documents, suchas purchase orders and invoices,between computers.C. Both A and BD. None of the above6. Hardware

A. The physical components ofa computerB. includes-processors, memory chips,input/output devices, tapes, disks,cables, modems.C. Both A and BD. None of the above7. InputA. A data or iJlljtruction ~hat you enterinto tne memory of a l.UDJPU(,t;LB. hardware components that result inthe transfer of data.147C. Both A and BD. None of the above8. Four types ofInput areA. data, programs, commands and userresponses.B. hardware components that result inthe transfer of data.C. Both A and BD. None ofthe above9. The input devices are theA. computer hardware that accepts dataand instructions from user.B. communication between hardwarecomponents that result in the transferof data.C. Both A and BD. None of the above10. Input/Output devices(llO)A. Communications between the user andthe computer that results in transfer ofdataB. Communication between hardwarecomponents that result in the transferof data.C. Both A and BD. None of the above11. Microsoft officeA. is .8 suite of Microsoft primaryapplication for window and Macintosh.B. includes some combination of word,Excel, Powerpoint, Access and schedulealong with a host ofinternel and otherutilities.C. Both A and BD. None of the above12. Modem:A. Abbreviation for modulator/demodulator.B. It is an InputJOutput device that allowscomputer to communicate throughtelephone lines.C. converts outgoing digital data intoanalog signals that can be transmittedover phone lines and converts incoming

audio signals into digital data that canbe processed by the computer.D. All the above13. MultimediaA. refers to the integration of multiplemedia such a8 visual imagery, text,vide.o, sound, and animation.B. often associated with the informationsuperhighway, or with interactiveT.V-that can prODuce videos(informaion on demand) or withhypermedia.C. is a combinatlOn of software andhardware, both.D. All the above14. MultimediaA. is a very powerful form ofcommunicating ideas, searching forinformation and experiencing newconcepts of common media.B. enhance business presentationsC. Both A and BD. None of the above15. MotherboardA. is the main circuit board, also calledsystem board, in an electrOniC devicewhich consists of sockets that acceptsadditional boards.B. is a very powerful form of communicatingideasC. The interactive feature of networkD. None of the above16. PrintersA. is an output device that produce textand graphics on a physical mediumsuch as paper or transparency film.B. are classifieds into the followingcategories-Impact printers and Nonlmpactprinters.C. Both A and BO. None of the above17. A programA. is a sequence of instructions or actionsB. must have mechanisms for carryingout processing operations (likearithmetical operations or movinginformation around) and for handling. input and output.C. Both A and BD. None of the above18. OutputA. The data that has been processed intoa useful form and can be scen on VDU01' can be taken on paper by usingprinter or listen to it through speakers

or a headset.B. can be saved on a floppy disk or CD forfuture use.C. can be generated in the form of-text.graphics, audio, video.D. All the above19. Office Automation SystemA. Autou ;ate routine office tasks.148B. are classifieds into the followingcategories- Impact and Non-ImpactC. Both A and BD. None of the above20. The Information System (IS) department-A. Supports organization's informationsystems and also supportorganization's overall mission.B. The IS department provide technicalsupport for hardware and software, butmay be involved in the design andimplementation of an organization'sentire information system.C. IS professionals also ensure thatsystems generate all the appropriatetypes of information and reportsrequired by the organization's managerand workers.D. All the above21. Programming languageA. is a higher level language thanmachine code for writing programs.B. use a variety of basic English.C. Both A and BD. None of the above22. Low level languagesA. are machine dependent, i.e they aredesigned to run on a particularcomputer and in the form of D's and 1's.B. are also easier to learn and are notdependent on a particular type ofcomputer.C. need interpreter or compiler to convertinto low level language so thatcomputer can understand.D. All the above23. High level languagesA. are English type languages where asingle statement may correspond toseveral instructions in machinelanguage and human being canunderstand easily.B. are also easier to learn and are notdependent on a particular type ofcomputer.C. need interpreter or compiler to convert

into low level language so thatcomputer can understand.D. All the above24. PipeliningA. is a technique that enable a processor toexecute more instructions in a giventime.B. the control unit begins executing a newinstruction before the currentinstruction is completed.C. Both A and BD. None of the above25. Ports:A External devices such as a keyboard,monitor, printer, mouse andmicrophone often are attached by acable to the system unit the interfaceB. point of attachment to the system unitis called a port. Most of the time portsare located on the back of the systemunit, but they also can be placed on thefront.C. AorBD. None of the above26. Application softwareA. any computer program used to createor process data such as text documents,spreadsheets, graphic~ etc.B. programs to operate only mousefunctionsC. a type of program designed to handlevery small instruction sets.D. None of the above27. Desktop Publishing programsA. belongs to Application softwareB. used to literate individuals 10computingC. a type of program designed to handlevery small instruction sets.D. None ofthe above28. ABellA. is 7 bit binary codeB. developed by American NationalStandards Institute (ANSI)C. represent symbolic, numeric andalphanumeric charactersD. All the above29. AssemblerA is a computer program that convertsassembly language instructions intomachine language.B. developed by American NationalStandards Institute (ANSnC. represent symbolic, numeric andalphanumeric characters, voice

D. All the above30. ATMA stands for Asynchronous TransferModeB. is a network protocol designed to send•149voice, video and data transmission overa single networkC. provides differtent kinds of connectionsand bandwidth on demand. dependingon the type of data being transmittedD. All the above31. Backup meansA. To create a duplicate set of progra m ordata files in case the originals becomedamaged.B. Provides difi'ertent kinds of connectionsand bandwidth in computersC. the type of data transmissionO. None 'ofthe above32. Computers are now used inA. restaurants, automobile companiesB. offices and homesC. research areasD. All the above33. InformationA is the summarization of dataB. implies data that is organized and ismeaningful to the person who isreceiving itC. should be meaningful, brief, accurateand help us to our knowledge anddecision makingD. All the above34. Data.A. can be defined 8S fact, observation,assumption or occurrence and is 8plural of "datum"B. in general refers to raw facts gatheredfrom different sources.C. denotes any or all facts, num bers,letters. symbols etc that can beprocessed or manipulated by acomputerD. All the above35. Data and Information isA. often used interchangeablyB. not .used interchangt:ablyC. not used by people to make decisionsD. None of the above36. Logical data refersA. to the way in which the data arerecorded on the storage mediumB. in general refers to processed facts

gathered from different80urcesC. can be defined as fact. observation,assumption or occurrence and is aplural of "datum"D. None ofthe above37. Data itemA is a basic or indjvidual element of dataB. is identified by 8 name and is assigneda valueC. is something referred to a8 a fieldD. All the above38. Smallest addressable unit in computerA. Byte-an arbitrary set of eight bits thatrepresents a characterB.FMC.TPMD. None of the above39. FileA is a collection of related recordsB. is a automated proccS8ing systemC.TDMD. None of the above40. In electronic form, data refers toA. data fields. records, files and databasesB. word processing documentB, graphics,imagesC. digitally coded voice and videoD. All the above41. Data processing is theA process of converting data fromphysical format to logical formatB. digitally coded voice and videoC. Both A and BD. None of the above42. Electronic mail is theA transmission of letters, messages andmemos over a communicationsnetworkB. Distribution of all informationfunctions in the officeC. Both A. and B.D. None of the above43. The back bone of an E·mail system is acommunication network that connectsremote terminals to aA. central system or local area networkthat interconnect personal computersB. digitally coded voice and videoC. Both A and BD. None of the above44. FAX or FacsimileA. is the communication of a printed pagebetween remote locations .B. terminals scan a paper form andconverts its image into analog code [or

transmission over private lines/publicdial·up telephone systemC. receiving terminal reconverts the codes,.150into images and prints a "facsimile" ofthe original pageD. All the above46. Data processing cycle consists ofA. three basic steps-Input cycle,Processing cycle, Output cycleB. terrqinals which scan a paper form andconverts its image into analog code fortransmissionC. receiving terminal reconverts the codesinto images and prints a "facsimile" ofthe original pageD. All the above46. An Input operation performs twofunctions, they areA. It causes an mput device to physicallyread data, and transmits the data fromthe Input device to an Input area ofCPUB. It causes an input device to transmitsthe data, convert into image formC. It causes an input device to physicalread data, transmits the data toprinterD. None ofthe above47. During processing cycle, a computerperforms operations ofA. data transfer, ALU operations thatoperate on Input dataB. sends data to an output area lies withinthe CPU (which is setup by eachprogram)C. Both A and BD. None of the above48. An output operation causesA. information to be transmitted from theoutput area lies within the CPU to anoutput device such as printerB. CPU to record/display information onsome mediumC. Both A and BD. None ofthe above49. ComputersA. help you with your banking by usingautomatic teller machines (ATM) usedto deposit or withdraw moneyB. are present in every aspect of dailyliving· in workplace, home and in theclass roomC. an electrOnIC machine operating under

the control of instructions stored in itsown memory that can accept data(Input), manipulate the data accordingto specified rules (process), produceresults(output) and store this rcsu.ll forfuture useD. All the above50. A person that commUnIcates wIth acomputer or uses the mformation Itgenerates is calledA. userB. processorC. commentatorD. None of these51. Primary memory of computerA. stores the necessary programs ofsystem softwareB. determines the size and the number ofprograms that can be held with in thecomputer at same timeC. Both A and BD. None of the above52. As technology advances and computerextend into every facet of daily living, itA. is essential for everybody to gain somelevel of computer literacyB. is not essential for everybody to gainsome level of computer literacyC. can create problemsD. None of the above6S. The main memory of computerA. can be divided in two parts-RAM andROMB. is not essential for computerC. can be loaded from storage mediaD. None of the Ilbove54. RAMA. stands for RANDOM ACCESSMEMORYB. is volatile, which means item stored inRAM are lost when the power tocomputer is turned offC. Both A and BD. None of the above65. ComputersA. USdS :;ache memory to improve t.heirprocessing timesB. uses main memory for temporarystorageC. uses secondary memory, which is nonvolatile to store bulk dataD. All tho above56. Videoconferencing is a meeting betweentwo or more geographically separatedindividuals who

A. use a network or the Internet totransmit audio and video dataB. use a sattelite to transmit audio andvideo dataC. Both A and BO. None of the above57. CD·ROMA. stands for Compact Disk Read OnlyMemoryB. is a silver coloured compact disk thatuses the laser technologyC. Both A and BO. None of the above58. UNIXA. is a inultiuser, multitasking operatingsystemB. was developed in early 1970s byscientists at Bell LaboratoriesC. Both A and BD. None of the above59. VirusA. is a computer program that copies itselfinto other programs and spreadsthrough multiple computersB. are often designed to damage acomputer intentionally by destroying orcorrupting its dataC. Both A and BD. None of the above60. A templateA. is a document that formatting necessary document typecontains the for a specificB. usually exists for documents such asmemos, fax cover sheets and lettersC. Both A and BO. None of the above61. The drawing tools available in MS WORDA. line, rectangle, ellipse, text box, fill colorB. line style and select drawing objectsC. Both A and BD. None ofthe above62. In MS WORD a title barA. is a bar displayed at the top of thedocument that displays the name of thecurrent documentB. locate below the menu barC. Both A and BO. None of the above63. Themail merge in MS wordA. automatically creates unique, multipleversions of a customized form letter,when sending out a specific letter to adifferent personB. merges two cell contents in one cellC. Both A and B

D. None of the above64. MS ExcelA. is a replacement for the accountantscolumnar pad, sharp pencil andcalculatorB. allows users to create colorful charts.print transparancies or bard copy reports,add clip arts and company logo etc.C. Both A and BD. None of the above65. The difference between SORT and INDEXcommandA. Sort after sorting generates output filewhereas Index does notB. Sort cannot sort on expressionswhereas Index canC. Both A and BD. None of the above. 66. Operating System isA A collection of hardware componentsB. A collection of input-output devicesC. A collection of software routinesD. All of the aboveE. None of the above67. Backups should be doneA daily for most installationsB. weekly for most installationsC. as several image copies. followed by anincrementalO. ~ several incrementals, followed by anunagecopyE. None of the above68. DOS etc. are called disk operating systemsbecauseA. they are memory residentB. they are initially stored on diskC. they are available on magnetic tapesD. they are partly in primary memory andpartly on diskE. None of the above69. Whicq of the following is not an oper&tingsystemA. UNIX B. MS·DOSC. PASCAL D. CPIME. None of the above70. User-Friendly Systems are:A. required for object.oriented programmingB. easy to developC. common among traditional main-frameoperating systemD. becoming more commonE. None ofthe above71. Address Bus isA A set of wires connecting thecomputer's CPU and RAM, across

wbich memory addresses aretransmitted. The amount of memorythat can be addressed at one timedepends on the number of wires used inthe bus.B. A set of nooes connecting the computernetworkC. A or BO. None of the above72. Algorithm isA A set of ordprcd steps or proceduresneeded to solve a specific problem.152B. A set of circuit helps in connecting thecomputer networkC. A or BD. None of the above73. CoprocessorsA. is a special processor chip or circuitboard designed to assist the processorin performing specific tasks.B. can be used to increase the performanceof the computer.C. Both A and BD. None of the above74. Control Unit (CU)-A. The component of the CPU thatcontains the instruction set.S. gives the computer its ability to decodeand then execute a stored program.C. directs the flow of data throughout thecomputer system.D. All the above76. Transaction Processing systems -A. Store information about individualeventsB. pro~ide information that is useful inrunning an organization, such asinventory status, billing etcC. Both A and BD. None of the above76. Management Information SystemsA. Produce reports for different types ofmanagers.B. Automate routine office tasks.C. Both A and BD. None of the above77. Decision Support systems-A. Produce highly detruled, customizedreports based on the information in an. organization's transaction processingsystem and based on information fromother sources.B. These systems are used to assistmanagers in making mission critical

decisions.C. Both A and BO. None of the above78. Expert systemsA. include the knowledge of humanexperts in a specific subject area in aknowledge base.B. They analyze requests from users andassist. the users in developing a courseof action.C. Both A and BD. None of the above79. A large 1S department includeA lS managers, computer scientists,system analysts , programmers,database specialistsB. user assistance architects, purchasingageots, technical writers, system ornetwork managersC. trainers, hardware maintenancetechnicians.D. All the above80. Automated machine toolsA. operate from instructions in a programthrough numerical controlB. digitally coded voice and videoC. Both A and BD. None of the above81. E-mail programs oftenA. come with local area network softwareQr add-on options or they areindependent programs designed towork with a specific networkB. operate as dependent programsdesigned to work with a specificnetworkC. Both A. and BD. None ofthe above82. Public Data Service cPOS) is a servicebureau, is an organization thatA. provides data processing snd timesharing services to its customers andcustomers pay for their processingB. offers wide variety of softwarepackages, 88 well as customizedprogrammingC. charge a monthly rental for each byte ofonline disk storage reserved for153customer's programs and databasesD. All the above83. Two basic types of RAM exists:A. dynamic RAM, static RAMB. natl!Ial RAM, static RAMC. dynamic RAM, virtual RAM

D. None ofthe above84. The SORT command in FOXPROA. is used to sort the records of a databasefile in ascending or descending orderB. takes records foreorting from currentlyopened database rue and the sortedrecords are written in another fileoutputfileC. physically rearranges the records inthe database in a new file and new fileoccupies the same amount of space asunsorted file occupiesD. All the above85. The INDEX command in DBASE III plusA. is used to index the records of adatabase file and contains only the keyvalues and record numbersB. takes records for indexing fromcurrenLly opened database file but nooutput file is generatedC. Both A and BD. None of the above86. Presentation graphi.cslsoftwaresA. allow you to create presentations tocommunicate ideas, messages andother information to a groupB. incorporates some of the features ofword processing softwareC. can incorporate slides with text,graphics, movie, sound etcD. All the above87. PowerpointA. has tools with which you can usedrawing tools to add these objects on aslideB. allows you to insert sound, music, videoclips on a slideC. allows you to give animation effect toeach object introduced in the slideD. All the above88. To maXimize a WindowA. click on the Maximize button in thewindow you want to maximizeB. double click on the Maximize button inthe window you want to maximizeC. A or BD. None of the aboveUGC-JRF (Paper 1}-2089. You can lise scroll barA to browse through the information inthe windowB. when window is not large enough todisplay all information it-containsc. Both A and BD. None oBbe above

90. When you have finished working with awindow, you canA. close the window to remove it from yourscreen. '1'0 do so click on (x) in thewindow you want to closeB. scan the window. To do so click on (x)in the window you want to closeC. Both A and BD. None ofthe above91. FrameA. is the part of an on-screen window (titlebar and other e lements) that iscontrolled by operating system ratherthan by the application running in t.hewindowB. is used when window is not largeenough to display all information itcontainsC. Both A and BD. None of the above92. Start buttonA. provides quick access to programs, filesand help with WindowsB. provides slow access to programs, filesand help with WindowsC. is not used now-a-daysD. None of the above93. Recycle binA. stores deleted files and allows you torecover them laterB. provides slow access to programs, filesand help with WindowsC. is not used now-a·daysD. None of the above94. Memory protection is normally done byA. the processor and the associa tedhardwareB. the operating systemC. the compilerD. the user program95. The size of the virtual memory depends onA. the size of the data busB. the size of the main memoryC. the size of the address busD. none of the above96. Which of the following types of softwareshould you use if you often need to create,edit, and print documents?A. Word processing B. SpreadsheetC. UNIX' D. DesktoppublishingE. None of the above97. Which are t.he most important features ofMicrosoft Windows program?A Windows B. Pull·down menusC. Irons D. All of the above

E. None of the above98. Whlch of the following requires a devicedriver?'A. Register B. CacheC. Main memory D. DiskE. None of the above99. What is the name of the operating systemthat read and reacts ih terms of actual time.A Batch systemB. Quick response systemC. Real time systemO. Time sharing systemE. None of the above100. The term "operating system" meansA. a set of programs which controlsromputer workingB. the way a computer operator worksC. conversIOn of high level language intomachine codeD. the way a floppy disk drive operatesE. None of the above101. Data encryptionA. is m.ostly used by public networksB. is mostly used by fmanciaI networksC. cannot be used by private installationsD. is not necessary, since data can not beinterceptedE. None of the above102. A communication network which is usedby large organlsstion over regional,national or global area is calledA. LAN B. WANC. MAN D. VAN103. If you want to execute more than oneprogram at a time, the systems softwareyou are using must be capable of:A. word processing B. virtual memoryC. compiling D. multitaskingE. None of the above104. UNIX operating systemA. is multiuserB. is multitaskingC. can r un on PCs and larger systemsD. All of the above105. Can you name of the major OperatingSystem used in computers?A. MS DOS B. OS/2C. UNIX D. All the aboveE. None of the above106. Which of the follow 109 is always reSIdent.in machinery?A. Batch SystemB. Time Sharing SystemC. Operating systemD. Controlling system

E. None oftbe above107. PagingA. is a method of memory allocation bywhich the program 18 subdivided intoequal portions or page and core ISsubdivided into equal portions or blocksB. consists of those addresses that may begenerated by a processor duringexecution (If a computationC. is a-method of allocating processor timeD. al lows multiple programs to reside in~p parate areas of core at the timeE. ~one oftbe above108. Which of the following is necessary towork on a computerA. compilerI ,. operating systemC. assemblyD. interpreter of the aboveE. None of the above109. Advantage(s) of using assembly languagerather than machine language is (are):A It is mnemonic and p,asy to readB Addresses any symbolic, not absoluteC. Introduction of data to program iseasierD. All of the aboveE. None oftbe above110. With round-robin CPU scheduling in atime-shared system:A. Using very large t.ime slices (quantas)degenerates into FCFS (First· ComeFirst·Served) algorithmB. Using very small time slices (quantas)degenerates into LIFO) Last-Tn First·Out) algorithmC. Using extremely small time s licesimproves performanceD. Using medium sized time slices leads toSRTF (Shortest Remaining Time First)scbeduling poHcyE. None of the abo'le155111. A sequence of InsLructJ.o ns ~ in 8 computerlanguage, to get the desired result. isknown asA. Algorithm B. Decision TableC. Program D. All the aboveE. None of the above112. A characteristic of an on- line real-timesystem isA. More than one CPUB. No delay in processingC. Off line batch processingD. All of the above

E. None of the above113. DOS isA. a softwareB. a hardwareC. a data organisation systemD. None of the above114. Which' of the following perform smodulation and demodulation?A. fiber optic B. satelliteC. coaxial cable D. modernE. none of the above115. A local area networkA. that connects thirty pe r sonalcomputers can provide more computingpower than a minicomputerB. cannot become bogged down likemainframe would if the load is too highC. both A and BD. all of the aboveE. none of the above116. Which class of the software packages allowpeople to send electronic mail along anetwork of computer and workstations?A. Memory resident packageB. Project management packageC. Data communication packageD. Electronic mail package117. We can receive data either through ourtelevision aerial or down our telephonelines and display this data on ourtelevision screen. What is the generalname given to this purpose?A. View data B. Tele textC. Tele software D, Video text118. The economics of computing data isA. sharing peripherals andB. giving processorS"lo processing timeC. both A and BO. all of the aboveE. none of the above119. The word telematics is a combination ofA. computerB. telecommunicationC. informaticsD. Band CE. none of the above120. The application layer of a networkA. establishes, maintains. and terminatesvirtual circuitsB. defines the uaer's port into the networkC. consists of software bcmg run on thecomputer connected to the networkD. all of the aboveE. none of the above121. What was the ftrst Network that was

made availableA. DEeNe' 1980B. Novell NetwarcC. IBMm Token Ring 1985D.IBM PC Network 198·1122. What does the acronym (ISDN) stand for?A. Indian Standard Digital NetworkB. Integrated Services Digital NetworkC. Intelligent Services Digital NetworkD. Integrated Se rvices Data Network128. Internet isA. network run by the US GovernmentB. a network run by the United NationsOrganisationC. a loose network not owned by anybodybut used by all unive rs ities andgovernments around the globeD. a commercial information service runby Ziff Davis Co., in US124. What is the name of the device thatconnects two computers by means of atelephone line?A. tape B. modemC. bus D. cable125. Working of the WAN generally involvesA. telephone lines B. microwavesC. satellites O. all of the aboveE. noneof tbeabove126. Video is a combination ofA. television B. communicationC. axllPuter~ D. all of the aboveE. none of the above127. Communication between computers isalmost alwaysA. serial B. parallelC. series parallel D. direct128. Error detection at a data link level isachieved by?A. Bit stuffingB. Hamming codesC. Cyclic redundancy codeD. Equali7.8tionE. none of the above129. The hnking of computers with acommunication system is calledA. networking B. pairingC. interfacing D. assembling130. Which of the foUowing items is not used inLocal Area Networks (LANs)?156A. Computer B. McxlemC. Printer D. Cable131. During networking, the processor of theCPU asking each terminal whether itwants to send a message is caUed

A. querying B. sharingC. communicating D. polling132. Who invented the modem?A Wang Laboratories LtdB. At & T Information System, USAC. Apple Computers IncD. Digital Equipment Corpn.133. All the parts in a computer talk to eachother by sendingA. digital signalB. analog signalsC. smoothly varying signal wavesD. both Band CE. none of the above134. What is going 'on·line'?A. Buying a MODEM and connecting it toyour computerB. Getting 8 PTI or REUTERS news wireconnecttonC. Connecting your computer to a LAND. Getting access to the variouscommercial and other informationservices over the dial-up lines or I-Netconnection135. Which of the following is an importantcharacteristic of LAN?A. application independent interfacesB. unlimited expansionC. low cost access for bandwidth channelsD. none of the aboveANSWERS1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10D C A A A C A A A C11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20C D D C A C C D A D21 22 28 2. 25 26 27 28 29 30C A D C C A A D A D81 32 33 3. 35 36 37 38 39 40A D D D A A D A A D41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50A A A D A A A A D A51 52 53 5. 55 56 57 58 59 60C A A D D A C C C C61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70C A A C C D A B C D71 72 73 74 7. 76 77 78 79 80A A C D C A C C D A81 82 88 8. 85 86 87 88 89 90A D A D C D D A C A91 92 93 9. 95 96 97 98 99 100A A A A C A D D C A101 102 103 10. 105 10. 107 108 109 110B B D D D C A B D A111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120C B A D A C D C D C

121 122 123 l24 125 126 127 128 129 130A B C B D D A C A B131 132 133 134 135D B A D A

READING COMPREHENSION IThe format is quite simple. It contains apassage usually having a l~ngth of 500 to 2000words. Five question are being asked on thepassage. The passage is 'taken from p.ublishedmaterial. The word comprehension' actually'means 'grasping with intellect','understanding'. The question follow thepassage are 6fvarying quality and range. Someof the questions test your ability to recognizeimplications and draw inferences. Thequestions test your ability to read a passagecomprehend its meaning, criticize its strengthand weaknesses : showing that ability byselecting the correct answer from among choicesupplied.A comprehension passage contains anumber of paragraphs. Every paragraph has acentral idea which is expounded with ideas andillustrations and other references. The keysentence that gives the central idea of theparagraph may be at the beginning, middle orend of paragraph. This sentence enunciatingthe central idea, is otherwise called 'topicsentence'.The student should approach the passagewith an 'open mind'. There is no place for thereader own .. <?pinion, assumptions andprejudices. The crux of the problem is just tol.lnderstand the writer's point of view.According to the' -difficulty of the passagereading speed should also VetF;}:: 'Step by step method is useful in solving thequestions.Step 1 : The very first step is to read thequestions quickly. This give you some idea of. what you should be looking for as you read thepassage.Step 2 : The second step is to read the passageat your fastest rate. The questions that havelocated in your subconscious after reading thequestions will force you more conscious as youcome across anything that is r elevent orimportant if.Step 3 : Again reread the question one at atime. You will get some idea of the location inthe passage of material that answe~s thequestions.If you have no.ideas as to location in the passageof material that answers the questions, go on

the next question;Mter this step you may solve all the question.Only one or two question may be left after this ·step.Step 4 : Reread. the question carefully that isstill unanswered and try to find the reason.They may be analytical in nature whichrequires the analysis of a certain part of thepassage.One of the most important aspect of this is thevocabulary. Directions: Study the paragraph andanswer the questions that follows:PARAGRAPH IThe most important reason for this state ofaffairs, perhaps, is that India was the onlycountry in the world to truly recognise theachievements of the Soviet Union-rather thanmerely focus on the debilitating faults · thatCommunism brought to its people. The peopleof India realised that~he achievement of onehundred per cent literacy in a country much,much larger than its own and with similarlycomplicated ethnic and religious groupings, therapid industrialisati?n of a nation that was aprimarily agrarian society w.,hen the Bolshevikrevolution took place in 1917, the attendantrevolutionary steps in science and technology,the accessibility of health care (primevalaccording to Western standards, perhaps, butnot according to Indian ones) to the generalpopulation, and despite prohibition of the governmentof the time the vast outpourings inliterature, music, art, etc., are momentous andremarkable feats in any country.In contrast, all that the West focussed onwere the massive human rights violations bythe Soviet State on its people, the deliberateuprooting and mass migrations of ethnicpeoples from one part of the country to anotherin the name of industrialisation, the end ofreligion ..... in short, all the tools of informationwere employed to condemn the ideology ofCommunism, so much at variance withcapitalist thinking.The difference with the Indian perception, Ithink here is, that while the Indians reacted asnegatively to what the Soviet governments did toits people in the name of good governance(witness the imprisonment of Boris Pasternakand the formation of an international committeeto put pressure for his release with JawaharlalNehru at its head), they took the pain not tocondemn the people of that broad country in

black and white terms; they understood thatmingled in the shades of grey were grains ofuniqueness. (The Russians have never failedthat characteristic in themselves; they havetwice experimented with completely differentideologies, Communism and Capitalism both inthe space of a century).1. Which of the following statementsaccording to the passage is correct ?(a) India took heed on the weak faults ofRussian policies and system(b) India seriously commended theachievement of Russia, i.e., cent percent literacy and rapidindustrialization(c) The process of industrialization hadalready started when Russianrevolution took place in 1917(d) The literature, art and music receiveda setback during the communistregime in Russia2. The West did not focus on:(a) rapid growth of nuclear weapons inRussia ,(b) Massive human rights violation bythe Soviet state on its people(c) deliberate uprooting and massmigration of ethnic people in thename of industria-liz at ion.(d) Both (b) and (c)3. The India perception of the USSR w'asalways '(a) negative(b) neutral(c) counter-reactionary(d) applauding4. The passage is(a) descriptive(b) paradoxical(c) analytical(d) thought provoking

Directions: Read the following passageand answer questions that follow:PARAGRAPH II It was during one of the most dreadfulsmallpox epidemic~ in England that EdwardJenner, ,a country doctor, made a: discoverywhich was to alter the course of history. Jennernoticed that the disease seldom struck thosewho lived in rural areas and worked aroundcattle. Most farmers and dairy workers hadcontracted cowpox and had · recovered withnothing more serious than a putsule which lefta scar. This observation led Dr: Jenner to

think: Why not vaccinate people with cowpox toprotect them from smallpox? On May 14, 1876,Dr. Jenner took a healthy boy, James Phillips,to a dairy maid, Sarah Nelmes, who had acowpox putsule on her hand resulting from' aninfection from her master's cow. Dr. Jennermade two shallow cuts on James Phillips' armand inoculated them with matter taken fromthe cowpox sore. A putsule developed on theboy's arm formed a scab and healed. In July ofthe same year. Dr. Jenner inoculated Jameswith matter from a smallpox putsule. Duringthe next two weeks, the doctor watched forsigns of smallpox. They did not develop. Thevaccination was successful. Dr. Jenner wrote apaper explaining hi~ method of vaccination. Atfirst the doctors were hostile and would notlisten to a. ridiculo~s procedure. Many townspeople organised anti vaccination campaigns.Gradually, however, the doctors and theirpatients accepted vaccination.1. The fact that Edward Jenner was acountry doctor, was important in thediscovery of smallpox vaccine, because(a) he had enough time to pursue hisresearch in the rural areas(b) he noticed that the disease wasprevalent where people workedaround cattle(c) he noticed that the disease seldomstruck people who worked arounq·thecattle .' r(d) he found that he could convince ruralpeople more easily than city people2. Dr. Jenner was successful as cowpox virusproduces(a) severe infection in humans resultingin deaths(b) a mild infection in humans which isnot enough ' to produce activeimmunity . .(c) a mild infection in humans which isenough to produce actiye immunity(d) no infection in humans3. Dr. Jenner made his experiment on ahealthy boy who(a) died after experimentation(b) could not be relieved of his mark ofputsule(c) developed the sings ofputsule on hisbody when he was injected the matterof cowpox(d) was paid for it4. Passage here is having alan(a) narrative style

25(b) analytic style(c) provocative style(d) idiomatic style 

Directions: Study the passage andanswer the questions that follow:PARAGRAPH IIIIndia's role on the international stage was ·moulded by history rather than by the pompand circumstances of war. As a separate entityof the British empire, India became a foundermember of the League of Nations in the sameW'8.y as A~stralia and Canada, and thusacquired a somewhat unique internationalstatus long before independence . . During ~hedays ofthe League when India's interests wereaffected, such as in matters of trade or theposition of Indians overseas, the Indiandelegation did not hesitate to make known itsindependent position, for what it was worth.Some Indian delegates were. in demand forchairing meetings riddled with contention andcontroversy, because of their reputation forimpartiality and talent for mediation. .These were the small beginnings ofIndia'slater entry into the United Nations in 1945,again as a founder member beforeindependence. The drafting of Chapter IX and Xof the UN Charter, which deal withinternational social and economic cooperation,was entrusted to a group that was presided overby an Indian. It is important, however, to bearin mind that fact that the Government ofindependent India had no part in the drafting ofthe UN Charter, although in accepted theobligations contained therein. The UN. wasprimarily the creation of three powers-TheUSA, UK and Russia.The size, population, res<?urces andpotential ofIndia lent it the weight of a mediumpower in the functioning of the United Nations.The fact that India was among the first nationsto liberate itself from the imperialistdomination through non-violent means. endowed it with a moral obligation to work inand outside th~ UN for th~ independence ofnations still under colonial rule. India hasserved on the Security Council for 10 years or5 terms, on the Trusteeship Council for 12years or 4 terms and on the Economic andSocial Council for 21 years or 7 terms.1. The title below that best expresses theideas of the passage is:

(a) India's role at the United Nations(b) India and Her Neighbours(c) India's International Prestige(d) British Colonial Expansion2. Through a part of the British Empire,India enjoyed great prestige at the Leaguein as much as Indian delegates were indemand for chairing meeting to considercontroversial issues. lt was because:(l) Indian delegates were well known. fortheir impartiality.(II) Indian delegates had talent formediation.(III) India was considered a power toreckon with.(a) I and III are correct(b) I and II are correct(c) I and III are correct(d) only I is correct3. Which articles of the UN Charter dealwith International, Social and EconQmicCo-operation?. (a) Articles IX and X(b) Articles ~I and XII(c) Articles VIII and XIII(d) Articles VI and VII4. Which of the following countries does notfind any coverage in the passage?(a) The USA (b) Britain(c) The Russia (d) Sri Lanka

Directions: Study the passage andanswer the questions that follow:PARAGRAPH IVSome religious teachers have taught thatMan is made up of a body and a soul: but theyhave been silent about the Intellect. Theirfollowers try to feed the body on earth and tosave soul from perdition after death : but theyneglect~d the claims of the mind. Bread for thebody and Virtue for the soul: these are regardedas the indispensable requisites of humanwelfare here and hereafter. Nothing is saidabout knowledge and education. Thus JesusChrist spoke much of feeding the hungry,healing the sick, and converting the sinners:but he never taught the duty of teaching theignorant and increasing scientific knowledge.He himself was not a well educated man, andintellectual pursuits were beyond his horizon.Gautam Buddha also laid stress on morality,meditation and asceticism, but he did notattach great importance to history, science, artor literature. $t. Ambrose deprecated scientificstudies anci wrote, "Tel discuss the nature and

position of the earth does not help us in ourhope for life to come". St. Basil said veryfrankly and foolishly, "It is not a matter ofinterest for us whether the earth is a sphere ora cylinder or disc." Thomas Carlyle alsofollowed the Christian traditions when hedeclared that he honoured only two men and nothird: the manual labour and the religiousteacher. He forgot the scientist, the scholar andthe artist. The cynics of Greece despisededucation at last?1. What have the religious teachers taughtin the past?(a) That man is made up of body only(b) That" man is made up of soul only. (c) That man is made up of bu b bles(d) That man is made up of body and soultogether2. What is food for the soul?(a) Bread (b) Virtue(c) Vice (d) . Education3. The following philosophers occur in thepassage. But they are not in correct order.Correct the order.(l) Jesus Christ (II) . Gautam Buddha(III) St. Ambrose (IV) . Thomas CarlyleM St. Basil(a) I, II, III, IV, V (b) I, III, IV, V, II(c) I, II, III, V, IV (d) II, I, III, IV, V4. Intellectual pursuits have been ne"glectedbecause:(I) they are unnecessary and superfluous(II) they make people dwarf(rn) they lead people to hell(a) Only I is correct(b) Only II is correct ... ;,..... .. . "(c) Only III is correct(d) Only I and II are correct5. The style of the passage is(a) narrative (b) expository(c) critical (d) Analytical Directions: Study the passage andanswer the questions that follow:PARAGRAPH VIndia is not, as you may imagine, a distant,strange, or at the very utmost, a curiouscountry, India for the future belongs to Europe,it has its place in the Indo·European world, ithas its place in our own history and in what is·the very life of history, the history of thehuman mind,You know how some of the best talents andthe noblest genius of our age has been devotedto the study of the development of the outward

or material world, the growth ofthe earth, thefirst appearance of the living cells, theircombination and differentiation leading up tothe beginning of organic life, and its steadyprogress from the lowest to the highest stages,Is there not inward intellectual world alsowhich has to be studied in its historicaldevelopment, from the first appearance ofpredicative anddemQnstrative roots, theircombination and differentiation, leading up tothe beginning of rational thought in its steadyprogress from the lowest to the highest stages?And in that study of the history ofthe humanmind, in that study of ourselves, of our trueselves, India occupies a place second to no othercountry, Whatever sphere of the human mindyou may select for your special study, whetherit be language, or religion, or mythology, orphilosophy, whether it be laws or customs,primitive art or primitive sclence, everywhereyou have to go to India, whether you like it ornot, because some of the most valuable andmost instructive materials in the history of ,man are treasured up in India, and in India.- ,only,1. In what field of human endeavour hasIndia surpassed the rest of mankind?(a/~ in industrialization-(b) ,in.mate,rialism ' ,_,' ''''(c) in games and sport's(d) in study of the history of the humanmind2. What position does India occupy in thestudy of the histo.ry of the human mind?(a) No place at all (b) First place(c) Third place (d) Second place3. Philosophy means:(a) the study of human mind(b) the study of systems of thought aboutsoul, etc.(c) the study of political systems(d) the study of stars and cosmos4. The historical development of intellectualworld leads up to:(a) the beginning ofrational thought(b) spiritual illumination '.(c) physicai development ,(d) deflation

Directions: Read the passage carefullyand answer the questions that follow:PARAGRAPH VIWhether India and the US are signing anew extradition treaty or amending theexisting one is somewhat unclear, but there is

no doubt that India's extradition requests haveusually been turned down by westerndemocr!lcies. , For instance, when Indiarequested the extradition of the JKLF leader,Amanullah Khan, who was visiting the US fouryears ago, a US lawcourt turned down theIndian request. So did a judge in Belgium whenKhan went to Belgium:The reason is that our extradition treatieswith all w~stern nations forbid the extraditionof a person on two grounds: (1) if he is causedor convicted of an offence of a political nature,and (2) ifhe won't get a fair trial in the countryrequesting his extradition ..Unfortunately for India, its human-rightrecord is so dismal that Khan had no difficultyconvincing a US and Belgian judge against hisdeportation on the ground that Indianlawcourts would be severely pre-judiced againsthim. Past experience shows that US andEuropean judges have been sympatheti'c to fugitiveswhose extradition India has sought.Take, for instance, a typical case ofKaramjit Singh Chahal, a Khalistaniseparatist in London. In December 1991 theBritish Home Office rejected his application forpolitical asylum and ordered hisdeportation to India. Chahal, However, quicklyhad the order quashed by moving a LondonHigh Court which directed that his case betried afresh. Chahal lost that appeal but he stilldidn't exhaust all avenues of redress. He movedthe House of Lords, and even ifhe lost there, hecould still appeal to the European Court ofJustice.Chahal and Amanullah Khan's cases arejust two of several extradition attemptspursued by India which have run a tortuouscourse. Take, for instance, the case of two Sikhterrorists, Sukhwinder Singh Sandhu andRanjit Singh Gill, who had fled to the US afterassassinating General AS Vaidya.A Pune court had sentenced them to deathand when they were arrested by the US policein May 1987, the Indian Government requestedtheir extradition. After examining evidence, aUS magistrate ordered their return, but whenthey went in appeal, a senior judge orderedtheir case to be re-heard Sandhu and Gill wereeventually extradited, but a full one and a halfyears after their arrest.If two convicted Indian terrorists couldblock their extradition for so long is itconceivable that others would not succeed inthe same way? After all, we haven't been able

to get the Union Carbide chief, WarrenAnderson, to stand trial for the criminal negli-gence which led to the death of some 2,500people in Bhopal in December 1984.1. A suitable title of the passage is(a) Indo US relations(b) Attitude of western democraciestoward India's extradition request(e) Indo-US extradition treaty(d) Western criteria of extradition2. Western judges favoured the Indianpolitical criminals and terrorists on theground that(a) India's law courts had a prejudicedattitude toward these people(b) these people bribed the westernjudges.(e) their own governments were also infavour ofthem(d) none of these3. When British Home Office orderedChahal's deportation to India, Chahal(a) went to the European court of justice(b) went to the London High Court forappeal.(e) moved to the House of Lords(d) Both (b) and (e)4. Which of the following statementsaccording to the paragraph ~s correct?(a) SS Sandhu and RS Gill weresentenced to death in a US court(b) Sandhu and Gill were immediatelydeported to India when Indiarequested .(e) We have not been able to get Mr.Apderson to stand trial for Bhopal gastragedy.(d) Union carbide was an Indiancompany

Directions: Study the following passageand answer the quest~ons that follow:PARAGRAPH VIIFrom time immemorial drugs have beenused by mankind for medical purposes. Butnever before had the abuse of narcotics causedsuch unprecedented world wide concern andposed an alarming menace to the society.29According to World Health Organizationestimates conducted in 1988, there are over7,50,000 heroin addicts, 4.8 million cocaineabusers 1. 76 .million opium abusers and 3.4million abusers of barbiturates, sedatives, andtranquillisers around the world today. Even

the eastern hemisphere is no longer securefrom the drug network. Drugs have scannedthe planet at Jet speed and proved once again 'that the earth is a small place to live in. The. abuse of drugs is now an international problemthat bothers Indians and Americans alike.Taking a drug other than for medicalreasons in amount, strength, frequency ormanner that damages thi:) physical and mentalfunctioning is drug abuse. Drug abuse ' is apainful problem for the addict, for his familyand for all those who touch his life. It is mostlythe youngster who fall prey to drugs. Adolescenceis a period when many choices must bemade. At this stage, the youngster is especiallyvulnerable to pressure from friends.The future generation is virtually beingcrippled by the spread of drugs. Drug abusersare completely self c;entred and care least aboutothers. His consciousness clouded, and he loseshis will power, concentration, memory andjudgement capacity. When in need of money,he does not hesitate to steal or indulge in otherantisocial activities. ''More drugs, more crime"shows the graph. A new addictdevelops friendships with fellow addicts andgradually enters ' the so-called 'drug sub,culture'. He is then regarded as an outcast inthe society, and there is little chance that heshall again lead a healthy life1. Choose a suitable title for the passage(a) Drug abuses(b) Drug addiction(c) Drug criminals(d) Anti social activities2. The style of the passage is(a) provocative(b) narrative(c) expository '(d) data based and statistical3. Which of the following conclusions can notbe drawn correctly from the passage?.ra) The ' number of drug abusers isincreasing day by day(b) Taking drugs more than the .requireddoses is called drug abuse(c) Drug abusers care least for theirfamily and the society .(d) All drug abusers ari:) antisocial or viceversa4. Which of the following groups are morevulnerable to drug addiction?(a) The age group of 13 - 19(b) The age group of 11- 15(c) The age group of 30 - 39(d) The age group of 18 - 30

Directions: Read the following passagecarefully and answer the questions that follow:PARAGRAPH VIIIThe impact of technical advancement inarmaments on man, needs to be analyzed witha rational mind, and heart free from prejudicesof any kind towards modernisation. The mostnoticeable impact ofthis development certainlyhas been the loss of immunity from violence forsuccessive generations ever since the inventionof gunpowder. In modern times, the presence oftechnically advanced arms, not only at thefronts but also among the civilian population,has vastly undermined the value ofhuman life, and endangered the very entity ofthose virtues of self restraint and discretion, onwhich .a peaceful and amiable society rests.However, an unbiased view of the presentscenario, would refrain one from attributing therising trends of violence to the availability oftechnically superior weapons, for one must notoverlook the fact that "Necessity is the motherof invention".Every stage in the development ofarmaments has been marked by its distinctimpact on society. When man fought withstpnes and his bare hands, the society was n'otyet compact. The discovery of metal and theuse of spears, knives and arrows indicate thestage of the formation of small kingdoms. Firecontinued to be an effective weapon of destruction.When man introduced the cavalry intothe army and improved the strategies ofmaking war, ~ome small kingdoms gave awayto form empires, but with no revolution~ryadvances in armaments forthcoming, thepolitical structure of society remained mare orless stagnant for the many coming centuries.The next significant development was theuse of gunpowder, which could be used toperform acts which were then thought to beimpossible. Gunpowder was used to form theammunition of several guns and canons. Thissudden advances in weaponry not onlyfacilitated the con'trol of a large mass of peopleby relatively few armed men that helping toform strong empires, but the availability of thenew technology to a select few nations enabledthe formation of colonies in continents whichdid not have access to the modernizedtechnologies of warfare. Modern technologicaladvances in armaments aided the formation ofnation states in Europe. The extensive use ofthe fire-power lent a lethal edge to the naval

power which proved to be the greatest asset toany nation in the 19th century. Small UnitedNations States of Europe with strong navies,modern arms and disciplined men gainedcontrol oflands in foreign continents far greaterin areas than the parent countries.1. Necessity is the mother of inventionmeans(a) where there is mother there ISinvention(b) when necessity arises invention ISdone(c) "most ofthe invention are preplanned(d) nothing happens without creatingcongenial environment2. The invention of modern weapons haveresulted into(a) loss of immunity from war in thesociety(b) successive wars for the last twocenturies. (c) arms race among the nations(d) loss of life and property every now andthen3. Small kingdoms turned into big empires,after(a) the invention of cavalry and canonsand its introduction into the army(b) the introduction of nuclear arms intothe army(c) the end of the use of knives, arrowsand swords(d) the end of the 19th century4. The style of the passage is(a) informative (b) analytical(c) retrospective (d) provocativeANSWERSIParagraph I      Paragraph V1 2 3 4          1 2 3 4(b) (a) (d) (c)      (d) (b) (b) (a)Paragraph II   Paragraph VI1 2 3 4   1 2 3 4 5(c) (c) (c) (a)  (b) (a) (d) (c) (c)Paragraph III   Paragraph VII1 2 3 4   1 2 3 4(a) (b) (a) (d)  (a) (d) (c) (a)Paragraph IV   Paragraph VIII1 2 3 4   1 2 3 4(d) (b) (c) (a)  (b) (a) (a) (c)

TEACHING AND RESEARCH POTENTIAL

• Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti was registered as a society on –15 August 1950 • Who was the Chairman of the first Indian Education Commission –Sir John Hunter• Who organizes the National Talent Search Competitive Test –N.C.E.R.T.

• When was Central Advisory Board of Education set up –1956• Navodaya Vidyalayas have been set up –In Rural Areas• The programme Gyan Vani is broadcasted by –AIR• When was N.C.E.R.T. Established –2nd Oct. 1971• In 1936-37 who submitted the report on technical Education –Abbot• Who conducts the admission test for Novdaya Vidyalayas –N.C.E.R.T.• Who was the chairperson of Wardha Scheme –Zakir Hussain• National law school of India is situated at –Bangalor• A.I.C.T.E. stands for –All India Council of Technical Education• In which year University Grants Commission Act was passed –1956 A.D.• The central Institude of Indian Languages is located at –Mysore• Which Organization was established during Bengal Partition –National Council of Education• Which was the first University to be opened in Britishers time ? –Calcutta University• To whom did Lord Macaulay present the famous Macaulay’s minute ? –Lord Bentinck• In which year C.B.S.E. set up open school ? –1985• What was the other name for hunter commission –Indian Education Commission• What amount was sanctioned by Charter Act of 1813 to be spent on education ? –One Lakh• Reshtriya Sanskrit Sansthan has its head quarters at –New Delhi• Which is the first open University of India ? –Indira Gandhi open University New Delhi• What is the Minimum qualification requird to appear in any examination of the Open University ? –No Minimum qulification• Regional College of Education for the Northern region is located at –Ajmer• Where is situated the Regional College of Education for the eastem region ? –Bhuvaneshwar• Where is Regional College of Education for Western region ? –Ujjain• Regional College of Education for the Southern region is at –Mysore• The Regional Colleges of Education were set up by the N.C.E.R.T. with the co-operation of –Planning Commission of India• Generally the medium of instruction in Public School is –English• The famous Doon Public School is located at –Dehra Dun • The famous Doon Public School Bishop Cotton is situated at –Shimla • The famous Lawrence Public School is at –Sanawar • The famous Shivaji Public School is at –Pune • The famous Air Force Central School is situated at –Delhi Cantt • Tamil Nadu has a Sainik School at –Amrauathinagar • The Sainik School in Orissa is at –Bhuvaneshwar • The Sainik School in Karnataka is at –Bijapur• Gandhi had which Educational Degree ? –Law• Gandhi got his law Degree from –England• Where did Gandhi as a teacher ? –South Africa• Who said “A cowardly teacher cannot make his students valiant ? –M.K. Gandhi• Effective teaching is a function of -Teacher’s methodology • What should be the attitude of the teacher towards school authorities ? –Cordial• The attitude of teacher towards new idea should be –Receptive• Teachers should be made accountable for –Teaching• An excellent teacher must be –Good guide• As a teacher, you are never supposed to be angry –I am a human and can also be angry• What is your Prime duty as a teacher ? –To help the student in understanding Physical and Social Environment• What is the best Quality of the teacher ? –good human subject being 

• The enthusiastic teachers generally ? –involve the students in learning–teaching process • A teacher has better chances of succeeding if ? –he is properly trained for the profession• Does the teachers enjoy the freedom to make their syllabus flexible ? –False • A good teacher can overcome the defects of ? –System • A quality teacher always reaches the school ? –Before the morning assembly is over • Why you want to make teaching as a career ? –it make you eligible for the profession in ten months • Generally a good number of students do not like to go to the class rooms because- the curriculum is dull • What is attitude –feeling• A good teacher priority in school is his –students• People’s attitude towards teaching is becoming positive because – perceiving teaching as a profession• Who can be creative teacher- develop thinking ability among the students• Among the students faith in the human values can be generated through – Moral Education• If as teacher you give too much liberty to students what will be result – indiscipline in the class room • If some one does not agree with you what will you do – polite explain your view point to him• As a teacher what means of recreation will you like to prefer – literary magazines and news papers• A teacher always learns and he learns from – Students• What enhances the status and respect of a teacher – community service• Why a teacher fails in maintaining discipline in the class – because he lacks consistency in his approach to discipline• What type behavior is expected from a teacher in the class room – calm, dignified and composed• Why a teacher should be lover of sports – it encourages the students to take part in sports

General Studies  1.The study of bones is called ostelogy-Total no of bones 206-Smallest bone-Stapes(ear boe)-Longest bone-Femus(Thigh bone)-Strongest bone-Tibia(leg bone)-Total no of muscles-639-Largest grand-liver-Longest gland-thyroid-Longest nerve-Sciatic-Hardest bone-Tooth enamal-Tolal amount of blood in the body is (1/15 of body weight)-Normal body Temperature-98.6F(37C)

2.Govt.of India banned the student Islamic movement of India (SIMI)because it had linked with Osama Bin Laden’s a1-Qaeda Group3.The Salary of member of parliament and higher perks is ehanced from Rs.4000 to 12,000 per month and constituency allowance from Rs.8000 to 10,000 per month and daily allowance of Rs.400 to Rs. 500 for a period of five year4.Competition bill to replace MRTPC (Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practice Act.)

5.Supreme court ruled on August 2,2001 that a public servant convicted in corruption case should not hold office till he was cleared of the charges by a superior court6.Number of amendments in constitution is 8 till now 7.The terrorist out fit that brought the WTC and destroyed part of Pantagon in Washington is A1-Queda.the network association with Osama Bin Laden8. ISI-Inter Service Intelligence9.Durent line boundary between India and Afghanistan11.Mc Mohan Line:-boundary between India and china12.Redcliff Line:- boundary between India and Pakistan13.Palk Strait:- boundary between India and Sri Lanka14.Prithvi:-Surface to surface missile.It has a range 250km15.Agni:- Is Surface to surface missile.it has a range1500-2000km16.Akash:- Is Surface to surface missile.it has a range of 25km17 Nag: It is an anti tank missile having range of 4km18.Bank rate is the rate at which the reserve Bank of India gives credit to commercial Banks19.Amicus Curiae-Lawyer appointment by the court to represent a poor person.it means friend of court20.C.R.R- Cash Reserve Ratio21.Medico Legal case-Accidental Case22.The most important influence of the moon on the earth is the effect on ocean tides23.Ranthambore:- Ranthambore National park in Rajasthan(410 sq.km)was ones the private tiger reserve of the Maharaja of Jaipur24.Ghana Bird Sanctuary-Bharatpur Rajasthan25.Standerd Deduction in income tax-30,000/-26.Maximum income not liable to tax-50,000/-27.American’s Robinson Walton(Bill gates)is the richest person in the world28.Bio terrorism:-It refer to the use of disease causing micro oganism as terroist weapons to cause devastating ipack on the people.for example.Anthrax29.Public University founded in 1982 at Lahore.After partition in was re-established in India on 1st of October 1947.the University moved to Chandigarh in 1956,vice chancellor of Punjab university is –K.N.Pathak30.Kapil Dev has been chosen the wisdom Indian cricketer of the century.31.Akshardham Temple is in Gandhi Nagar (Gujrat35 people were killed by terrorist )32.Metro rail Delhi 24 Dec,2002(Shahdra to is Hagari –8.3km)33.CAG- V.N.Kaul34.Chairman of SBI-A.K.Purwar 35.Guru Nanak born in Talwandi now called ‘Nankana Sahib’ in 1469 .He died in 1539.Guru was founder of Sikhism36. Guru Angad Dev- introduced langer system37. Guru Amar Das- social reformer and discarded sati pratha38. Guru Ram Das- founded city of Amritsar 40. Guru Arjun Deb- Built GoldenTemple and compiled Aadi Granph or Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Arjun Deb compled Granth Sahib in 1604 with the of bhai Gurdas Bhalla ji. Guru Arjun Dev was executed by Jahangir on the advice of Chandu Singh. Guru Arjun Dev got the foundation of Harmandir Sahib laid down by a Muslim Faqir main mir.41.Guru hargobind singh – stared the system of Akal takht and miri,piri 42.Guru Har Rai43.Guru Harkishan44.Guru Teg Bahadur-Guru Teg Bahadur executed by Aurangzeb 45. Guru Gobind Singh –Founder of Khalsa 13th April,1699,Baisakhi, Khalsa means

militarybrotherhood Zafarnama :- This is Letter written byGuru Gobind Singh to Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.This letter was written because Aurangzeb was committed many atrocities on people.Guru Gobind Singh asked Aurangzeb to give up the policy at Anandpur Sahib on the 1st Baisakh 13th April,1699 A..D46.Dasam Granth was compiled by a devoted sikh mani singh after passing away Of Guru Gobind Singh .47.Guru Ki kashi-Takhat Damdma Sahib. It is famous Gurudwara, Which is situated at Talwandi Sabo. It is called Guru Ki Kashi 48.Guru Ki Wadali – it is Birth place of Guru Hargobind Ji . it is famous Gurudwara of Punjab 49.Banda Bahadur- Was born on 27th October, 1670. His real name was Lachaman Das. Once,during hunting an arrow of Banda Bahadur stuck a pregnant she deer; Banda Bahadur was greatly pained to see the tragic death of the deer and its two kids. He renounced the world and become a Bairagi. Banda Bahadur adopted the name Madho Das after becoming a Bairagi. Madho Das (Banda Bahadur) met Guru Sahib. He said “I am your Banda (Servant)”. Thus Madho Das become Banda. Guru Gobind Sahib called him Banda the brave. Thus acquired the name Banda Bahadur 50. Sharomani Gurdawara Prabandhak Committee was established on 15th Nov. 1990, at Akal Takhat Amritsar.51.Aklis launched a non-movement in 1921 with the aim of –Librating Sikh Guru Gurudwara from Mahants.

General Studies Literature:

52.Creator of Asa-di-war,Japuji sahib-Guru Nanak Dev ji.53.Creator of Bachittar Natak- Guru Gobind Singh54.Creator of Jab Sahibh- Guru Gobind Singh55.Creator of Anand Sahib- Guru Amar Das ji56.Creator of Sukhmani Sahib –Guru Arjan Dev ji 57. Compiler of Guru Granth Sahib – Guru Arjan Dev ji58.Writer of Adhi Granth at the time of its compilation of – Bahi Gurdas Bhalla ji59.Creator of Bani written in Dasam Granth-Guru Gobind singh ji60.Most famous writer of Qisa Puran Bhagat –Fazal Shah.Maharaja Ranjit Singh and his Administration:-61.Date of Birth of Maharaja Ranjit Singh-Nov.2,1780.62.Name of the parents of Maharaja Ranjit Singh- Father name:-Maha singh ,Mother name :-Raj Kaur63.Time of treaty of Amritsar between Maharaja Ranjit Singh and British –25th April,180964.Name of the Foreign minister of Maharaja Ranjit Singh-Faqir Azizudeen65.Head of Finance minister at the the time of Maharaja Ranjit Singh- Deewan Kaura Mal 66.Most famous prime minister of Maharaja Ranjit Singh- Dhian Singh Dogra67.Meaning of Kankut system started by Maharaja Ranjit Singh- Tax on standing crop in the field68.’Nazim Adalat’ at the time of Maharaja Ranjit Singh state level- Court69.Capital city of maharaja Ranjit Singh- Lahore70.First war between Sikh and British – 1845 A.D.71.Second Anglo Sikh War-1848-1849 A.D.72. Ranjit Singh (Thein) Dam has been constructed on the river- Ravi

73.Which Dam is built on Beas near Talwara- Pong Dam.74. Dam built on the river Satluj- Bhakrha Dam75.The Dusi dam has been constructed on the river Beas 76.The old name of the Amritser –Ramdas nagar77.Which Guru got constructor Akal Takhat –GuruHargobind Sahib78The real Granth Sahib has been placed at –Kartarpur79.Guru Nanak Dav Ji was enlightenment at- Sultan Pur80.Which Guru built Buraj Baba Atal- Guru Hargobind Sahib81. The old name Punjab- Sapat Sindhu82.The Gurudwara situated at present where foundation of Khalsa Panth was laid –Gurudwara Kesgarh Sahib.83.The other name of Harmandir Sahib is-Darbar Sahib.84.The Guru;who founded Anandpur Sahib was –Guru Teg Bahadur85.Bhagat Singh was hanged on-23rd March, 193186.Number of district in Punjab-17, Lok Sabha seats-1387. Highest Gallantry Award-Param Vir Chakra88.NOBLE PRIZES;-The Honors of Wining the Noble Prizes go to the Following 7 Indians(i)Rabinder Nath Tagore win the noble prizes from literature in 1913.(ii)C.V. Raman win the noble prizes from physics in 1930.(iii)Hargobind Khurana win the noble prizes from medicine in 1968.(iv)Mother Teresa win the noble price from peace in 1979.(vi) S. chandrashekher win the noble prize from physics in 1986.(vii) Prof. Amaritya Sen win the noble prizes from Economics in 1998.(viii) V.S.Naipal win the noble prizes from Literature in 2001.

90.Highest Gallantry Award- ParamVir Chakra91.Highest Civilian Award- Bharat Ratana 92.First Olympic Game held at Athens in 189693.First Deputy Prime Minister of India-Sardar Patel94.2nd deputy Prime Minister of India-Morarzi Desai95. 3hd Deputy Prime Minister of India – Choudhari Charan Singh 96. 5th Deputy Prime Minister of India – Y.V.Chauan.97.6th Deputy Prime Minister of India –Dev Lal98. 7th Deputy Prime Minister of India- Lal Krishan Advani 99. AIDS:Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome100.HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus101.AIDS:Is caused by Virus Aids is due to Human Immunodeficiency Virus102.Classical Dances of India-Manipur of Manipur-Oddisi of Orissa-Katha-Kali of Kerala-Kuchi-Pudi of Andhra Pradesh-Bharat Natyam of Tamil Nadu-Kathak of Utter Pradesh-Bihu of Assam

103.Legal Service Clinic:-A Legal Service Clinic open 24 hours on all days, has been established in Ahemdabad to provide free service of retired high court judge and reputed lawyear.105.The State of Haryana-:Came into begin on , Nov.1,1966 as result of the re- organizationsof the old Punjab state into two separate seats.It consist of the Hind speaking area of Punjab,secong language status has been given to Punjab(1996)106.Book and Author:-

-Life Diving -Ain-I-Akbari -Aourbinbo Ghosh-Panchtantra -Abdul Fazal-Mahabharta -Vishnu Sharma-India wins Freedom -Ved Vyas-Discovery of India -Maulana Abdul Kalam-My Experiment with Truth -Gandhi-Madhushala -Harivansh Rai Bachan-Prisoner’s Scorapbook -L.K.Advani

107.Sports:--Agha Khan Cup -Hockey -Durant Cup -Football(India)-Duleep/renjit Trophyre -Cricket -Santosh Trophy -National Football-Thomas Cup -World Bedminton(Men)-Davis Cup -Lawn Tennis

108.Buddhism:Buddhism was founded by GautamBuddha. His Original name was Gautam Siddhartha , A Kashatriya, Boran in 563 B.C at Lumbini in Nepal . He attended enlightenment at Bodhgaya under papal tree.Budha died at the age of 80 years in 483 B.C at Kushinagar (District Utter Pradesh).He gave 8 fold paths to control the desire.1st sermon was delivered by him at Srnarth at Banaras .The Language used by Buddhist people was pali.

General Studies  109.Red cross was founded by-J.H. Durant , Established in 1864 World red Cross day iscelebrated on May 8,The Birthday its founder J.H. Durant.110.Sir Robert S.S Baden Powell is the founder of scouting111.Who gave the call go back to Vedas-Dayanand112.The construction of Qutab Minar was begun by Quatab-ud-din Aibak but it was complateed by lltutumish.113.Who built the Sanchi Stupa- Agratala.114.Who founded slave dynasty in 1206 A.D.- Quatab-ud-din Aibak.115.The Capital of Tripura is Agratala.116. The Capital of Mizoram is aizawl.117. The Capital of Australia is –Canberra.118.Spring tides occurs on- Full moon day as well on new moon day.119.Tides in the oceans are caused by-Attraction of the moon.201.Buddhism place of worship is-Pongda.121.Jews place of worship is-Synagogue.122.Holish book of Jews-Talmud.123.Malguddi days written by –R.K. Naraynan124.Das capital-Karl Marx125.The father of Economics- Adam smith.126.The Chipko Movement was associated with-preventing felling of trees.127.Pashmina is a breed of -Sheep.128.What is the meaning of Buddha –An enlightened one.129.Which is the holy book of Parsis- Jorah130.Parliament of U.S.A is known as- Congress131. Parliament of Afghanistan- Shoora132. Parliament of Russia-Duma.133. Parliament of Japan –Diet.134.SARS:-It Stands for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. SARS is caused by

viruses from the corona and paramyxo virus family.136.LCA(Light Combat Aircraft)is named as “Tejas”137. Lakshva is Pilot Less target Aircraft 138.Kalpna Chawla: She was an Indian born American Astronaut. She died with other six astronauts in the Columbia shuttle crash on feb.1,2003. She embarked on her second Voyage in the United State space shuttle Columbia on Jan 16,earlier.She was an Indian born American Astronaut.She died with other six astronauts in the Columbia shuttle Columbia on jan 16,earlier.She was one of the six astronaut crew that flew the Columbia Flight STS-87in nov.1997 Chawla who had her schooling in Karnal (Haryana)and college education in Punjab did her Masters in Aerospase Engineering from the university of Taxes in in 1984 and Doctorate from Colorado University two year later. An avid flier, she held certified flight instructor’s license with Airplane and Gladder ratings, commercial Pilot L icense for single and multi-engine land and seaplanes 139.Jan. 9,the day Mahatma Gandhi return from South Agrica in 1915-was chosen to celebrate the Pravasi Bharatiya Divas140.The five day 90th session of the Lndian science congress conclude in Bangalore on Jan.7,2003.The focal theme of the congress was Vision for the global Space community.141.Sriska and Ranthambore are the reserve for lion.142.International Criminal court was launched formally in the mid march in the Hauge . The first eighteen judges took Oath in the grand ceremony. The court has been set up to handle genocide and the Worst case of war crime or mass atrocities against civilians when no national court is able or willing to do so.143.Right to Education:-article 21A provides the free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen.144.Freedom of information bill:- The parliament approved the “Freedom of information bill”.Now it is statutory right of the citizen to access information from the Government.145.Right to Education :- article21A provides the free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen 146.Freedom of information bill:- The Parliament approved the “freedom of information bill”. Now it is statutory right of the citizen to access information from the Government.149. Sapan is not a member of G-8 group.150. APSARA is the name of the India’s first Nuclear Reactor.151.The world environment day is celebrated on june 5.152.Jainism:-Founded by (Rishabha)Varhamana Mahavira. He was a great 24th Triathankras (Pathfinder).Or prophet of Jainism .Mahavir was a greast Kshtiya ,born at Kundagram (Vaishali) in bihar. He came to be known as Mahavir of jina. The conqueror of passing; his following are known as Janis. He passed away at age 72 in 462 B. C at Pavapuri, a place near modern Rajgir . Mahavira Teaching are known as the “Tri Ratna” or the three jewels of Jainisn,which lead to the attainment of salvation . They are (I) Right Knowledge and (II) Right Action .The Janis used and developed Prakrit,The language of the common people .Their religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi.153.Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut in 1498.154.Ist Chinese traveler, Fahein came to India during the period of chandra Gupta-II(Vikramaditya)155.2nd Chinese traveler Hieun Tsang came to India during the region of Harshvardhana 156.Who is the Napoleon of India –Samundra Gupta for his military exploits.157.Harshvardhana written three books-1.Priya Darshika 2.Rattanavali 3.Naga Nanda. The official poet of harshvardhana was bana bhatt .Bana bhatta composed harsha chirtra and kadambari 

158.First battle of panipat in 1526 and founded the Mugahal dynasty in India159.Second battle of Panipat was fought between Akbar and Ibrahim Lodhi at Panipat in 1556 Akbar Defeated Himu and became the ruled of Delhi and Agra 160 Third battle of Panipat fought between Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan and Marathas in 1761.In this third battle of Panipat Marathas were completely routed by Ahmed Shah Abdali.161.Indian National Army was founded by Subash Chander Bose in 1943 in Singapore alongwith Rasbihari Bose. The main aim of Azad Hind Fauz was to liberation of India.162.The Brahmo Samaj was established by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828 whose leadership was later taken by Debendernath tagore and Keshub Chande Sen.163.The Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1875 attempted to reform the Hindu religion from its decadence.164.The Ramakrishana Mission was founded by Swami Vevekananda in 1896 .165.Annie besant:- Founded Theosophical society started home rule league in 1916. She was the first woman president of Indian National Congress.Indian National Congress Founded by A.O.Hume in 1885. However first President of Indian national congress was W.C. Banerjee.166.Swadeshi movement was started in 1905.167.Gadder party was founded by lala Hardayal singh in 1913 at Francisco.168.Home rule league founded by Annie Besant and Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak in 1916.169.Rowlatt Act. Passed in 1919.170.Non-Co-Operation movement started in 1920 by Gandhi ji. This movement ended in 1922 after Chauri Chaura incident. 171.Simons commission –1928172.Civil Disobedience movement-1930173. “Do or die” –Mahatma Gandhi174. “Nightingale of India”-Saorjini Naidu.175. “Father of Indian Unrest”-Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak.176. “Architect of India”- Pandit Nehru.177. “Man of Peace”-Lal Bhadur Shastri.178. “Iron Man of India”-Sardar.179. “jai hind” –subash chander bose 180. “Grand old man of India” –Dada Bhai Naroji

General Studies 181.Mughal Dynasty (1526-1540and 1555-1857)1.Babur (1526-1530)2.Humayum3.Sher Shah Suri (1540-45)4.Akber (1556-1605)5.Jahangir (1605-1627)6.Shah Jahan (1628-1658)7.Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

182.BABUR:-Founder of Mughal Empire-1st battle of panipat between Babur and Ibrahim lodhi183.HUMAYUN:-Son of Babur-Humayun Tomb at Delhi-1st Mughal Monument184.SHER SHAH SURI:-He was an Afghan-Introduced a brilliant administration -Issued a coin called ‘Rupia’

-Build Grand Trunk Road Linking Peshawar to Calcatta185.AKBAR:a. Eldest son of Humayunb. Real founded of Mughal empirec. Good works done by himd. Popular for his toleratione. Foundation of Din-e-illahi(code of conduct)f. Akbar Tomb –Sikandriag. Largest building built called ‘Agra Forte’h. Abdul Fazal was a famous Poat who has written Aaine –Akbari ,Akbar –Name 186.JAHANGIR:a. Real name Salimb. Son of Akbarc. He is known for his strict administration of Justiced. He married Mehr-un-nissa or Nurjahan in 1661.e. Jahangir’s Tomb built at Lohoref. Exeecuted Guru Arjun Dev at the advice of Chand Singh187.SHAH JAHAN:a. Son of jahangirb. His wife Mumtaz Mahal died in 1631c. Built Taj Mahal in her memory in Agrad. Known for promotion of Art e. ‘Red Fort’ and ‘Jama Masjid’ got built by himf. Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his third son Aurangzeb till he died in 1666188.AURANGZEB:a. Third son of shah jahan b. Ruled for 50 years and he was a cruel king c. Banned all religious festival and demolished Hindu Temples d. Executed Guru Teg Bahadur Ji (9th Guru) when he refused to embrace Islam189. NADIR SHAH:a. A Persian King during the region of Mohamd Shah took the ‘Kohinoor’ diamond to Afghanistan 190.Who was the first Governor of free India –Lord Mountbatten191. Who was the first Governor General of free India – C Rajagopalchari 192. Who was the first Governor of free British India –Warren Hasting(1772-1793)193. Who was the first father of Civil Service in India-Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)194. Who abolished sati Pratha and other cruel rites –Lord W.Bentick (with the help of Raja ram Mohan Rai in 1829195.Who introduced Widow remarriage Act.In 1856 –Lord Dalhousie196.TRAI -Telecom Regulatory Authority of India197.VAS-Voluntary Retirement Scheme198.VAT-Value Added Tex199.STD-Subscriber’s Trunk Dialing 200.ISD-Internationl Subscriber’ s Dialing 201.PAN – Permanent Account Number 202.PIN –Postal Index Number 203. NATO-North Atlantic treaty Organization 204.SAARC –South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. 205.C.R.R.-Cash Reserve Ratio.206. I.S.R.O. -Indian Space Research Organization.207.NASA-National Aeronautics and Space Administration.208.V.D.I.S. –Voluntary Disclosure Income Scheme209. P.C.O. –Public Call Office210. L.P.G. –Liquefied Petroleum gas211.C.T.B.T. –Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty

212. V.P.P. –Value Payable Post213. L.C.A. – Light Combat Aircraft.214. P.O.W. – Prisoner of War.215. T.E.L.E.X – Teleprint Exchange.216 L.C.C –Line of Actual Control.217. CNG-Compressed Natural Gas.218. SMS –Short Messaging Service.219. OAPEC -Organization of Arab Peteoleum Exporting Copuriers.220.OPEC -Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 221.Interpol-International Crimunal Police Organisatiom it’s headquarter is in Lyons (Paris)222.Who was the first man go to space- Yuri Gagran223.Who was the first Indian go to in Space- Rakesh224. Who was the first Indian woman go to in Space –Kalpna Chawla.225. Who was the first man land on moon –Neil Armstrong on 21, July , 1969.226. Bangalore is the Silicon City of the India.227. Hyderabad is the hil – Tec.City of India.228. 2004 Olympics to be held in Athens.229. Misslie man of the India –A.P.J.Abdul Kalam Azad. 230. Capital of Fiji – Suva.231. World’s largest river in South America’s Amazon which flows into South Atlantic. The source is Glacier –Fed- Lakes.232. Which of the first Indian state to be recognized on the basis of language – Andhra Pardesh.233. When were the Indian states re-organized on linguist basis – 1956.234. Which scheduled deals with matters relating toanti defection – 10th235. Which scientist laid the foundation of atomic energy research in India – Homi J. Bhabha.236. Which branch of science studies the relationship between matter and energy – Physics.237. Which planet have no atmosphere –Mercury238. Convex lenses are used for correction of –Short Sightedness239. Which mirror is used as a rear view mirror in vehicles –Conves240. Filament of an electric bulb is maid of –Tungsten241. The oil in the wick of an oil lamp rises up due to –Capillary action242. The best conductor of heat –Silver243. A radar which defects the presence of an enemy air craft uses –Radio Waves244. Velocity of round is maximum in –Steel245. The terminal colure of Rainbow are –Rd & Blue245. The gas extinguish fire is –Carbon Monoxide246. The purest form of carbon is-Diamond.

Affairs 

1. Which movie has won the best motion picture of the year award at Oscars, 2005-Million Dollar Baby2 . Which political party has won the maximum number of seats in the recently held assembly elections in Bihar - Janta Dal –United3. Jamie fox has won the best actor award in the Oscars, 2005. For which movie, He has been awarded – Ray4. 77th Oscars, 2005 has awarded “Best actress award in a leading Role” To – Hilary swank5. President of Afghanistan was on a visit to India during February – March, 2005. His name is -Mr. Hamid Karzai

6. Who is the richest Indian as per ‘Forbes’ list – Lakshmi Niwas Mittal7. Which film has won the 51st National Film Awards, 2005 in the category of Best Feature film on National Integration also called ‘Nargis Dutt Award’ – Pinjar (Hindi) 8. Who has won Dada Saheb Falke Award, 2003 declared in the National Film Award ceremony, 2005 -Ashok Kumar (Posthumously)9. Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam, the President of India is the author of the book – The Wings of Fire and Ignited Minds10. Nanavathi Commission relates to - Terrorists attack in Indian Parliament11. A.D. stands for – Anno Domini 12. Tony Blair, Prime minister of Britain, belongs to – Labour Party 13. RSVP stands for - Respondez S’il Vous Plait 14. The first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to ……. in 1901 – J.H.Dunant15.Which French Engineer designed the structure of the statute of liberty – 16.Which of the following is called the Mother of all Parliaments – The British Parliaments .17. As per Human Development Report of 2004, what is full form of HDI – Human Development Index.18. Alagh Committee relates to – Civil Services Examination. 19.. Treaty on ‘Ozone depletion’ – Montreal Treaty.20.. First Chief Election Commissioner of India was – Sukumar Sen.21.. East Timor received independence in 2002 from – Indonesia22. First woman Prime Minister in the world was of – Sri Lanka.23. Gratuity is paid at the rate of 15 Days wages for each completed year of service .24. Postal service in India was opened to the public in 1837.25. The person was facilitated with ‘Nishan-e-Pakistan’ – Dilip Kumar26. The author of the book ‘Harry Potter and the Half Blood Prince’is –J.K.Rowling.27. ‘Fallujah’ city, which was recently in news, is in -Iraq 28. The Government of India recently announced a special development package of Rs. 250 crode for the development of –Manipur29. M.S. Subbalakshmi who died recently was a famous –Classical Singer.30. In Which country a non-resident Indian Mr. Bobby Jindal recently won the Parliamentary elections? –US31. Where is Halebid–a place Which is well Knon for its elaboratedly sculptured temples of the Hoysala eriod?-Karnataka32.Where is Meenakshi-a famous Hindu temple? –Madurai33. Where is Sriharikota , India’s satellite launching centre? Andhra Pradesh34. The Tower of Victory’ is Iocated in- Rajasthan.exander 35.Alexander Graham bell is credited with the invention of-Telephone.36. ‘The Television’ was invented by-J.L.Baird. 37.where is the longest railway playtform in the world - Kharagpur38. which of the following countries is called the land of white elephant - Thailand39. The capital of Greece is – Athens40.The Headquarters of United Nations Educational, scientific and cultural organization (UNESCO) are located in-Paris.41.Who is the first Indian recipient of the Olympic Gold Order-Indira Gandhi…`42.The Largest monument in the world Quetzalcoatl Pyramid is in-Cairo43.Which planets of our solar system do not have moons-Mercury and Venus.44. Two of Ashoka’ s lion pillars built in the 3rd century B.C. stand perfectly preserved even today at their original location. One is at Lauriya Nandangarh. Where is the other?- Sarnath45.Which article of the constitution of India provides for the post of Governor of state?-Article153 46.In which State is the Sun Temple Suryan Kovil located? –Tamil Nadu47.At which of the following Olympic Games did the lndian Hockey team win its first gold medal?-Amsterdam 

48. First Chief Election Commissioner of India was – Sukumar Sen.49. East Timor received independence in 2002 from – Indonesia.50. First woman Prime Minister in the world was of – Sri Lanka.51. Deficiency disease Vitamin A-Night Blindness, Vitamin B –beriberi, Vitamin C – scurvy Vitamin D –Rickets, Vitamin E-Skin and hair disease, Vitamin K – Clotting of Blood.52. Rich sources of Vitamin A- Carrots, PEM- Protein Energy Malnutrients.53..Disease due to deficiency of Iron – Anemia, Life time of RBC – 120 Days

Communication Technology

Communication: Introduction

Communication is an indispensable tool in all areas of human interaction. But it is a process that is complex. The extent of its complexity can be seen in the variety of ways in which it can be defined. Thus, communication is any behaviour, verbal, nonverbal or graphic that is perceived by another. It involves a web of activities that differ in different situations. In the workplace, for example, you would probably communicate differently when talking formally to customers as compared to informally with a peer. How you perceive the situation will often determine your communication behavior. 

Forms and Types of Communication

People communicate with each other in a variety of ways that depend on the message they want to send and the context in which it is to be sent. As a result there are a variety of forms and types of communication such as e-mail, face-to-face, telephone, meetings, corridor conversations and seminars. Dwyer categorises these intothree forms of communication - verbal, nonverbal and graphicfour types of communication - intrapersonal, interpersonal, public and mass. 

Communication Models and Theories

Communication is a dynamic and interactive process'. Just as there are many definitions of communication, so there are many models of communication, each providing different views of how people transfer and interpret information. Like a jigsaw puzzle, each model provides a part of the picture, but no one model seems to cover all aspects.

Berlo's Model

Berlo's focus remained on the transmission model of communication. However, he introduced more of the human elements, such as the relationship between the message channel and the five senses Effective communication involves both the sender and the receiver. The sender must be as clear as possible and the receiver must signal understanding or clarification. It involves both content and relationship elementscontent = message, idea relationship = emotions, power, status personal Encoding and decoding are based on a person's perception of the world. The Transmission Model

The transmission model is concerned with the transfer of meaning from the sender to

the receiver . Communication is a one way process.

The Process Model

The transmission model was subsequently adapted to form the process models in which people transmit, receive, interpret and respond to messages with feedback. The process models have seven main elements: 

Sender Message Receiver Feedback Channel Context or setting (environment) Noise or interference 

In the process models, a message is encoded by the sender through a communication channel, such as voice or body language, and then decoded by the receiver. The receiver then provides feedback. The process is influenced by the context of the situation and any noise or interference.

Communication: Continued  Communication Barriers

Ineffective communication can lead to errors, misunderstanding, poor performance, lower motivation and morale, negative feelings in the workplace and many other issues that may detract from achieving organisational goals. It is, therefore, important to try to minimise barriers to effective and efficient communication: communication barriers distort or interrupt the message and its meaning 

Organizational Communication 

Communication in an organisation may be used to influence, inform, control or inspire. Organisational communication can be divided into two broad categories - formal or structured (within the 'systems' established by management) and informal (as when co-workers chat about company matters). Both areas are significant and both need to be 'healthy' for the organisation to be healthy. 

Formal Communication Channels and Networks

Formal communication channels follow the organisational structure or hierarchy and flow in four directions: 

These four directions in which communication can travel are: downward; upward; lateral or horizontal; and diagonal.Downward (1) communication involves communication from higher to lower levels so that leadership can communicate goals, strategies or role expectations.Upward (2) communication flows from lower levels to higher levels of the organisation, for example, when there is a need to communicate problems, results or suggestions. Horizontal (3) communication occurs across the same level and involves for example, coordination of activities with peers (teams, committees), dissemination of useful information from one department to another (for example sales forecasts from the

sales department to production, and problems such as a problem with product design from the production department to research and development). Horizontal communication facilitates the l inking of different areas of expertise and this may encourage innovation.Diagonal (4) channels may potentially cause conflict as they involve communication between the lower level of one department to a higher level in another. In the diagram above, this may cause friction between the employee in accounting department C and the Vice-President (VP) of Accounting as the employee has gone around his or her own superior. Nevertheless this type of communication may be useful as it may simply be information relevant to the Marketing Department and the VP Accounting does not need to be involved. 

Formal communication networks also occur within the hierarchy of the organisation and reflect how groups of employees, for example those in a department, work together. Networking or mapping the flow of communication in an organisation can be a useful device. This can identify who is communicating with whom and whether the lines of communication are effective and efficient, or whether there is potential for destructive conflict or tension arising from the communication channels (for example, inappropriate diagonal communication). 

Formal Communication: Problems and Solutions

Many communication problems arise from the structure of the organisation. Dwyer mentions three related organisational factors: centralisation; the creation of too many organisational layers; and the structure of the organisation. Other factors may include downsizing which leads to ambiguous reporting structure and poor leadership. Many of these problems may be overcome by: 

analysing the organisation structure and communication networks for barriers to effectiveness and efficiency ensuring downsizing is well planned and the 'survivors' (those left in the organisation) understand the impact of the process on communication networks and procedures recruiting for competent communication, particularly when recruiting for leadership roles. 

Informal  Communication 

Informal organisational communication exists outside the formal lines of the organisational structure. An example of this is friendship groups. The informal communication channel serves two main purposes: it permits employees to satisfy their need for social interaction in the workplace and it can improve an organisation's performance by creating alternative, and frequently faster and more efficient, channels of communication (Robbins et al. 2000). 

One of the most common forms of informal communication is 'the grapevine'. According to Kreitner and Kinicki (1995) the term grapevine originated from the American Civil War practice of stringing battlefield telegraph lines between trees as a means of efficient communication. Now it supplements the formal channels of communication.

Methodology and Aptitude Types of Research - Definitions 

Action research is a methodology that combines action and research to examine

specific questions, issues or phenomena through observation and reflection, and deliberate intervention to improve practice. 

Applied research is research undertaken to solve practical problems rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake. 

Basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge without looking for long-term benefits other than the advancement of knowledge. 

Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals to explore a social or human problem and include methods such as focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research and case studies. 

Quantitative research is research concerned with the measurement of attitudes, behaviours and perceptions and includes interviewing methods such as telephone, intercept and door-to-door interviews as well as self-completion methods such as mail outs and online surveys. 

Three basic types of questions that research projects: 

Descriptive: When a study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or what exists. Public opinion polls that seek only to describe the proportion of people who hold various opinions are primarily descriptive in nature. For instance, if we want to know what percent of the population would vote for a BJP or Congress in the next election, we are simply interested in describing something. 

Relational: When a study is designed to look at the relationships between two or more variables. A public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males and females say they would vote for a BJP or Congress candidate in the next election is essentially studying the relationship between gender and voting preference. 

Causal: When a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables (e.g., a program or treatment variable) causes or affects one or more outcome variables. If we did a public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent political advertising campaign changed voter preferences, we would essentially be studying whether the campaign (cause) changed the proportion of voters who would vote BJP or Congress (effect). 

Time is an important element of any research design. The most fundamental distinctions in research design nomenclature: cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies. A cross-sectional study is one that takes place at a single point in time. In effect, we are taking a 'slice' or cross-section of whatever it is we're observing or measuring. A longitudinal study is one that takes place over time -- we have at least two (and often more) waves of measurement in a longitudinal design.

A variable is any entity that can take on different values. Anything that can vary can be considered a variable. For instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different values for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly, country can be considered a variable because a person's country can be assigned a value. 

There is a distinction between an independent and dependent variable. In fact the independent variable is what you (or nature) manipulates -- a treatment or

program or cause. The dependent variable is what is affected by the independent variable -- your effects or outcomes. For example, if you are studying the effects of a new educational program on student achievement, the program is the independent variable and your measures of achievement are the dependent ones. 

A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory.

Methodology and Aptitude Sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen. A response is a specific measurement value that a sampling unit supplies. If you measure the entire population and calculate a value like a mean or average, it is called parameter of the population. The distribution of an infinite number of samples of the same size as the sample in your study is known as the sampling distribution. 

In sampling contexts, the standard error is called sampling error. Sampling error gives us some idea of the precision of our statistical estimate. A low sampling error means that we had relatively less variability or range in the sampling distribution. How do we calculate sampling error? on the standard deviation of our sample. The greater the sample standard deviation, the greater the standard error /the sampling error. The standard error is also related to the sample size. The greater your sample size, the smaller the standard error. Because the greater the sample size, the closer your sample is to the actual population itself. If you take a sample that consists of the entire population you actually have no sampling error because you don't have a sample, you have the entire population. In that case, the mean you estimate is the parameter.

Probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection such as picking a name out of a hat, or choosing the short straw. 

The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling. Simple random sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to explain to others. Because simple random sampling is a fair way to select a sample, it is reasonable to generalize the results from the sample back to the population. Simple random sampling is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling and you may, just because of the luck of the draw, not get good representation of subgroups in a population.

Stratified Random Sampling, also sometimes called proportional or quota random sampling, involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup. It assures that you will be able to represent not only the overall population, but also key subgroups of the population, especially small minority groups. Second, stratified random sampling will generally have more statistical precision than simple random sampling. This will only be true if the strata or groups are homogeneous.

The problem with random sampling methods when we have to sample a population that's disbursed across a wide geographic region is that you will have to cover a lot of ground geographically in order to get to each of the units you sampled. It is for precisely this problem that cluster or area random sampling was invented. In cluster sampling, we follow these steps: 

1. divide population into clusters (usually along geographic boundaries) 2. randomly sample clusters 3. measure all units within sampled clusters 

Non-probability sampling. The difference between nonprobability and probability sampling is that nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. We can divide nonprobability sampling methods into two broad types: accidental or purposive. In accidental sampling, sample is chosen accidently and we have no evidence that they are representative of the populations we're interested in generalizing to and in many cases we would clearly suspect that they are not. e.g. college students in some psychological survey. In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would have one or more specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance, have you ever run into people in a mall or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who are stopping various people and asking if they could interview them? Most likely they are conducting a purposive sample. Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. With a purposive sample, you are likely to get the opinions of your target population, but you are also likely to overweight subgroups in your population that are more readily accessible.

One of purposive sampling is quota sampling. In quota sampling, you select people nonrandomly according to some fixed quota. There are two types of quota sampling: proportional and non proportional. In proportional quota sampling you want to represent the major characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount of each. e.g. getting 40% females from a population of say 1000. 

Then there is snowball sampling. In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who they may know who also meet the criteria.

Research Design

Research design provides the glue that holds the research project together. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project the samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, and methods of assignment work together to try to address the central research questions. Design can be either experimental or non-experimental. 

Data analysis is the last part of the research. In most social research the data analysis involves three major steps, done in roughly this order:

Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis (Data Preparation) Describing the data (Descriptive Statistics) Testing Hypotheses and Models (Inferential Statistics) 

Data Preparation involves checking or logging the data in; checking the data for accuracy; entering the data into the computer; transforming the data; and developing and documenting a database structure that integrates the various measures.

Descriptive Statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data. With descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is, what the data

shows.Inferential Statistics investigate questions, models and hypotheses. In many cases, the conclusions from inferential statistics extend beyond the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the population thinks. Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data.

Environment I PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENTAt present the most prominent problem in frontof us is of environmental degradation anddepletion of natural reeources.The problem is basically due to the fact that oursociety is fiercely intent on producing andconsuming 8S much as possible, and increasingthe volume as fast 88 possible every year,without any limit in sight. We are already farbeyond sustainable per capita levels of resourceuse and environmental impact, but oursupreme goal is economic growth; i.e., toincrease production and consumption and theGDP all the time and without limit!Most people and all governments refuse toface up to the nlimits to growth analysis" of oursituation. We can only have an ecologicallysustainable society if we move to The SimplerWay, i.e., to a society in which we havematerially simple lifestyles, in highly selfsufficientlocal economies that are run mostlythrough cooperative arrangements, in a quitenew economy; one that is not driven by theprofit motive and market forces and has noeconomic growth.THE BASIC CAUSE OF THE ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMOur way of life in rich countries like Australia.involves consumption of huge volumes ofresources, and consequently it involvesdumping vast amounts of wastes into theenvironment. To provide a US lifestyle to oneperson, about 80 tonnes of materials have to beprocessed every year, much of it mining waste.Energy equal to 7 tonnes of oil has to be used.For each kilo offood-eaten some 10 kgofsoil arelost. At least 4.5 ha of productive land areneeded just to provide one person living in a richworld city with their food, water, living spaceand energy. If all the world's people were to liveas we do, productive land equal to 3.5 times allthe world's productive land would be needed,and world population is very likely going toalmost double before it stabilises around 9·10

billion.In other words the way we live is not justsomewhat unsustainable; it is far beyond asustainable level of re so urce use and"environmental impact. U all the people we areto have on earth soon were to have theAustralian average per capita energy use thenworld energy production would have to be 9 -10times what it is today. Yet tbe top priority inour society is to increase production ,consumption, living standards and tbe G DP, allthe time and without limit. We cannot reducethese demands for re80tll"CeS from nature and thedumping of wastes into nature unless we changeto a very different society, one in which all canlive 'Vell on very low material living standards.AIR POLLUTIONAir pollution refers to the degradation of airquality as measured by biological, chemical, orphysical criteria. Air pollution occurs when theconcentrations of certain substances becomehigh enough to make our atmosphericenvironment toxic. Air pollutants can begaseous, liquid or solid in form, and can comefrom natural as well as human sources.Examples of natural sources of air pollutioninclude forest flres, pollen, volcanic emissions,and dust. Human sources of air pollutantsinclude emissions from industry, agriculture,forestry, transportation, power generation, audspace beating_TYPES OF AIR POLLUTIONIn general, two types of air pollutants bave beenrecognized:Primary Pollutants: Primary pollutants areoonsist of materials (dust, gases, liquids andother solids) that enter the atmosphere throughnatural and human-made events. The mainprimary pollutants influencing our atmospherein order of emission (by weight) are carbonmonoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, volatileorganic compounds, and particulate matter.Volatile organic compounds are organicmolecules that 8.re mainly composed of carbonand hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbons). Themost common volatile organic compoundrelease into the atmosphere is methane.Methane poses no drrect danger to humanbealth; however, It does contribute to globalwarming through the greenhouse effect. Othervolatile organic compounds releases Into theatmosphere include benzene. forrn.sldehyde,and chlorofluorocarbons. Of these chemicals,benzene and formald ehyde are the mostdangerous to human health because they are

carcmogeruc.Particulate matter consists of liquid or solidparticles that are small enough to remainsuspended in the atmosphere for extendedperiods of time . Ind ustrial activity andtransportation are the major source of this typeof air pollut.ion. Particulate matter includescommon irritants like smoke, pollen, and dust,which can affect the human re spiratorysystem. In cities, particulate matter may alsoinclude particles composed of iron, copper,nickel, and lead. These particles influence therespll'atory system Immediately, and makebreathing difficult for people with chronicrespiratory disorders. Airborne lead, formed bythe burning of lead gasoline, can accumulate inthe tissues and boncs of humans and otherliving organisms. At high levels lead can causenervous system damage, convulsions, and evendeath. It is especially dangerous to children andthe unborn.Secondary Pollutants: Secondary pollutantaare consist .of primary pollutants that havereacted with each other or with the ba.siccomponents of the atmosphere to form new toxicsubsta.nces. In cities, the emissions from carsand industries combine with the help of lightenergy from the sun to produce photochemicalsmog. Photochemica1smog is extremely toxic toarumal and plant life. and damages paint,rubber, and plastics.Finally, air pollution can also occur indoors. Inbuildings, about 150 different indoor pollutantshave been identified. Some of the more commonindoor air polJutants include smoke fromcigarettes and cooking, radon. formaldehyde,and asbestos. At high concentrations, thesepollutants can cause dizziness. headaches,coughing. sneezing. nausea, burning eyes,chronic fatigue, and Ou like symptoms. Someindoor pollutants, like asbestos and smoke, cancause disease and premature death.AIR POLLUTION CONTROLSeveral different strategies have been used toreduce atmospheric pollution. Some pollutershave used a number of techniques toredistribute pollutanta to areas not occupied byhumans or other forms of life. Smelters andpower plants use tall smoke stacks to dispersepollutants at higher levels within t.heatmosphere. Other atmospheric polluters haverelocated their particular industry to remotelocations. However, it is very difficult to dilutepollution in finite atmosphere. Sooner or laterresidual amounts of pollution reach levels that.

are hazardous to some form of life.Humans have developed a number oftechnologica l soluti ons to atmospherICpollution. Filters have been used to stopparticles from reaching the atmosphere. Somepower plants use electrostatic precipitators toredure pollution output by as much as 99%. 'I'headdition of limestone with coal in specializedburners can reduce sulfur emissions from thisfossil fuel by up to 90%. CatalytiC converters incars and other forms of transportation havebeen used to reduce emIssions or mtrogenoxides. hydrocarbons. and carbon monOXide by'At. Many automobIle oompanies are nowworking on t he development of hydrogenpowered or electric vehicles to reduce emissionsof several pollutants. One of the quickest andmost common approachos car companies haveused to reduce engine emissions is to increasefuel efficiency. In different. countries, cars mustbe inspected frequently to insure emissionscontrols are working properly. I ndoor pollutioncan be reduced by the modIfication of buildingcodes. These modifications can be used tocontrol materials used in construction and toensure proper ventilation is set up in thebuilding.Finally, the s urest way to controlatmospheric pollution is to avoid the creation ofthe pollutants. Fuel switching; and fuel cleaningcan reduce the emissions of sulfur and heavymetals from so ca lled 'diTty' IOssil fuels like softcoal. The movement to conserving our fossil fuelenergy resources, which began in the 1970s,has been very effective in reducing emissionsper pereon.In conclusion, the following generalrecommendations for developing a cleaneratmosphere should be adopted by ali nations: * Preventing pollution emission rather thancontrolling it.Improve the energy efficiencies. * Use cleaner fuels. * Den!iop nonpolluting energy sources likesolar energy, wind power. andhydropower. * Encourage mass transit and less pollutingforms of transportation (e.g., switch fromair travel to rail travel). * Slow population growth. * Include environmental costs in the pricingof energy resources and other activitiesthat prOduce atmospheric pollution.KYOTO AND THE CLrMATE CHANGE CONVENTIONThe problem of global climate change because ofincreasing greenhouse gas concentrations canonly be properly addressed by the unitedcooperation of our planet's nations.

Consequently, the United Nations has set upthe United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) to help mediate this process (seelink below). One important partnerorganization that provides scientific advice tothe United Nations is the IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change (lPCC).At a United Nations sponsored meeting ofindustrialized countries in Kyoto, Japan, inDecember 1997, Canada agreed to reduce itsgreenhouse gas emissions by 6 % below 1990levels between the years 2008 and 2012.However, as of 2000 greenhouse emissions arestill rising in Canada and the federalgovernment of this nation still has notformulated a plan to reach its reduction targets.WATER POLLUTIONWater pollution refers to the degradation ofwater quality as measured by biological.chemical, or physical criteria. Degradation ofwater is generally judged m terms of theintended use, departure from the norm, effectson public health or ecological impacts. Thereare many different matermls that may pollutesurface water or groundwater. The followinglist describes some of the major forms of waterpollution:(a) The addition of organic matter to waterusually initiates the process ofdecomposition. Most decompose;s requireoxygen to complete this process. As a result.oxygen levels in the water decline withactivity. Humans commonly use waterbodies, like rivers, lakes and ocean, as ameans of disposing of organic wastes.However, adding too much organic matterto a water body can cause it to becom"polluted because of a reduction in oxygencontent. Low levels of oxygen can kill offfish , plants, and other organisms.Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is ameasure of the amount of oxygen consumedin water by bacteria activity. BOD ismeasured as milligrams per Ilter ofo:x)'genoonsumed over 5 days at 20 degrees Celsius.All water bodies have some capability todegrade organic waste. Problems resultwhen the water bpdy is overloaded withBOD· demanding W3ste.(b) Fecal coliform bacteria and other diseasecarrying microorganisms are importantbiological pollutants. Many of theseorganisms increase in numbers whenwater is polluted with organic matter and

waste. Among the major waterbornehuman diseases are cholera and typhoid,which are common in many poor developingcountries.(c) Nutrients (like nitrogen and phosphorus)released by human activity can cause lakeeutrophication and nitrite contammation ofdrinking water. Excess nitrogen andphosphorous from farm animal waste andagricultural fertilizers is causing a majorpollution problem in streams, lakes, andthe coastal marine environment in manynations.160(d) Oil discharge into surface water, usuallyocea n, haa cauaed major pollutionproblems.(e) Heavy metals such as mercury, zinc, andcadmium are dangerous pollutants and areoften deposited with natural sediment inthe bottoms of streams.(f) The hot-water emission from industrial andpower plants causee thermal pollution.Many industries cool machinery andproducts with water drawn from rivers,lakes, or the ocean. After the heat isdissipated into the water, the water isreturned to its source. Heated waterchanges the nature of the aquatic systemby reducing its ability to hold dissolvedoxygen and by favoring species offauna andflora that are adapted to warmerconditions.(g) Radioactive materials in water may bedangerous pollutants. Of particularconcern are possible effects to people, otheranimals and plants to long-term exposureto low doses of radioactivity.(h) By volume, sediment is the greatest waterpollutant. In many areas, sediment ischoking streams and filling lakes,reservoirs, ponds, canals, drainage ditches,and harbors. Human activity has increasedthe amount of sediment entering thehydrologic system mainly through thedisturbance of natural habitats,agriculture, and forestry. All of theseactivities enhance the process of erosioneither through the removal of vegetation orvia processes that disturb the soil surfacelayer (soil cultivation).WATER CONSERVATION TECHNIQUESA number of techniques and technologies can beused to make agricultural, industrial anddomestic water use more efficient. Reductions

can easily occur in the following areas:Reducing Agricultural Waste ~ lrrigationaccounts for about 70 % of the world's wateruse. Most irrigation systems deliver water tocrops by flooding the land surface, divertingwater to fields via open channels, or bysprinkler systems that apply water to the fieldsurface. In general, these methods are veryinefficient as only 50 % of the water applied isabsorbed by the plants. The rest is lost to theatmosphere by evaporation. Microirrigationtechniques can reduce the amount of waterapplied to crops by 40 to 60%. Other strategiesthat can be used to reduce agricultural waterwaste include: * The cultivation of food crops that requireless water for growth. * The use of lined or covered irrigationcanals to reduce infiltration andevaporation losses. * Irrigating crops at night or earlymorning when evaporation potentials arelow. * Reduce water subsidies and encouragethe proper pricing of this resource.Reducing Industrial Waste -Industry is thesecond largest user of water supplies. ReduClngthe amount of water used in industry not onlymakes more water available for other purposesbut it can also reduce the volume ofpollution.Industry used water reductions can be achieved by: * Designing industrial processes to recyclewater. For example, water used forindustrial cooling purposes can be cooleddown in a cooling tower and then reused. * Increasing the cost of water to induet.riesto encourage water recycling. * Recycling materials themselves can alsogreatly reduce water demand. Forexample, manufacturing a ton ofaluminum from scrap rather than fromvirgin ore can reduce the volume of waterused by 97%.Reducing Domestic Waste -Some'strate,giesfor reducing domesticconsunlption include: * Replace lawns in semiarid and arid urbanareas with xeriscsped surfaces. * Encourage the use of efficient irrigationsystems for home garden and lawn use. * Manufacture and legislate the use ofmore efficient dishwashers, washingmachines, and bathroom showers andtoilets.* Encourage leak detection and repair fordistribution systems. Distributionsystems in many of the world's urbanareas are losing between 25 and 50% oftheir water supplies due to leaks in pipes. * Properly price water for domestic u se.This pnce must reflect theenvironmental cost of over consumptionand resource degradation. Many studieshave shown that higher prices for waterprovide motivation for people to conserve.

The introduction of water meters inBoulder, Colorado reiluced water use byabout 30%. In Canada, water is meteredin approximately two-thirds of themunicipalities.Apart from these education canencourage people to reduce the amount ofpersonal consumption.NOISE POLLUTIONNoise as a Pollutant''AnY sound, that has the potential to call,sedisturbance, discomfort or psychological stressto a. subject e:xposed to it, or any sound, thatcould cause actual physiological harm to asubject exposed to it, or physical damage toany structure exposed to it, is known as noise. "Hannfnl effects are defined as "negative effectson human health ".Noise sensitive locations are defined as:. "Any dwelling house, hotel or hostel, healthbuilding, educational establishment, place ofworship or entertainment, or any other facilityor other area of high amenity which affordsproper enjoyment requires the absence of noiseat nuisance levels."Noise is almost ubiquitous. Many normaleveryday activities lead to the prodt:ction ofsounds, some of which are regarded as noise.Noise from traffic, lawnmowers, householdappliances, concerts, and industrial activitiesand so on, are considered commonplace. In mostcases the majority of people scarcely noticethese noises and are not bothered by them, butin some cases people can perceive noise as anuisance. Such people may be more sensitivethan others, or may find themselves inparticularly nOISY situations, or may beannoyed by noise because they want to sleep, orrelax in a quiet atmosphere. In some cases,noise may present such a nuisance as toactually bring about a negative effect on thehealth ofthose exposed to it.Noise MeasuringThe EPA goes on to explain that in order toassess whether intervention is needed topreve nt, control or minimise noise, it isnecessary to be able to quantify it. and ascribea scale ofmeasul'ement to it. It is not a8 simplea science as one might think. Noise is usuallymeasured on the decibel scale, which is alogarithmic scale of sound intensity. Forhuman noise response, the decibel scale isadjusted slightly to compensate for slightaberrations in the way the human ear "hears"sound along the scale. This edjusted scale is

known as the A weighted decibeJ scale, and theunits of the scale are d BA.The EPA has produced a table, which describeshow various decibel levels might sounds asfollows:DBA Descriptiono Absolute silence.25 Very quiet room.35 Rural night-time setting. No wind.55 Day-time, busy roadway 0.5 km away.70 Busy restaurant.85 Very busy pub. Voice has to be raised to beheard .100 Disco or rock concert.120 Uncomfortably loud. Conversationimpossible.140 Noise causing pain in ears.LAND POLLUTIONAlso known as soil pollution, land pollutioninvolves the following mechanism: * Deposition of solid waste * Accumulation of... non· biodegradablematerials * Toxification of chemicals into poisons * Alteration of soil chemical composition(imbalance of chemical equilib.riulll to soilmedium)By as much, land pollution of this has amassglobally, everyday threatening the veryfoundation and mechanical support of everymatter on earth. Statistically, it has beenshown that: * 108s of 6 million hectares of land per year * loss of 24 billion tons of topsoil per year * 108s of minimum 15 million acres primeagricultural land to overuse andmismanagement * desertification ofland results in the lost of16 million per square miles of world's landsurfaceThe causes for such devastation are generallydue to two forms of malpractices:Unhealthy soil management methods;improper tillage of soil in which excessivetillage result in the deterioration of soilstructure * non-maintenance of a proper supply oforganic matter in the soil from theimbalance composition of the reserves oforganic matter especially nitrogen,phosphorus and sulfur unplenished supplyafter cultivation of vegetation, living thesoil prone to soil infertility, unable tostabilize the soil physicality whichultimately let to desertification. * irregular maintenance ofa proper nutrientsupply of trace elements gives rise to theuse of excessive synthetic fertilizers, whichare non biodegradable and accumulate int he soil system which eventually destroysuseful organisms such as bacteria, fungiand other organisms. * improper maintenance' of the correct soilocidity which ultimately disrupt the

adaptation of various crops and nativevegetation of different soils as the solubilityof minerals present will be affected. [n amore acidic soil, minerals tend to be moresoluble and washed away during rainfallwhile alkaline soil, minerals are moreinsoluble which form complex mineralsunable to be absorbed into the flora systemphysiological usage.Imprope r irrigation practices; * poorly drained soil result in salt depositsleading to high soil salinity that inhibitplant growth and may lead to crop failure.* unirrigated land giving rise to stagnationof agriculture waste products whichaccumulates and increases land toxicity. * irregular irrigation leads to decreasingmoisturization ofland for soil medium andreplenishments of solvents for minerals.

UGC Environment II SOURCES AND METHODS Agricultureaccumulation of animal manures, excessiveinput of chemical fertilizers and illicit dumpingof tainted crops on land. .Mining and Quarryingusing of explosives to blow up mines and usingof machineries which emits toxic byproductsand leaks to the ground.Sewage sludgeimproper sanitation system causes sludge toleak at surrounding soil.Dredged spoilsimproper method of dredging at fertile landcauses soil infertility, leaving the soil moreprone to external pollution.Householdimproper waste disposal system and impropersanitation system.Demolition and constructionnon biodegradable rubbles or debris which arenot cleared settled in the soil undergo chemicalreactions and increase soil toxicity.Industrialpoisonous/toxic emissions of gases which arenot filtered or neutrali zed.RADIOACTrvE POLLUTIONNuclear energy is a form of energy that'sreleased by the splitting of atoms. Sincescientists have found a way to make use of theenergy, it has also been used to generateelectricity.Nuclear energy has been recognized as aclean energy because it doesn't releasepollutants such BS CO2 to the atmosphere afterits reaction that could damage our

environment. It's also known that nuclearenergy has reduced the amount of greenhousegas emission, reducing emissions of CO2 forabout 500 million metric tons of carbon.Despite the advantage of nuclear as a cleanenergy, the big concern is the waste resultedfrom nuclear reaction, which is a form ofpollution, called radioactivity. Radioactivity is aform of radiation (a form o(energy that travelsthrough space). Some elements in this worldare naturally radioactive while Bome Qthers aremade to be. Radioactivity is emitted when aradioactive element become WlStable and beginto decay in the attempt to regain theirmolecular stability. When an element decays, itemits energy and small particles. [f it's stillradioactive, it will repeat the proceas, until itfinally regains its molecular stability and stopdecaying. The time that it takes for halfway ofdecaying process is called half-life, and thisdiffers for each radioactive element. It p0S8iblytakes up to 4.5 billion years (Uranium 238) andas short as 8 days (Iodine 131). This processconstantly remains, not coABi~:t:ing e)(te.rnalfactors such as pressure or tempe..ratur.e. Thisprocess is expressed ill units calle..d.b:e:cque:r.e.ls.One becquerel is equal to on.e di.s.in.t:4tgratio,n.oinuclei per second.There are commonly three types of :t:ad.i.a.tion.namely: . * Alpha particles, can be blocked by a pieceof paper and human skin. * Beta particles can penetrate throughskin, which can be blockedby some piecesof glass and metal * Gamma rays can penetrate easily tohuman skin and damage cells on its waythrough, reaching far, and can only beblockedby a very thick, strong, massivepiece of concrete.Sources and MethodsWe can classify major sources that lead toradioactive pollution to the following categories * nuclear power plants * nuclear weapon transportation * disposal of nuclear waste * uranium miningTHERMAL.POLLUTIONThis has become an increasing and the mostcurrent pollution, owing to the increasing call orglobalization everywhere. Heat produced fromindustries is a major contribution to thepollution, much to the operation of the heavyindustries which produces high amount of heatenergy As we will show a summary to theevent of tms pollution happening: * Raw materials for productivity (organicand inorganic products) * Undergo different chemical reactionswith several process * Excess heat energy is produced as a wastePrOOuct * Heat is released into atmosphere (vapor)and riverine system (liquid). * Increase of temperature of environmentalsystem and view of the pollution, global

temperature had increased significa ntly.Measurements of atmospheric temperatureare done by met~rol ogical center of the weatherfo~t annually, and the gi'aph to detect thetemperature trend from a pel'iod of 10 years willbe CQDlpared with the previous batch of period.Thus we may be able to know the rate oftempe.rature increa se overa ll and makereference to the standard level of heat thatshouldbe maintain in the atmosphere to avoidlarge deviation of heat in the system.Sources and MethodsWit can classify major sources that Jead tothermal pollution to the following categories: * power plants creating electricity fromfossil fuel * water as a cooling agent in ind ustrialfacilities * deforestation of the shoreline * soil erosionTHE GREENHOUSE PROBLEMA number of the gases we are putting into theatmosphere have the effect of trapping energythat co.mes to the earth as sunlight but whichwould otherwise be radiated back into space.The main contributor is carbon dioxide,accounting for about half the greenhouse effect.Humans generate about 24 billion tonnes ofcarbon dioxide each year, mostly from theburning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) in richcountries.The carbon dioxide content of theatmosphere has inCI'eased by about 25% sincehumans began to use fossil fuels in largequantities 150 years ago. The concentration isnow around 350 ppm and increasing by abou t1.5% p.a. The effects can't be predicted withconfidence but this increase could result in a1-2 degree rise in average global temperature by2030. The expected rise at the poles is muchgreater. If the greenhouse effect continues intothe 22nd century then polar ice would begin tomelt eventually bring about a sea rise ofperhaps a hundred metres. Even a half metrerise would cause huge problems for the manypeople who live on low lying islands and incoastal regions.Probably the most undesirable effects willbe hotter and drier climates in many ThirdWorld regions such as the African Sahel, wheremillions of people even now have difficultygrowing enough food , and more frequentoccurrence of extreme climatic events such 98storms, floods, droughts and cyclones. Thesecan devastate food production.It is possible that positive feedback effectsfrom several sources could suddenly produce acatastrophic runaway greenhouse effect. Forexample, * As the warming dries out the Arctic tundra

it begins to rot, releasing greenhouse gases. * As the tropical rainforest is destroyed we losethe cloud, t heir moisture generates. Thatcloud presently reflects much solar energyback into space, cooling the earth. * As the warming reduces the formation ofpolar ice each year less salt is separated tofall to the bottom causing the huge currentsthat take carbon-rich water down. * As these currents diminish less nutrientsare brought up to feed the plankton whichtake in much carbon. * As the oceans warm and become morepoliuted coral reefs dissolve, ceasing to takecarbon from the atmosphere and releasingtheir carbon to the ocean.It seems that the global atmosphericsystem can flip from one state to another fairlyquiclly. Some ice ages have come and gonerelatively suddenly. The worry is that humanactivity could tip the system into a new state,for example, bringing on a new ice age. Naturemoves 100 times as much carbon into and outof the atmosphere as humans do, so we mighttrigger or lever huge shifts and runaway effec:tsin nature's processes.PLANT MANY TREESIt doesn't take long to realise that there is norealistic chance of solving the greenhouseproblem by planting trees to remove carbondioxide from t he atmosphere. Firstly we'd haveto plant something like the a rea of Australia,and secondly this would only take carbon fromthe atmosphere while the trees were growing.Similarly, increasing the use of nuclear energyin order to cut coal use would not make muchdifference. Burning coal to prod uce electricitycontributes only a small fraction of the carboninput, carbon constitutes only ahout half of thegreenhouse problem, ~nd to build all thereactors needed would reqwre a great deal ofenergy and would therefore help to make thegreenhouse problem worse for possibly 50 years.... AND ENERGY GROWTHIf the CO2 content of the atmospherecontinues to increase at the present rate thenlate next century it will probably have risen toaround 8 times the present level.World energy consumption is growing atabout 2% p.a. Remember that the Third Worldis trying to catch up the developed world inenergy consumption and use. In fact half thewc:-Id's people average only 1117 the r ich worldaverage per capita usc. !fall the people likely onearth late next century were to rise to thepresent per capita use levels in rich countriesworld energy use would be about 8 times itspresent amount.

If India and China insist on pursuing theWestern development model they will have toburn their large r esources of dirty coal, causinga far worse greenhouse problem than we havenow. We should be trying to convince them thatit is a mistake to think of satisfactorydevelopment in terms of high levels ofindustrialisation and oonsumption. But there islittle chance of them listening to UB unless theycould see that we in rich oountries were makinga big effort to reduce OUl' use of fossil fuel s.The atmospheric scientists have beentelling us for years that if we are to stop thelevel of carbon in the atmosphere from nsmgany higher.lt carbon inputs by60-80%. If we were to cut them by 60% andshare the quantity of energy between all thepeople we would have on earth by 2060 you andI would have to get by on only 1/18 of the energywe use now. Most people have no idea of themagnitude of the overshoot and therefore themagnitude of the reductions in resource use andin consumption that will have to be made if theproblems are to be solved.The greenhouse problem provides strongsupport for the "limits to growth" argument.There is no plausible way of solving the problemwithout accepting drastic reduction in percapita levels of production and consumption andthus shifting to The Simpler Way, including azero-growth economy.THE OZONE PROBLEMIn the mid 1980s, it was realised that the ozonein the atmosphere is being depleted. There isonly a very small quantity ofthia gas. If all themolecules of ozone were brought together atnormal pressure they would make up a layeraround the earth less than 3 mm thick. Yetozone performs the extremely importantfunction of blocking out much of the ultravioletlight that comes from the sun and is hal'mful tolife. Life on earth was only able to emerge fromthe seas on to the land after plants had releasedenough oxygen to create an ozone shield.In the late 1980s scientists observed a largehole forming each year in the ozone over theantarctic. More recently another hole hasappeared over the Arctic. By the early 1990'sthere had been about a 3-5% reduction in theamount of o~ne in the whole atmosphere. Themain destr uctive gases, CFC's, remain activein the atmosphere for 100 years.The ozone problem illustrates the mostimportant aspect of the general environmentproblem, i.e., the damage being done to the life

support systems of the planet. Increasedultraviolet light coming to earth will haveundesirable effects on various biologicalsystems, including the productivity of broadleaf plants (and therefore agriculture) and themicro-organisms in the sea which account for aconsiderable proportion of the world's ,oxygenand which take much carbon from theatmosphere. Processes such as these are crucialin maintaining the conditions necessary for thehealth of the entire planet, and the mostworrying aspect of the environment problem isthat in many ways human activity is degradingthese systems and processes that. make life onearth possible.ACID RAINIn the heavily industrialised areas of NorthAmerica and Europe the rainfall has becomeacidic due t.o the amount. of nitrogen andsulphur entering the atmosphere especiallyfrom cars and power stations. As a resultforests and lakes are dying. This is one morefactor reducing the productivity of agricult.ureand more importantly degrading the lifesupport systems of the planet. There will bestrong pressure to increase use of foss il fuelsand fertilisers in coming decades, increasingthe release of acid to the atmosphere.SOIL DAMAGEAll life on earth depends on the earth's fragile"life jacket" made up by the thin layer of topsoil(average depth only 30 cm) from which allliving things derive their sllstenance. We aretreating this vital resource in a way that cannotcontinue for many more decades. Ouragriculture is one of the most unsustainableaspects of our society. Consider the maindamaging effects.For every 1 kg of food we eat, modernagriculture loses at least 5 kg of soil to erosion.Water logging and salinity in irrigatedareas are destroying much land.Large areas of good farmland arecontinually being turned into urbansettlements. In America perhaps h alf millionha p.a. are lost this way.Large scale use of pesticides reduces soilfertility.Much land is being lost to the spread ofdeserts, at a global rate of 6 million ha p.a ..Another 20 million ha became unprofitable tofarm each year. Rainfall is increasingly acidic.Soil nutrients are not returned to the soil.We throwaway all our food wastes, and animaland human wastes. These should all be

returned to the soil. Modern agricultlure istherefore well described as "soil mining".Soils are becoming more acidic due to use ofartificial fertilisers.The Greenhouse and ozone problems willhave undesirable effects on agriculture incoming years.Another important reason why ouragriculture is unsustainable is that it dependson large quantities of energy. especially oil. Inaddition to all the energy used in tractor fuel,fertilisers, irrigation and pesticides there arehuge transport and packaging energy costs. Wewill not be able to farm as we do now whenmuch less oil is available in a few decades time.We could not do it now if world oil output wereshared equally among all the world's people. Wein rich countries can use so much in ouragriculture only because we take most of theworld's oil production.To produce one glass of qiilk can takeenergy equal to half a glass of diesel fuel.These trends cannot continue for manymore decades. We are destroying our capacity tomeet our agricultural needs. Remember thatthere will probably be twice as many people tofeed late next century and it is likely that therewill then be much less land than there is now.To solve these problems we must move to avery different form of agriculture in which wemostly depend on small farms and gardens, treecrops, "edible landscapes" throughout cities,local self-sufficiency in food (hence littletransport), recycling of nutrients and thusnegligible use of ploughing, artificial fertilisersor pesticides.THE POLLUTION OF THE OCEANSLarge quantities of wastes are dumped into theworld's oceans every year, including the run·offof excess fertiliser from farmland, and 2 milliontonnes of oil which affects photosynthesis andthe amount of sunlight reflected from theplanet.In the early 1980s the North Sea wasreceiving every year 49 tonnes of cadmium, 20tonnes of mercury, 12 tonnes of copper, 9 tonnesof lead, 34 tonnes of arsenic, and 20 millioncubic metres of sewage.THE LOSS OF FORESTSAround 16·20 million hectares of rainforest arebeing lost each year and most of the remainingforeetmighthave been destroyed by early in the21st century. In addition about -4 million ha ofother forest types are being lost every year. Thisdestruction not only reduces the rate at which

carbon is taken out of the atmosphere, but therotting of cleared vegetation and exposed soilhumus is also putting carbon into theatmosphere, )1ossibly equal to 40% of the inputfrom fossil fuel burning.The loss of the rainforest could also reducethe planet's cloud cover and therefore greatlyincrease its temperature.Tropical forest loss is the main cause of theloss of species.THE LOSS OF SPECIESThe expansion of human activity is destroying·habitats and causing the extinction of plant andanimal species at an accelerating rate. This isprobably the most serious of all ecologicalproblems. There are probably 10 to 30 millionspecies in existence, mostly undiscovered asyet. In the 300 years to 1970 humans probablycaused the extinction of about 300 species. Somebiologists estimate that we are now losing17500 species every year, about 2 every hour.lnthe next 20 years, one million plant and animalspecies could be made extinct. At this rate, inthe next 50 years half of all species could be lost.We have entered a period of rapid extinctionunlike any since 60 million years ago when thedinosaurs suddenly died out. The result will bethe weakening of the life-support systems of theplanet, because it is the diversity andcomplexity of life forms which maintains thesesystems, for example recycling nutrients andmaintaining the atmosphere.We are also losing many varieties of foodplants because it suits corporations to sellmostly the few types which maximise theirprofits. Becauge the seeds they se ll are"hybrids" the resulting plants will not yield aseed that produces a good crop, meaning thatfarmers can't save their own seed and have tobuy more seed from the big seed companiesevery year. The seeds sold are the types thatthrive only when given many energy-intensiveinputs such as fertiliser and water.Because of this trend, within onegeneration, large numbers of plant varietiesthat used to be kept in existence by farmerssaving their own seed are being lost as farmersall around the world are now mostly buying thesame few varieties from the seed corporations.THE DIMINISHING BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY OF THE EARTHTn the last decade evidence has increased thatthe productivity of the earth's biologicalsystems has begun to decline, despite the everincreasingeffort humans are making to raiseproduction. Many agricultural production

indices which have been increasing in recentdecades now seem to be slowing, stable orfalling. Consider the following indicators notedby the Worldwatch Institute. * World cropland area increased to theearly 1980s but little increase is likely fromhere on. * World grain lan~ area has decreasedsince 1970. * The growth rate for forests is declining. * Annual increases in world grainproduction have been falling over the last threedecades, despite increased fertiliser use. * The rate of increase in world irrigatedland area is tapering. * The productivity of land did not risemuch in the' second half of the 19808, despiteincreased inputs. * World fish catch is very likely to declinein the near future. The number of fishingvessels doubled in the 1980s but the catch didn'tmcrease.These tapering curves are quite disturbing.The environmental impacts largely responsiblefor t he declining productivity are accelerating.We are only feeding 1 billion people well, but wewill soon have 11 billion, and our capacity toproduce food is likely to diminish from here on.EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTHSince World War 11 humans have had to live ina new chemical environment, increasinglysurrounded by and taking in many pollutantscreated by our industries. Thousands of newchemicals are invented each year and tonnes ofthese new substances are released into theenvironment each year, entering our water, airand food. Only a few are ever tested thoroughlyfor their long term health effects. Many of thesewastes are known to be poisonous. Chemicalsleaching from dumps into drinki ng watersupplies is a major problem.This increase in the contamination of ourenvironment is probably a major factorresponsible for the increasing incidence ofcancers. Some people argue that we a reexperiencing an epidemic.Two worrying factors here are biologicalmagnification, the way some harmfulsubstances become more concentrated as theymove up food chains. and synergism, the waysome substances in our envu'ollment caninteract with each other to have greater effects.For example, the probabilit.y of an asbestosworker who is a smoker contracting cancer isabout 10 times as great as the probability forsmokers in general or that for asbestos workersin ge neral. These two factors togethel' interactto produce a much greater risk.We have little idea how t.he many newchem icals we are exposed to could beinteracting within us to cause illnesses, but the

more we saturate ow' environment with newchemicals the more likely such effects are.

THE ENVIRONMENT PROBLEM IN THE THIRD WORLDSome of the most se r io us environmentaldamage is taking place in the Third World,especially destruction of forests and the loss ofspecies. The resulting famines, floods, erosionand droughts are taking a rapidly increasingnumber of lives each year. As the trees are lostrain runs off more rapidly, eroding soils andcausing more serious flooding, and more seriousdroughts later on. When there is less woodpeople burn more dung, which should be goingback to the soil. There are now millions of"environmental refugees"; people fleeingbecause their environments have becomeunable to support them.To some extent these increasingly seriousenvironmental problems are due to populationincrease in the Third World and to corrupt andinefficient governments. But the main causesare the unjust way the global economyfunctions and the inappropriate approach todevelopment the rich countries have promoted.These have encouraged poor countries to sell otTtheir forests to purchase goods from richcountries. They have led poor countries intodebt and thus obliged them La sell even morelogs and ooff'ee to pay their debts. They have ledto the use of much land for export cropping andhave therefore forced many poor people to clearforests and to overgraze poor lands in order togrow food for themselves. [n other wordspoverty is a major cause of environmentaldamage in the Third World.Above all, the "limits to growth" analysisshows that t he Third World must be persuadednot to strive for the rich world's industrialised,urbanised and affluent ways. That would require10 times as much energy and resource oonsumptionas'now occurs in the world every year.WE ARE DESTROYING THE LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS OF THE PLANETThe most serious environmental concern of allis that we are damaging the biological processesthat provide and renew the oonditions all life onearth needs, such as an appropriate climate anda constant supply of nutrients. Every organismdepends for its existence on a fairly stablesupply of nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, etc.Where did the oxygen we just breathed in comefrom? It was produced by organisms such astrees and phytoplankton on the surface of thesea. But we are clearing trees and we a reallowing ultraviolet rays to damage those

micro-organisms.Every major indicator shows adeterioration in natural systems. We only haveabout 40 years left in which to achievesustainability .We must see all species and environmentsas contributing to 8 gigantic system whichreproduces the oonditions and the chemicaJsthat all need in order to live. We all dependentirely on each other ; any organism on earthcan only get the things it must have in order tolive because all the others are living normallyand making those elements and conditionsavailable. Yet we are damaging the system thatprovides these vital conditions.WHAT ABOUT TECHNlCAL ADVANCE IN POLLUTION REDUCTION?Many people just assume that all we need to doto solve the environmental and resourceproblems is have tighter poUution control, buyproducts that ate recyclable, and design more168energy efficient products, etc. This is whatadvocates of "Environmentally SustamableDevelopment" usually believe. They do' not seethat we need to change our lifestyles or theeconomy. The "limits to growth" argument isthat there is no chance of solving the majorgloba'l problems we face unless we go muchfurther and drastically reduce the amount ofproducing and consuming going on, because theproblems are essentially due to the very highlevels of resource use and waste involved in ourway of Hre.Even if we achieve large reductions in thepollution generation rate, but remain rommittedto economic growth then in a short time we willbe polluting 3S much 8S we were or using asmuch energy as we were before the cuts.If at a point in time we were to cut the rateof pollution per unit of output by 30%, but oureconomy continued to grow at 3% p.a. then inonly 14 years the annual amount of pollutiongenerated would be back up at the pre-cutlevel,and i.n another 23 it would be twice as great.Obvi ously any plausible reduction inenvir onmenta l impact will soon beoverwhelmed if we insist on growth in output.lfthe Third World is to develop to the levelsof affluence of developed world that will meanburning 10 times as much fuel as at present,every year -- pollution control would have toachieve miracles to keep the consequences toanywhere near the present (intolerable) levels.Affluent-industrial-oonsumer society can'tbe saved by Factor 4 or Factor 10 reductions in

the amount of resource use and environmentalimpact per unit of output, while commitment togrowth remains. Such reductions will soon beoverwhelmed if we continue to pursue growth inoutput.

UGC Environment  III "ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT"There is much reference on the part ofeCQnomists and governments to the concept of"environmentally Austainable development".However, this is in general only an attempt totake some steps to reduce the environmentalimpact of economic activity, but there is neverany Question of reducing the volume ofproduction and sales, or of eliminating grosslyunnecessary or wa steful or luxurious169 UGC·JRF (Paper 1}-22production. "Ecologically SustainableDevelopment" is only about looking for ways ofcontlUulOg to produce, but. in ways that willhave reduce environmentru impact. The crucialpoint IS that the volume of production andconsumption current.ly taking place is farbeyond levels that can be kept up, extended toall the world's people, or remedied by technicaladvances. The inescapable conclusion from thelimits to growth analysis of our situation is that.t.here must be drastic reduction in the volumeof economic activity taking place in the world at.present.. This is the last thing that economists,corporations. and governments want to year, 80they opt to pretend that it is sufficient to look forless environmentally damaging ways of conti·nuing to produce and sell as much as possib le.THE NEAR FUTUREMost of the destruction of the environment hastaken place since 1950; i.e., in the short periodof rapid economic growth. The rate of impact onthe ecosystems of the planet will probablyincrease greatly in coming decades. * World population will multiply by 1.5. * People in poor countries, who will probablyoutnumber us by 6 or 8 to 1 late nextcentury, also want the high material livingstandards we have in rich countries likeAustralia. * Resources are becoming more scarce,meaning more effort., more . fuel , a ndpollution will be involved in gelling them,and more pressure on untouched nat.uralareas such as Antarctica * Even people in the richest countries insiston endlessly increasing the amount theyproduce and consume every year.It is therefol'e virtually certain that thepresent. quite disturbing levels of

environment.al impact will become severaltimes as great in coming decades.THE ECONOMY; BASIC CAUSE OF THEPROBLEMIt is essent.ial to realise that it is our economicsystem that is mainly responsible for thedestructive effects we are baving on ourenvironment. The biggest contribution tosaving ecosystems would come with t.beelimlOation of our enormous volume ofunnecessary proCluction, resource use and theassociated ecological disruption, but oureconomic system will not allow uS to reduceproduction to levels that are merely sufficientfora reasonable lifestyle. Unless production andconsumption increase the economy is introuble, even though developed countries nowproduce far more than is necessary.CONCLUSIONAre you dark green or only light green?Unfortunate ly most concern about t heenvironment at present is only devoted tosaving areas or species threatened by growthand affiuence society, or to working for lesspolluting ways or for recycling schemes or moreenergy efficient transport. etc .. without anythought of changing from a society that isobsessed with growth and affiuence. Such "lightgreen" efforts are important. and admirahle butmany people concerned about the environmentfail to see that there is no chance of solving theenvironment problem unless we change to arad ical conse rver society involving verydifferent lifesty les, pat erns of settlement,levels of cons umption and eco nomicarrangements.NATURAL HAZARDS AND MITIGATION EARTHQUAKESThe shnking of ground is known asearthquake. Earthquakes occur when energystored in elastically strained rocks is suddenlyreleased. This release of ene,rgy causes intenseground shaking in t.he area near the source ofthe earthquake and sends waves of elast icenergy, called seismic waves, throughout theEarth. Earthquakes can be generated by bombblasts, volcanic eruptions, anci sudden slippagealong faults. Earthquakes are definitely ageologic hazard for those living in earthquakeprone areM, but the seismic waves generatedby earthquakes are invaluable for studying theinterior of the Earth.ORIGIN OF EARTHQUAKESMost natural earthquakes are caused bysudden slippage a long a fault zone. The elasticreboWld theory suggests that if slippage along a

fault is hindered such that elastic strain energybuilds up in the deforming rocks on either sideof the fault, when the slippage does occur, theenergy released causes an earthquake. Thistheory was discove red by makingmeasurements at a number of points across 8fault. Prior to an earthquake it was noted thatthe rocks adjacent to the fault were bending.These bends disappeared after an earthquakesuggesting that the energy stored in bendingthe rocks was suddenly released during theearthquake.

SEISMOLOGY, THE STUDY OF EARTHQUAKESWhen an earthquake occurs, the elastic energyis released sending out vibrations that travelthroughout the Earth. These vibrations arecalled seismic waves. The study of how seismicwaves behave in the Earth is called ~ismoiogy.Seismograms - Seismic waves travel throughthe Earth as vibrations. A seismometer is aninstrument used to record these vibrations, andthe resulting graph that shows the vibrations iscalled a seismogram. The seismometer must beable to move with the vibrations, yet part of itmust remain nearly s tationary. This isaccomplishe.d by isolating the recording device(like a pen) from the rest of the Earth using theprincipal of ine rtia . The source of anearthquake is called the focus, which is anexact location within the Earth where seismicwaves are generated by sudden release of storedelastic energy. The epicenter is the point on thesurface of t he Earth directly above the focus.Seismic waves emanating from the focus cantravel in several ways, and thus there areseveral different kinds of seismic waves.Body Waves - Emanate from the focus andtravel in all directions through the body of theEarth. There are two types of body waves:P-waves and S-waves:P-Waves - Primary waves, travel with avelocity that depends on the elastic properties ofthe rock through which they travel.P-waves are the same thing as soundwaves. They move throu gh the material bycompressing it, but after it has beencompressed it expands, so that the wave movesby compressing and expanding the material asit travels. Thus the velocity of the P·wavedepends on how easily the material can becompressed (the incompressibility), how rigidthe material is (the rigidity), and the density ofthe material P-waves have the highest velocityof all seismic waves and thus will reach all

seismographs first.S-WaveB - Secondary waves, also called shearwaves.Surface Waves - Surface 'waves differ frombody waves in that they do not travel throughthe Earth, but instead travel along paths nearlyparallel to the surface of the Earth. Surfacewaves behave like S-waves in that they causeup and down and side to side movement as theypass, but they travel slower than S-wavcs anddo not travel through the body of the Earth.Surface waves are often the cause of the mostintense ground motion during an earthquake.These are known as L-waves (LongitudinalWaves).The record of an earthquake, aseismogram, as recorded by a seismometer, willbe a plot of vibrations versus time. On theseismograph, time is marked at regularintervals, so that we can determine the time ofarrival of the first P-wave and the time ofarrival of the first S-wave. Since P-waves havea higher velocity than S-waves, the P-wavesarrive at the seismographic station before theS-waves. * Magnitude of Earthquakes -The size of anearthquake is usually given in terms of ascale called the Richter Magnitude.Richter Magnitude is a scale ofearthquake size developed by aseismologist named Charles Richter. TheRichter Magnitude involvcs measuringthe amplitude (height) of the largestrecorded wave at 8 specific distance fromthe earthquake. While it is COl reet to saythat for each increase in I in the RichterMagnitude, there is a tenfold increase inamplitude of the wave, it is incorrect tosay that each increase of 1 in RIchterMagnitude representB a tenfold increasein the size of the Earthquake. * The Richter scale is an open ended scalewith no maximum or minimum. Thelargest earthquakes are probably limitedby rock strength. although meteoriteimpacts could cause even largerearthquakes. The largest earthquakes so ScaJe is shown in the table below. Note thatfar recorded are the Chile earthquake in correspondence between maximum intensity1960 with a Richter Magnitude oC8.5, and and Richter Scale magnitude only applies in thethe Alaska (Good Friday) earthquake of 1964 with a Richter Magnitude of 8.6. area around the epicenter.* It usually takes more than one * Thus, a given earthquake will have zonesseismographic station to calculate the of different intensity all surrounding a zone ofmagnitude of an earthquake. Thus you maximum intensity.will hear initial estimates of earthquake The Modified Mercalli Scale is shown in the

magnitude immediately after an table below. Note that correspondence betweenearthquake and a final assigned maximum intensity and Richter Scalemagnitude for tJ:te same earthquake that magnitude only applies in the area a round themay differ from initial estimates, but is epicenter. assigned after seismologists have hadtime to evaluate the data from numerous (nte- Characteristic Effects Richter Scaleseismographic stations.nsity EquivalentI People do not feel any <3.4Frequency of Earthquakes of Different Earth movementMagnitude Worldwide IT A few people notice movementMagnitude Number of Description if at rest andlor on upper floorEarthquakes of tall buildingsper Year 111 People indoors feel movement. 4.2> 8.5 0.3 Great Hanging objcet:.<! swing back8.0 . 8.4 1and forth. People outdoorsmight not rnalize that an7.5 - 7.9 3 Major earthquake is occurring7.0 - 7.4 15 IV People indoors feel mO"/cment. 4.3· 4.86.6 - 6.9 56 Hllnging objects awing. Dishea,6.0 - 6.5 210 Destructive windows, and doors rattle. Feels5.0 - 5.9 800 Damaging like a heavy truck hitting walls.4.0 - 4.9 6,200 Minor Some people outdoors may3.0 - 3.9 49,000fool movement. Parked cars rock2.0 - 2.9 300,000 V Almost everyone feels 4.9· 5.4o - 1.9 700,000 movement. Sleeping peopleare awakened. Doors swingModified Mercalli Intensity Scale open/close. Dishes break. SmallThe Richter magnitude scale results in one objecta move or are turned over.number fo' the SIze of the earthquake. Trees ahake. Liquids spill fromMaximum ground shaking will occur only in open containersthe area of the epicenter of the earthquake, but VI Everyone fee ls movement. 5.5 . 6.1the earthquake may be felt over a much larger People have trouble walking.area. The Modified Merca1li Scale was developed Obje1::ts fall from shelves.in the late 18005 to assess the intensity of ground Picturea fall oII walls. Furnitureshaking and building damage over large areas. mo\'es. Plaster in walls may* The scale is applied after the earthquake crack. Trees and bushes shake.Damage alight in poorly built by conducting surveys of people's response to buildin!;.'!.the intensity of ground shaking anddestruction. vn People have difficulty in standing. 6.5 • G.l* Thus, a given earthquake will have zones Drivers feel cars s haking.of different intensity all surrounding a zone of Furniture breaks. Loosebricks fall from buildings.maximum intensity.* The MercalJi Scale is very useful onexam ining the effects of an earthquake over alarge area, because it is responsive not only tothe size of the earthquake as measured by theRichter scale for areas near the epicenter, butwill also show the effects of the efficiency that

seismic waves are transmitted through differenttypes of material near the Earth's surface. * The Merca\U Scale is also useful fo,determining the size of earthquakes thatoccurred before t he modern seismog raprucnetwork was available (before there wereseismographic stations, it was not possible toassign a Richter Magnitude).EARTHQUAKE RISK * Many seismologists have said that"earthquakes don't kill people, buildingsdo", This is because most deaths fromearthquakes are caused by buildings orother human construction falling downduring an earthquake, * Earthquakes located in isolated areas farfrom human population rarely cause anydeaths. * Thus, eart.hquake hazard risk depends on1, Population density2. Construction standards (building codes)EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS * Worst earthquake in recorded historyoccurred in 1556 in Shaaxi, China, killed830,000 people, most Hving in cavesexcavated in poorly consolidated loess(wind deposited silt and clay). * Worst earthquake in the last century alsooccurred in China (T'ang Shan Province),killed 240,000 in 1976. Occurred at 3:42AM, magnitude 7.8 earthquake andmagnitude 7.1 aftershock. Deaths weredue to collapse of masonry (brick)buildings.Contrast-In earthquake prone areas like CaliforOla, inorder to reduce earthquake risk, there &restrictbuilding codes requiring the design andconstruction of buildings and other structuresthat will withstand a large earthquake. Whilethis program is not always completelysuccessful, one fact stands out to prove itseffectiveness. In 1989 an earthquake near SanFrancisco, California (The Lorna Prieta, orWorld Series Earthquake) w:th a RichterMagnitude of 7, 1 killed about 62 people. Mostwere killed when a double decked freeway inOakland collapsed. About 10 months lat.cr, anearthquake with magnitude 6.9 occurred inArmenia, where no earthquake- proof buildIngcodes existed. The death toll in the l!mcrearthquake was about 25,0001HAzARDS ASSOCIATED WITH EARTHQUAKFSPossible hazards from earthquakes can beclassified as follows:Ground Moti.on : Shaking of the groundcaused by the passage of seismic waves,especially surface waves, near the epicenter ofthe earthquake are responaib!e for the mostdamage during an earthquake. The intensity ofground shaking depends on: * Local geologic conditioll.s ill. the area. In

general, loose unconsolidated sediment issubject to more intense shaking than solidbedrock. * Size of the Earthquake. In general, thelarger the earthquake, the more intense is Lheshaking and the duration of the shaking. * Distance from the Epicenter. Shaking ismost severe near the epicenter and drops offaway from the epicenter. The distance factordepends on the type of material underlying thearea. * Damage to structures from shakingdepends on the type of construction.o Concrete and masonry structures arebrittle and thus more susceptible todamage.o Wood and steel structures are moreflexible and thus less susceptible todamage.Faulting and Ground Rupture - Groundrupture generally occurs only along the faultyzone that moves during the earthquake. Thus,structures that are built across faulty zonesmay collapse, whereas structures built adjacentto, but not crossing the fault may survive.Aftershocks - These are usually smallerearthquakes that occur after a mainearthquake, and in most cases there are manyof these aftershocks occur because the mainearthquake changes the stress pattern in areasaround the epicenter, and the crust must adjustto these changes. Aftershocks are vel"ydangerous because they cause further collapseof structures damaged by the main shock.Fire - Fire is a secondary effect of earthquakes.Because pO'Yer lines may be knocked down andbecause natural gas lines may rupture due toan earthquake, fJ.res are often started closelyfollowing an earthquake. The problem iscompounded if water lines are also brokenduring the earthquake since there will not be asupply of water to extinguish the fires once theyhave started.Landslides - In mountainous regionssubjected to earthquakes ground shaking maytrigger landslides, rock and debris falls, rockand debris slides, slumps. and debrisavalanches.Liquefaction - Liquefaction is a precess thaLoccurs in water-saturated unconsolidatedsediment due to shaking. In areas underlain bysuch matel"ial, the ground shaking causes thegrains to lose grain to grain contact, and thusthe material tends to flow.Changes in Ground Level- A secondary ortertiary effect that is caused by faulting.Earthquakes may cause both uplift andsubsidence of the land surface.

Tsunamis - Tsunamis are giant oCean wavesthat can rapidly travel across oceans.Earthquakes that occur beneath sea level andalong coastal areas can generate tsunamis,which can cause damage Lhousands ofkilometers away on the other side of the ocean.Flooding - Flooding is a secondary effect thatmay oeew' due to rupture of human madedams, due to tsunamis, and as a result ofground subsidence after an earthquake.EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION ANDCONTROLLong-Term Forecasting: Long-termforecasting is based mainly on the knowledge ofwhen and where earthquakes have occurred inthe past. Thus, knowledge of present tectonicsetting, historical records, and geologicalrecords are studied to determine locations andrecurrence intervals of earthquakes. Twoaspects of this are important.Paleoseismology - The study of prehistoricearthquakes. Through study of the offsets insedimentary layers near fault zones, it is oftenpossible to determine recurrence intervals ofmajor earthquakes prior to historical records.If it is determined that earthquakes haverecurrence intervals of say 1 every 100 years,and there are no records of earthquakes in thelast 100 years, then a long-term forecast can bemade and efforts can be undertaken to reduceseismic risk.SHORT-TERM PREDICTIONShort-term prediction involves monitoring ofprocesses that occur in the vicinity ofearthquake prone faults for activity that signifya coming earthquake.Anomalous events or processes that mayprecede an earthquake are called precursorevents and might signal a coming earthquake.Despite the array of possible precursorevents that are possible to monitor, successfulshort· term earthquake prediction has so farbeen difficult to obtain. This is likely because:the process~s that cause earthquakes occurdeep beneath the surface and are difficult tomonitor. Earthquakes in different regions oralong different faults all behave differently,thus no consistent patterns have so far beenrecognized.Among the precursor events that may beimportant are the following:Ground Uplift and Tilting: Measurementstaken in the vicinity of active faults sometimesshow that prior to an earthquake the ground isuplifted or tilts due to the swelling of rocks

caused by strain building on the fault. Thismay lead to the formation of numerous smallcracks (called microcracks). This cracking inthe rocks may lead to small earthquakes calledforeshocks.Foreshocks : Prior to a 1975 earthquake inChina, the observation ofnumerolls foreshocksled to successful prediction of an earthquakeand evacuation of the city of the Haicheng. Themagnitude 7.3 earthquake that occurred,destroyed half of the city of about 100 millioninhabitants, but resulted in only a few hundreddeaths because of the successful evacuation.Water Level in Wells : As rocks becomestrained in the vicinity of a fault, changes inpressure of the groundwater (water existing inthe pore spaces and fractures.in rocks) occur.This may force the groundwater to move tohigher or lower elevations, causing changes inthe water levels in welle.Emission of Radon Gas: Radon is an inertgas that is produced by the radioactive decay ofuranium and other elements.in.rocks. BecauseRadon is inert, it does not combine with otherelements to form compounds, and thus remainsin a crystal structure until some event forces itout. Deformation resulting from stram mayforce the Radon out and lead to emissions ofRadon that show up in well water. The newlyformed microcracks discussed above could serveas pathways for the Radon to escape intogroundwater. Increases in the amount of radonemissions have been reported prior to someearthquakes.Cbanges in the Electrical Resistivity ofRocks: Electrical resistivity is the resistanceto the flow of electric current. In general rocksare poor conductors of electricit.y, but water ismore efficient than conducting electricity. Ifmicrocracks develop and groundwater is forcedinto the cracks, this may cause t.he electricalresistivity to decrease (causing the electricaJconductivity to increase). In some cases a5·10% drop in electrical resistivity has beenobserved prior to an earthquake.Unusual Radio Waves: Just prior to theLorna Prieta earthq~lUke or 1989. ijomeresearchers reported observing lmu.suaJ radiOwaves. Where these were generated and why,is not yet known, but research is continuing.Strange Animal Behavior : Prior to amagnitude 7.'1 earthquake in Tanjin. China,zookeepers reported unusual animal behavior.Snakes refusing to go into their holes, swansrefusing to go near water, pandas screaming,

etc. This was the first systematic study of thisphenomenon prior to an earthquake. Althoughother attempts have been made to repeat aprediction based on amtUal behavior, there havebeen no other successful predictions.CONTROLLING EARTHQUMffiSAlthough no attempts have yet been made tocontrol earthquakes, earthquakes have beenknown to be induced by human interaction withthe Earth. This suggests that in the futUreearthquake control may be possible.

VOLCANOES, MAGMA, AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONSVolcanic eruptions are caused by magma (a I Types of Magma : Types of magma aremixture of ~quid rock, crystals, and dissolved determined by chemical composition of thegas) expelled onto the earth's surface. magma. Three general types are recognized:175Summary TableMagma Solidified Chemical Temperature Viscosity Gns ContentTyp. Rock CompositionBasaltic Basalt 45·55 Si02 %. high in Fe, Mg, 1000 - 1200 ~C Low LowCa, low in K. No.Andcaitic Andesite 55·65 Si02 %, intermediate Mg, 800 - 1000 ·C Intermediate IntermediateCo., No., K in Fe,Rhyolitic Rhyolite 65·75 SiO2 %, low in Fe, Mg,Ca, high in K, No..HOW MAGMAS FORM IN THE EARTHIn order for magmas to form, Borne part of theearth must get hot enough to melt the rockspresent. Under normal conditions, thegeothermal gradient, which is bow thetemperature in the earth changes with depth orpressure, is not high enough to melt rocks, andthus with the exception of the outer core, mostof the earth is solid. Thus, magmas form onlyunder special circumstances, and thus.volcanoes are only found on the earth's surfacein areas above where these specialcircumstances occur.As pressure increases in the earth, themelting temperature changes as well. For pureminerals, there are two general cases.If the mineral contains no water (H20) orcarbon dioxide (C02) and there is no water orcarbon dioxide present in the surroundings,then melting occurs at a single temperature atany given pressure and increases withincreasing pressure or depth in the earth. Thisis called dry melting.If water or carbon dioxide are presentwithin or surrounding the mineral, thenmelting takes place at a single temperature atany given pressure, but first decreases with

increasing pressure.Since rocks are mixtures of minerals, theybehave somewhat differently. Unlike minerals,rocks do not melt at a single temperatme, butinstead melt over a range of temperatures.Thus, it is possible to have partial melts, fromwhich the liquid portion might be extracted toform magma. The two general cases are:1. Melting of dry rocks is similar to meltingof dry minerals, melting temperaturesincrease with increasing pressure, exceptthere is a range of temperature over whichthere exists a partial melt. The degree ofGSO - 800 ·C High - Highpartial melting can range from 0 to 100%.2. Melting of wet rocks is similar to meltingof wet mJnerais, except there is range oftemperature over which partial meltingoccurs. Again, the temperature ofbeginning of melting ftrst decreases withincreasing pressure or depth, then athigh pressure or depth the meltingtemperatures again begin to rise.

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS * In general, magmas that are generateddeep within the Earth begin to rise becausethey are less dense than the surrounding solidrocks. * As they rise they may encounter a depthor pressure where the dissolved gas no longercan be held in solution in the magma, and thegas begins to form a separate phase. * When a gas bubble forms, it will alsocontinue to grow in size as pressure is reducedand more of the gas comes alit of solution. Inother words, the gas bubbles begin to expand. * If the liquid pal'tofthe magma has a lowviscosity, then the gas can expand relativelyeasily. When the magma reaches the earth'ssurface, the gas bubble will simply burat, thegas will easily expand to atmospheric pressure,and a non-explosive eruption will occur, usuallyas a lava flow (Lava is the name we give to amagma when it is on the surface ofthe earth). * If the liquid part of the magma has ahigh viscosity, then the gas will not be able toexpand very easily, and thus, pressure willbuild up inside of the gas bubble(s). When thismagma reaches the surface, the gas bubbleswill have a high pressme inside, which willcause them to burst explosively on reachingatmospheric pressure. This will cause anexplosive volcanic eruption.NON-EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS, Nonexplosiveeruptions are favored by low gascontent and low viscosity magmas (basaltic toandesitic magmas). * If the viscosity is low, non-explosiveeruptions usually begin with fire fountains due

to release of dissolved gases. * Lava flows are produced on the surface,and these run like liquids down slope, along thelowest areas they can find. * Lava flows produced by eruptions underwater are called pillow lavas. * If the viscosity is high, but the gascontent is low, then the lava will pile up overthe vent to produce a lava dome or volcanicdome.EXPLOSIVE ERUPTIONS: Explosiveeruptions are favored by high gas content andhigh viscosity (andesilic to rhyolitic magmas),Explosive bursting of bubbles will fragment themagma into.clots of liquid that will cool as theyfall through the air. These solid particlesbecome pyroclasts (meaning - hot fragments)and tephra or volcanic ash, which refer to sandsizedor smaller fragments. * Blocks are angular fragments that weresolid when ejected. * Bombs have an ae rodynamic shapeindicating they were liquid when ejected. * Bombs and lapilli that consist mostly ofgas bubbles (vesicles) result in a low densityhighly vesicular rock fragment called pumice.TEPHRA AND PYROCLASTIC ROCKSAverage Pa.rtieie Unconsolidated Pyroclastic RockSize (nun) lI1a.teriai(Tephra)>64 Bombs or Blocks f\!;"g\omerate2 - 64 Lapilli Lapilli Tuff<2 Ash Ash TuffClouds of gas and tephra that rise above avolcano produce an eruption column that canrise up to 45 km into the atmosphere.Eventually the tephra in the eruption columnwill be picked up by the wind, carried for somedistance, and then fall back to the surface as atephra fall or ash fall.lf the eruption column collapses apyroclastic flow will occur, wherein gas andtephra rush down the flanks of the volcano athigh speed. This is the most dangerous type ofvolcanic eruption. The deposits that areproduced are called ignimbrites if they containpumice or pyroclastic flow deposits if theycontain non-vesicular blocks.If the gas pressure inside the magma isdirected outward instead of upward, a lateralblast can occur. When this occurs on the fla:1ksof a lava dome, a pyroclastic flows called aglowing avalanche or lLUie ardenles (in French)can also result. Directed blasts often resultfrom sudden exposure of the magma by alandslide or collapse of a lava dome.VOLCANIC HAZARDS * Ash Falls (tephra falls) * Hot Ash Flows (pyroclastic flows) * Mud.f1ows Qahars) * Volcanic Landslides (debris flows anddebris avalanches) * Lava Flows * Volcanic GasesPRIMARY EFFECTS OF VOLCANISM * Lava FlowsControl of lava flows has been attempted withlimited success by bombing flow fronts to

attempt to divert the flow ,·and by spraying withwater to cool the flow. The latter is creditedwith saving the fishing harbor during a 1973eruption of Heimaey in Iceland. * Violent Eruptions and PyroclasticActivity * Poisonous Gas EmissionsSECONDARY AND TERTIARY EFFECTSOF VOLCANISM * Mudflows (Lahars) * Debris Avalanches and Debris Flows . * Flooding * Tsunamis * Volcanic Earthquakes and Tremors * Atmospheric Effects * Famine and DiseaseBENEFICIAL ASPECTS OF VOLCANISMVolcanism throu ghout Earth history isresponsible for outgasing of the Earth to helpproduce both the atmosphere and hydrosphere.Volcanism helps renew the soil, and soilsaround active volcanoes are some of the richeston Earth. Hydrothermal processes associatedwith volcanism produce rich ore deposits, andthe heat rising around magma bodies cansometimes be tapped to produce geothermalenergy.Predicting Volcanic Eruptions: Beforediscussing how we can predict volcanice r uptions, it is important to get someterm inology strai ght by defining somecommonly used terms.Active Volcano -An active volcano is a volcanothat has shown eruptive activity withinrecorded history. Thus an active volcano neednot be in eruption to be considered active. * Currently there are about 600 volcanoeson Earth considered to be active volcanoes. * Each year 50 to GO of volcanoes actuallyerupt.Extinct Volcano - An extinct volcano is avolca no that has not s hown any historicactivity, is usually deeply eroded, and shows nosigns of recent activity. How old must a volcanobe to be considered extinct depends to a largedegree on past activity. * Yellowstone Caldera is about 600,000years old and is deeply eroded. But fumorolicactivity. hot springs, and geysers all point tothe fact that magma still exists beneath thesurface. Thus, Yellowstone Caldera is notconsidered extinct. * Other. volcanoes that are deeply eroded.smaller, and much younger than Yellowstone,that show no hydrothermal activity may beconsidered extinct.Dormant Volcano - A dormant volcano(sleeping volcano) is somewhere between activeand extinct. A dormant volcano is one that hasnot shown eruptive activity within recordedhistory, but shows geologic evidence of activitywithin the geologic re~nt past. * Because the lifetime of a volcano may beon the order of a million years, dormantvolcanoes ca n become active volcanoes all ofsudden. These are perhaps the most dangerous

volcanoes because people living in the vicinity ofa dormant volcano may not understand theconcept of geologic time. and there is no writtenrecord of activity. These people are sometimesdifficult to convince when a dormant volcanoshows signs ofrenewed activity. * Yellowstone Caldera would be considereda dormant volcano. * Mount St. Helens was considered as adormant volcano, baving not erupted for 123years, before its reawakening in 1980.* Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines hadbeen dormant for over 400 years before itseruption in 1991. * Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, Italy wasconsidered an extinct volcano prior to itsdevastatUlg eruption of 79 A.D.LONG : Term Forecas ting and VolcanicHazards Studies * Studies of the geologic history of a volcanoare generally necessary to make an assessmentof the types of hazards posed by the volcano andthe frequency at which these types of hazardshave occurred in the past. * Once this information is avai lable.geologists can then make forecasts concerningwhat areas surrounding a volcano would besubject to the various kinds of activity shouldthey occur in a future eruption. and also makeforecasts about the long·term likelihood orprobability of a volcanic eruption in the area. * During such studies, geologists examinesequences of layered deposits and lava flows.Armed with knowledge about thecharacteristics of deposits left by various typesof eruption a, the past behavior of a volcano canbe determined. * Using radiometric age dating of thedeposits the past frequency of eve nts can bedetermined. * This information is then combined withknowledge about the present surface aspects ofthe volcano to make volcanic hazards mapswhich can aid other scientists, public officials,and the public at large to plan for evacuations.rescue and recovery in the event that. short·term prediction suggests another eruption. ., * Such hazards maps delineate zones ofdanger expected from the hazards discussedabove: lava flow s, pyroclastic flow s, tephra falls,mudflows, flood s, etc.SHORT -TERM PREDICTION BASED ONVOLCANIC MONITORINGShort-term prediction of volcanic eruptionsinvolves monitoring the volcano to determinewhen magma is approaching the surface andmonitoring for precursor events that. oftensignal a forthcoming eruption. * Seismic Exploration and MonitorillgSinceseismic waves are generated by both earthquakes and explosions, and since S-wavescannot pass through liquids, a rrays ofseismographs can be placed around a volcanoand small explosions can be set off to generateseismic waves. If a magma body exists beneath

the vclcano, then there will l:.e zone were noS-waves arrive (an S-wave shadow zone) thatcan be detected. Monitoring the movement ofthe S-wave shadow zone can delineate theposition and movement of the magma body. * Changes in Magnetic Field - Rockscontain minerals such as magnetite that aremagnetic. Such magnetic minerals generate amagnetic field. However, above a temperaturecalled the Curie Temperature, these magneticminerals show no magnetism. Thus, if amagma body enters a volcano, the body itselfwill show no magnetism, and if it heats thesurrounding rocks to temperatures greaterthan the Curie Temperature (about 500°C formagnetite) the magnetic field over the volcano ·will be reduced. Thus, by measuring changesin the magnetic field, the movement of magmacan sometimes be tracked. * Changes in Electrical Resistivity -Rocks have resistance to the flow of electricalcurrent which is highly dependent ontemperature and water content. As magmamoves into a volcano this electrical resistivitywill decrease. Making measurements of theelectrical resistivity by placing electrodes intothe ground, may allow tracking of themovement of magma. * Ground Deformation - As magmamoves into a volcano, the structure may inflate.This will cause deformation of the ground,which can be monitored. Instruments like tiltmeters measure changes in the angle of theEarth 's surface which are measured in microradianstrack changes in distance between severalpoints on the ground to monitor deformation. * Changes in Groundwater System -Asmagma enters a volcano it may cause changesin the groundwater system, causing the watertable to rise or fall and causing the temperatureof the water to increase. By monitoring thedepth to the water table in wells and thetemperature of welJ water, spring water, orfum aroles, changes can be detected that manysignify a change in the behaVior of the volcaOlcsyste m. . Changes in Heat Flow - Heat ISeverywhere flowing out of the surface of theEarth. As magma approaches the surface or asthe temperature of groundwater increases, theamount of surface heat flow will increase.Although these changes may be smalJ they canbe measured using infrared remote sensing. * Changes in Gas Compositions - Thecomposition of gases emitted from volcanicvents and fumaroles often changes just prior toan eruption. In general, increases in theproportions of hydrogen chloride (Hel) andsulfur dioxide (SO2) are seen to increase relativeto the proportion of water vapor.

UGC Environment  IV TSUNAMIA tsunami is a very long-wavelength wave ofwater that is generated by sudden displacementof the seafloor or disruption of any body ofstanding water. Tsunami are sometimes called"seismic sea waves", although, as we will see,they can be generated by mechanisms otherthan earthquakes. Tsunami have also beencalled "tidal waves", but this term should not beused because they are not in any way related tothe tides of the Earth. Because tsunami occursuddenly, often without warning, they areextremely dangerous to coastal communities.PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TSUNAMIAll types of waves, including tsunami, have awavelength, a wave height, an amplitude, afrequency or period, and a velocity. * Wavelength is defined as the distancebetween two identical points on a wave (i.e.between wave crests or wave troughs). Normalocean waves have wavelE"ngths of about100 meters. Tsunami have much longerwavelengths, usualJy measured in kilometersand up to 500 kilometers. * Wave height refers to the distancebetween the trough of the wave and the crest orpeak of the wave, * Wave amplitude refers to the height ofthe wave above the still water line, usually thisis equal to 112 the wave height. Tsunami canhave variable wave heieht and amDlitude tha~depends on water depth as well asmoment. Wave frequency 0'" period Is theamount of time it takes for one full wavelengthto pass a stationary point.* Wave velocity is the speed of the wave.Velocities of normal ocean waves are about90 kmlhr while tsunami have velocities up to950 kmIhr (about as fastasjetairplanes), and thus 'move much more rapidly across ocean basins.Tsunami are characterized as shallowwaterwaves. These are different from thewaves most of us have observed on the beach,which are caused by the wind blowing acrossthe ocean's surface. Wind-generated wavesusually have period (time between twosuccessive waves) of five to twenty seconds anda wavelength of 100 to 200 meters. A tsun.amican have a period in the range often minutes .totwo hours and wavelengths greater than500 km. A wave is characterized as a shallowwaterwave when the ratio of the water depthand waveleQ.gth is very small.The rate at which a wave loses its energy isinversely related to its wavelength. Since atsunami has a very large wavelength, it will

lose little energy as it propagates. Thus, in verydeep water, a tsunami will travel at high speedswith little loss or energy. For example, when theocean is 6100 m deep, a tsunami will travelabout 890 kmlhr, and thus can travel acrossthe Pacific Ocean in less than one day.As a tsunami leaves the deep water of theopen sea and arrives at the shallow waters nearthe coast, it undergoes a transformation. Sincethe velocity cf the tsunami is also related to thewater depth, as the depth of the waterdecreases, the velocity of the tsunamidecreases. The change of total energy of thetsunami, however, remains constant.Furthermore, the period of the waveremains the same, and thus more water isforced between the wave crests causing theheight of the wave to increase. Because of this"shoaling" effect, a tsunami that wasimperceptible in deep water may grow to havewave heights of several meters or more.If the trough of the tsunami wave reachesthe coast first, this catiSes a phenomenon calleddrawdown, where it appears that sea level hasdropped considerably. Drawdown is followedimmediately by the crest of the wave which cancatch people observing the drawdown off guard.When the crestofthe wave hits, sea level rises(called run-uf». Run-up is usually expressed inmeters above normal high tide. Run-ups frOOlthe same tsunami can be variable because ofthe influence of the shapes of coastlines. Onecoastal area may see no damaging wave activitywhile in another area destructive waves can belarge and violent. The flooding of an area canextend inland by 300 m or more, covering largeareas of land with water and debris. Floodingtsunami waves tend to carry loose objects andpeople out to sea when they retreat. Tsunamimay reach a maximum vertical height on shoreabove sea level, called a run-up height, of 30meters. A notable exception is the landslidegenerated tsunami in Lituya Bay, Alaska in1958 which produced a 60 meter high wave.HOW TSUNAMl ARE GENERATED?Most of the tsunami are generated byearthquakes that cause displacement of theseafloor, but, as we shall see, tsunami can begenerated by volcanic eruptions, landslides,underwater explosions, and meteorite impacts.

EARTHQUAKESEarthquakes cause tsunami by causing adisturbance of the seafloor. Thus, earthquakesthat occur along coastlines or anywhere

beneath the oceans can generate tsunami. Thesize of the tsunami is usually related to the sizeof the earthquake, with larger tsunamigenerated by larger earthquakes. But the senseof displacement is also important. Tsunami isgenerally only formed when an earthquakecauses vertical displacement of the seafloor.Because of this, most tsunami are generated byearthquakes that occur a long the subductionboundaries of plates, along the oceanictrenches . Since the Pacific Ocean issurrounded by plate boundaries of this type,earthquakes arOlmd the margins of the PacificOcean frequently generate tsunamis.VOLCANIC ERUPTIONSVolcanoes that occur along coastal wnes, like inJapan and island arcs throughout the world,can cause several effects that might generate atsunami. Explosive eruptions can rapidlyemplace pyroclastic flows into t he water;landslides and debris avalanches produced byeruptions can rapidly move into water, andcollapse of volcanoes to form calderas cansuddenly diElplace the water.LANDSLIDESLandslides moving into oceans, bays, or lakescan also generate tsunami. Earthquakes orvolcanic eruptions generate most suchlandslides.UNDERWATER EXPLOSIONSNuclear testing by the United States in theMarshall Islands in the 1940s and 1950sgenerated tsWlami.METEORITE IMPACTSWhile no historic examples of meteorite impactsare known to have produced a tsunami, theapparent impact of a meteorite at the end of theCretaceous Period, about 65 million years agonear the tip of what is now t he YucatanPeninsula of Mexico, produced tsunami that leftdeposits all along the Gulf coast of Mexico andthe United States.MITIGATION OF RISKS AND HAZARDSThe main damage from tsunami comes fromthe destructive nature of the waves themselves.Secondary effects include the debris acting asprojectiles which then run into other objects,erosion that can undermine the foundations ofstructures built along coastlines, and fires thatresult from disruption of gas and electricallines. Tertiary effects include loss of crops andwater and electrical systems, which can lead tofamine and disease.PREDICTION AND EARLY WARNINGFor areas located at great distances from

earthquakes that could potentially generate atsunami there is usually plenty of time forwarnings to be sent and coastal areasevacuated, even though tsunami travel at highvelocities across the oceans. Hawaii is a goodexample of an area located far from most of thesources of tsunami, where early warning ispossible and has saved lives. For earthquakesoccurring anywhere on the subduction marginsof the Pacific Ocean there is a minimum of 4hours of warning before a tsunami would strikeany of the Hawaiian Islands.The National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA) has set up a Pacificwarning system for areas in the Pacific Ocean,called the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center.MASS-WASTING AND MASSWASTINGPROCESSESMASS-WASTING AND ITS HUMANIMPACTSMass-Wasting is defined as the down slopemovement ofrock and regolith near the Earth'ssurface mainly due to the force of gravity.Mass-wasting is an important part of theerosional process, as it moves material fromhigher elevations to lower elevations wheretransporting agents like streams and glacierscan then pick up the material and move it toev~n lower elevations. Mass-wasting processesare occurring continuously on all slopes; somemass-wasting processes act very slowly, othersoccur very suddenly, often with disastrousresults. Any perceptible down slope movementofrock or regolith is often referred to in generalterms as a landslide. However, as we will see,landslides can be classified in a much moredetailed way that reflects the mechanismsresponsible for the movement and the velocityat which the movement occurs.As human populations expand and occupymore and more of the land surface, masswastingprocesses become more likely to affecthumans.Knowledge about the t'elationships betweenlocal geology and mass-wasting processes canlead to better planning that can reducevulnerability to such hazards. Thus, we willlook at the various types of mass-wastingprocesses, their underlying causes, factors thataffect slope stability, and what humans can doto reduce vulnerability and risk due to masswastinghazards.TYPES OF MASS-WASTING PROCESSESThe down-slope movement of material, whetherit be bedrock, regolith, or a mixture of these, is

commonly referred to as a landslide. All oftheseprocesses generally grade into one another, soclassification of such processes is somewhatdifficult. We will use a classification thatdivides mass-wasting processes into two broadcategories. * Slope Failures - a sudden failure of theslope resulting in transport of debris down hillby sliding, rolling, falling, or slumping. * Sediment Flows - debris flows down hillm.ixed with water or air.SLOPE FAILURES * Slumps - types of slides whereindownward rotation of rock or regolith occursalong a concave-upward curved surface(rotational slides). The upper surface of eachslump block remains relatively undisturbed, asdo the individual blocks. Slumps leave arcuatescars or depressions on the hill slope. Slumpscan be isolated or may occur in large complexescovering thousands of square meters. Theyoften form as a result ofhurnan activities, andthus are common along roads where slopes havebeen oversteepened during construction. Theyare also common along river banks and seacoasts, where erosion has under-cut the slopes.Heavy rains and earthquakes can also triggerslumps. * Falls - Rock faUs occur when a piece ofrock on a steep slope becomes dislodged and fallgdown the slope. Debris falls are similar. exceptthey involve a mixture of soil, regolith,vegetation, .and rocks. A rock fall may be asingle rock or a mass of rocks, and the fallingrocks can dislodge other rocks as they collidewith the cliff. Because this process involves thefree fall of material, falls commonly occurwhere there are steep cliffs_ At the base of mostcliffs is an accumulation of fallen materialtermed talus. * Slides - Rock slides and debris slidesresult when rocks or debri::; slide down a preexistingsurface, such as a bedding plane,foliation surface, or joint surface GointB areregularly spaced fractures in rock that resultfrom expansion during cooling or uplift of therock maBB). Piles of talus are common at thebase of a rock slide or debris slide. Slides differfrom slumps in that there is no rotation of thesliding rock mass along a curved surface. * Sediment Flows- Sediment flows occurwhen sufficient force is applied to rocks andregolith that they begin to flow down slope. Asediment flow is a mixture of rock, and/orregolith with some water or air. They can bebroken into two types depending on the amountof water present.1. Slurry Flows- are sediment flows thatcontain between abou~ 20 llnd 40% water.As the water content increases aboveabout 40% slurry flows grade inlo

streams. Slurry flows are considered aswater-saturated flows.2. Granular 'Flows - are sediment flowsthat contain between 0 and 20% water.Note that granular flows are possible withlittle or no water. Fluid-like behavior isgiven these flows by mixing with air.Granular flows are not. saturated withwater.Each of these classes of sediment flows can befurther subdivided on the basis of the velocity atwhich flowage occurs * Slurry Flowso Solifluction - flowage at rates measuredon the order of centimeters per year ofregolith containing water. Solifluctionproduces distinctive lobes on hill slopes.These occur in areas where the soilremains saturated with water for longperiods of time.o Debris Flows - these occur at highervelocities than solifluction, with velocitiesbetween 1 meterlhr and 100 meters/hr andoften result from heavy rains causingsaturation of the soil and regolith withwater. They sometimes start with slumpsand then flow down hill forming lobeswith an irregular surface consisting ofridges and furrows.o Mudflows - these are a highly fluid, highvelocity mixture of sediment and waterthat has a consistency ranging betweensoup-like and wet concrete. They move at.velocities greater than 1 kmlhr and tend totravel along valley floor s. These usuallyresult from heavy rains in areas wherether~ is an abundance of unconsolidatedsediment that can be picked up bystreams. Thus after a heavy rain, streamscan turn into mudflows as they pick upmore and more loose sediment. Mudflowscan travel for long distances over gentlysloping stream beds. Because of their highvelocity and long distance of travel theyare potentially very dangerous. As we haveseen, mudflows can also result fromvolcanic eruptions t hat cause melting ofsnow or ice on the slopes of volcanoes, ordraining of crater lakes on volcanoes.Volcanic mudflows are often referred to aslahars. Some lahars can be quite hot, ifthey are generated as a result of eruptionsof hot tephra. * Granular Flowso Creep - the very slow, usually continuousmovement of regolith down slope. Creepoccurs on almost all slopes, hut the rates

vary. Evidence for creep is often seen inbent trees, offsets in roads and fences, andinclined utility poles.o Em·thflows - are usually associated withheavy rains and move at velocitiesbetween several cmlyr and 100s ofm/day.They usually r emain active for longperiods of time. They generally tend to benarrow tongue· like features that begin ata scarp or sOl all cliff.o Grain Flows - usually form in relativelydry material, such as a sand dune, on asteep slope. A small disturbance sends thedry unconsolidated grains moving rapidlydown slope.o Debris Avalanches - These are veryhigh velocity flows of la rge volumemixtures of rock and regolith that resultfrom complete collapse of a mountainousslope. They move down slope and then cantravel for considerable distances alongrelatively ge ntle slopes. They are oftentriggered by earthquakes and volcaniceruptions.MASS-WASTING IN COLD CLIMATESMass·wasting in GOld climates is governed by thefact that water is frozen as ice duri.ng longperiods of the year. Ice, although it is solid, doeshave the ability to flow, and freezing andthawing cycles can also contribute to movement. * Frost Heaving - this process is largecontributor to creep in cold clim ates. Whenwater saturated soils freeze, they expand,pushing rocks and boulders on the surfaceupward perpendicular to the slope. When thesoil thaws, the boulders move down verticallyresulting in a net down slope movement. * Geliflu.ction - Similar to solifluction,this process occurs when the upper layers of soilthaw during the warmer months resulting inwater saturated soil that moves down slope. * Roell Glaciers - a lobe of ice·cementedrock debris (mostly rocks with ice between theblocks) that slowly moves downhill.SUBAQUEOUS MASS-WASTINGMass wasting processes also occur on steepslopes in the ocean basins. A slope failure canoccur due to over·accumulation of sediment onslope or in a submarine canyon. 01' could occuras a result of a shock like an earthquake.Slumps, debris flows, and landslides arecommon.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SLOPE STABILITY GRAVITYThe main force responsible for mass wasting isgr avity. Gravity is the force that actseverywhere on the Earth's surface, pulling

everything in a direction toward the center ofthe Earth. On a flat surface the force of gravityacts downward. So long as the materialremains on the flat surface it will not moveunder the force of gravity. On a slope, the forceof gravity can be resolved into two components:a component acting perpendicular to the slopeand component acting tangential to the slope.THE ROLE OF WATERAlthough water is not always directly involvedas the transporting medium in mass·wastingprocesses, it does play an important role. Dryunconsolidated grains will form a pile with aslope angle determ ined by the angle of repose.The angle of repose is the steepest angle atwhich a pile of unconsolidated grains remainsstable, and is controlled by the frictional contactbetween the gr ains. In general. for drymater ials the angle of repose increases withincreasing grain size, but usually lies betweenabout 30° and 37°.Slightly wet unconsolidated materialsexhibit a very high angle of repose becausesurface tension between the water and the solidgrains tends to hold the grains in place.When the material becomes saturated withwater, the angle of repose is reduced to verysmall values and the material tends to flow likea fluid. This.is because the water gets betweenthe grains and eliminates ~rain - to-grainfrictional contact.Another aspect of water that affects slopestability is fluid pressure. In some cases fluidpressure can build in such a way that water cansupport the weight of the overlying rock mass.When this occurs, friction is reduced, and thusthe shear strength holding the material on theslope is also reduced, resulting in slope failure.TROUBLESOME EARTH MATERIALS * Liquefaction - Liquefaction occurswhen loose sediment becomes oversaturatedwith water and individual grains loose grain tograin contact with one another as water getsbetween them. * Expansive and HydrocompactingSoils - These are soils that contain a highproportion of a type of clay mineral calledsmectites or montmorillinites. Such clayminerals expand when they become wet aswater enters the crystal structure andincreases the volume of the mineral. Whensuch clays dry out, the loss of water causes thevolume to decrease and the clays to shrink orcompact (This process is referred to ashydrocompaction). * Sensitive Soils - In some soils the clayminerals are arranged in random fashion, withmuch pore space between the individual grains.

This is often referred to as a "house of cards"structure. Often the grains are held in thisposition by salts precipitated in the pore spacethat "glue" the particles together. But this maycause a loss in shear strength of the soil andresult in slippage down slope or liquefaction.This is referred to as remolding. Clays that aresubject to r.emolding are called quick clays.Some clays, called thixotropic clays, when leftundisturbed can strengthen. but wbendisturbed they loose their shear strength.TRIGGERING EVENTSA mass-wasting event can occur any time aslope becomes unstable. Sometimes, 8S in thecase of creep or solifluction. the slope is unstableall of the time and the process is continuous.But other times, triggering events can occurthat cause 8 sudden instability to occur. * Shoclls - A sudden shock, such as anearthquake may trigger slope instability. Minorshocks like heavy trucks rambling down theroad, trees blowing in the wind, or human madeexplosions can also trigger mass-wastingevents. * Slope Modification - Modification of aslope either by humans or by natural causescan result in changing the slope angle so that itis no longer at the angle of repose. A masswastingevent can tben restore the slope to itsangle of repose. * Undercutting - Streams eroding theirbanks or surf action along a coast can undercuta slope making it unstable. * Changes in. Hydrologic Characteristic&Heavyrains can saturate regolith reducinggrain to grain contact and reducing the angle ofrepose, thus triggering a mass-wasting event.Heavy rains can also saturate rock andincrease its weight. Changes in thegroundwater system can increase or decreasefluid pressure in rock and also trigger masswastingevents. * Volcanic Eruptions - Produce shockslike explosions and earthquakes. They can alsocause snow to melt or empty crater lakes,rapidly releasing large amounts of water thatcan be mixed with regolith to reduce grain tograin contact and result in debris flows.mudflows. and landslides.

ASSESSING AND MITIGATING MASSWASTING HAZARDSAs we have seen mass-wasting events can beextremely hazardous and result in extensiveloss of life and property. But, in most cases.areas that are prone to such hazards can berecognized with some geologic knowledge.slopes can be stabilized or avoided, and warningsystems can be put in place tbat can minimizesuch hazards. * Because there is usually evidence in theform of distinctive deposits and geologic

structures left by recent mass wasting events,it is possible, if resources are available, toconstruct maps of all areas prone to possiblemass-wasting hazards. Planners can use suchhazards maps to make decisions about land usepolicies in such areas or, as will be discussedbelow, steps can be taken to stabilize slopes tosttempt to prevent a disaster.Short-term prediction of mass-wastingevents is somewhat more problematical. Forearthquake triggered events, t he sameproblems that are inherent in earthquakeprediction are present. Slope destabilization andundercutting triggered events require theconstant attention of those undertaking orobserving the slopes, many of whom are noteducated in the problems inherent in suchprocesses. Mass-wasting hazards from volcaniceruptions can be predicted with the same degreeof certainty that volcanic eruptions can bepredicted, but again, the threat has to berealized and warnings need to be heeded.Hydrologic conditions such as heavyprecipitation can be forecast with somecertainty, and warnings can be issued to areasthat might be susceptible to mass-wastingprocesses caused by such conditions. Still, it isdifficult to know exactly which hill slope of themillions that exist will be vulnerable to anevent triggered by heavy rainfall. * Prevention and l\IlitigationAll slopes are susceptible to mass-wastinghazards if a triggering event occurs. Thus, allslopes should be asscssed for potential masswastinghazards. Mass-wasting eve nts cansometimes be avoided by employing engineeringtechniques to make the s lope more stable.Among them are:o Steep slopes can be covered or sprayedwith concrete to prevent rock falls.o Retaining walls could be built to stabilizea slope.o Drainage pipes could be inserted into theslope to more easily allow water to get outand avoid increases in fluid pressure, thepo88ibility of liquefaction, or increasedweight'due to the addition of water.o Oversteepened slopes could be graded toreduce the slope to the natural angle ofrepose.o In mountain valleys subject to mudflows,plans could be made to rapidly lower levelsof water in human-made reservoirs tocatch and trap the mudflows.Some slopes, however, cannot be stabilized.In t hese cases, huml).ns should avoid these

areas or use them for purposes that will notincrease susceptibility of lives or property tomass-wasting hazards.

FLOODING HAZARDS, PREDICTION & HUMAN INTERVENTIONHAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH FLOODINGHazards associated with flooding can be dividedinto primary hazards that occur due to contactwith water, secondary effects that occurbecause of the flooding , such as disruption ofservices, health impacts such as famine anddisease, and tertiary effects such as changes inthe position of river chaDllels. Throughout thelast century flooding has been one of the most.costly disasters in terms of both propertydamage and human casualties.Primary Effects: Again, the primary effecta offloods are those due to direct contact with theflood waters. Water velocities tend to be high infloods. As discharge increases velocityincreases. * With higher velocities, streams are ableto transport larger particles as suspended load.Such large particles include not only rocks andsediment, but, during a flood , could includesuch large objlO'cts as automobiles, houses andbridges. * Massive amounts of erosion can beaccomplished by flood waters. Such erosion canundermine bridge structures, levees. andbuildings causing their collapse. * Water entering human built structurescause water damage. Even with minor floodingof homes, furniture is ruined, floors and wallsare damaged, and anything that comes in185 UGC~JRF (Paper 1}-24contact with the water is likely to be damagedor lost. Flooding of automobiles usually resul tsin damage that cannot easily be repaired. * The high velocity of flood waters allowsthe water to carry more sediment as suspendedload. When the flood waters retreat, velocity isgenerally much lower and sediment isdeposited. After retreat of the floodwaters,everything is usually covered with a thick layerof stream deposited mud, including the interiorofbutldings. * Flooding of farmland usually results incrop 10s8. Livestock, pets, and other animalsare often carried away and drown. * Humans that get caught in the highvelocity flood waters a re often drowned by thewater. * Floodwaters can concentrate garbage,debris, and toxic pollutants tbat can cause thesecondary effects of health hazal'ds.Secondary and Tertiary Effects: Secondaryeffects are those that occur because of theprimary effects and tertiary effects are the longtermchanges that take place. Among thesecondary effects or a flood are: * Disruption of servicesoDrinking water supplies may become

polluted, especially if seweragetreatment plants are flooded. Thisdelay result in disease and otherhealth effects, especially in underdeveloped countries.o Gas and electrical service may bediarupted.o Transportation systems may bedisrupted, resulting in shortages offood and clean-up supplies. In underdeveloped countries food shortagesoften lead to starvation. * Long - term effects (tertiary effects)-o Location of river channels maychange as the result of flooding, newchannels develop, leaving the oldchannels dry.a Sediment deposited by flooding maydestroy farm land (although siltdeposited by floodwaters could alsohelp to increase agriculturalproductivity).o Jobs may be lost due to the disruptionof services, destruction of business,etc. (although jobs may be gained inthe construction industry to helprebuild or repair flood damage).o Insurance rates may increase.o Corruption may result from misuse ofrelief funds.o Destruction of wildlife habitat.PREDICTING RIVER FLOODINGFloods can be such devastating disasters thatanyone can be affected at allllost anytime. Aswe have seen, when water falls on the s\ITfaceofthe Earth, it has to go somewhere. In orderto reduce the risk due to flood s, three mainapproaches are taken to flood prediction.Statistical studies can be undertaken toattempt to determine the probability andfrequency of high discharges of streams thatcause flooding. Floods can be lllodeled andmaps can be made to determine the extent ofpossible flooding when it occurs in the future.And, since the main causes of flooding areabnormal, amounts of rainfall and suddenthawing of snow or ice, storms and snow levelscan be monitored to provide short-term floodprediction.Monitoring the Progress of Storms: Iffactors such as amount of rainfall, degree ofground saturation, degree of permeable soil,and amount of vegetation can be determined,then these can be correlated to give short-termprediction. in this case called a forecast. ofpossible flood s. If a forecast is issued, then a

flood warning can be communicated to warn thepublic about the possible extent of the flood, andto give people time to move out of the area.Such forecasts are very useful for flooding thathas a long lag time between the storm and thepeak disch &...-ge. Flash floods, wpichcharacteristically have s hort. lag times, aremore problematical. Thus, in some areasknown to be susceptible to flash floods, a flashflood warning is often issued any time heavyrainfall is expected because there is always thechance of a nash nood accompanying heavyrainfall.HUMAN INTERVENTIONHumans can modify Lhe landscape in manyways. Sometimes humans attempt to modifydrainage systems to prevent flooding, butsometimes these efforts have adverse effectsand at:tually help to cause nooding in etherareas. Any modification of the landscape hasthe potential to cause changes in the drainagesystem. and such changes can have severeconsequences.CHANNEL MODlFICATIONSHumans onen decide lhata stream should nowalong a specified path for such reasons as noodcontrol. enhancement of drainage. control oferosion. increasing access to the floodplain fordevelopment, or improvement of the appearanceof the channel. uch channel modificationsinvolve measures such as the straightening thechannel, deepening or widening the channel,clea ring vegetation from the banks, or liningthe channel with concrete. These modificationsare referred to as channelization. * Channelization can also interfere witht.he natural habitat of the stream system anddecrease the 8csthetic value of the stream. * Channeliz.ntion. or any other modificationof a stream system. changes the validity of allhistoric data collected over the years on that.stream.Effects of Development on Flood Hazard:Whenever humans modify the landscape inany way, changes are to be expected in theway water drains from the land. Unlessca rerul consideration is given to the possibledrainage consequences, such landscapemodifications can result in higher incidenceof flooding. Development on floodplainsshould therefore be undertaken only withgreat ca re. Existing developments that haveenhanced nooding problems are often costly tofix. Among the fa ctors that enhance the floodpotential are:* Channelization - Channelization is

undertaken to reduce nood hazards. But,channelization IS a.lso undertaken to allowdevelopment on the floodplain.lf the channelization results in decreasingthe cross-sectional area of the stream. as in theexample above, then the same discharge thatmay not have produced flooding prior tochannelization, may overnow the banks andcause extensive flooding anE'rchannelization. * Subsidence - Subsidence often results indeveloped areas due to compaction of thesediment. both due to the increasing weight ofstructures and hydrocompaction associatedwith the lowering of the water table. Any timethe elevation of nn area is lowered. it becomessubject to collection of more water, and insevere cases, could drastically change thedrainage pattern. * Storm Sewers-In order to collect run offfrom streets, parking lots. and buildings. all ofwhich block the inftitration of water into thesoi1, storm sewers are installed to provideunderground drainage of the surface. Whilethis may prevent local flooding of street.s, itmoves water more rapidly to the major streamsystems and thus decreases the lag time anelincreases the peak discharge of the streamscollecting the run off from the storm sewers. * Reduction of infiltration - Any timethe surface materials of the Earth are coveredwith impermeable materials like concrete,asphalt, or buildings. the infiltration of waterinto the soil is prevented. Urbanization tends toreduce inflitration. and thus water mustoollectin storm sewers and eventually in the maindroinage systems. Thus. extensiveurbanization also decreases the lag time andincreases the peak dIscharge even further.Urbanization can therefore lead to a higherincidence or flash floods.Organized Response to Flood Hazards:Response to flood hazards can be attempted intwo main ways: An engineering approach. lOcontrol nooding, and a regulatory approachdesigned to decrease vulnerability to flooding.* Engineering Approaches• Channel modifications - Asdiscussed above, channelization canenlarge cross-sectional area and thuscreate a situation where a higher stageis necessary before flooding. In otherwords by enlarging the cross-sectionalarea, higher discharge can be heldwithin the channel. Channelizationalso increases water velocity, and thusreduces drainage time.• Dams _ Dams can be used to bold water

back 80 that discharge downstream canbe regulated at a desired rate. Humanconstructed dams have spillways thatcan be opened to reduce the level ofwater in the reservoir behind the dam.Thus, the water lp.vel can be loweredprior to a heavy rain, and more watercall·be trapped in the reservoir andreleased later at a controlled discharge.• Retention ponds - Retention pondsserve a similar purpose to dams. Watercan be trapped in a retention pond andthen released ata controlled dischargeto prevent flooding downstream.• Levees, DOles, and FloodwaUs -These are structures built along sidethe channel to increase the stage atwhich the stream floods. Somecontroversy has developed concerningthe use of such structures.• Floodways - Floodways are areas thatcan be built to provide an outlet to astream and allow its flood into an areathat has been designated as a floodway.Floodways are areas where noconstruction is allowed, and where theland is used for agricultural orrecreational purposes when there is nothreat of a nood, but which provide anoutlet for flood watera during periods ofhigh discharge.REDUCTION OF VULNERABILITYWith a better underatanding of the behavior ofstreams, the probability of flooding, and areaslikely to be flooded during high discharge,humans can undertake measures to reducevulnerability to flooding. Among the non·structural measures a re:• Floodplain zoning• Floodplain building codes• Floodplain buyout programs• Mortgage limitationsMETEORITES, IMPACTS, ANDMASS EXTINCTIONMETEORITESA Meteorite is a piece of rack from outer spacethat strikes the surface of the Earth.A Meteoroid is a meteorite before it hits thesurface of the Earth.Meteors are glowinglragments of rack matterfrom outside the Earth's atmosphere that burnand glow upon ente ring the Earth'sat.mosphere. They are more commonly knownas shooting stara. Some meteors, particularlylarger ones, may survive passage thrnugb the

atmosphere to become meteorites, but most aresmall objects that burn up completely in theatmosphere. They a re not, in reality, shootingstars.Fireballs al'e very bright meteers ..Meteor Showers - During certain times oft.heyear, the Earth's orbit passcs through a belt ofhigh concentration of cosmic dust and otherparticles, and many meteors are observed. ThePerseid Shower, results from passage throughone o(these beltaevery year in mid·August, andLeonid shower occurs in mid-November.Throughout history there have been reportsof stones falling (rom the SKY, but the scientificcommunity did n ot recognize t heextraterrestrial origin of meteorites until the1700s. Within recent history meteorites haveeven hit humans- * 1938 - a small meteorite crashed t.hroughthe roof of a garage in Illinois. * 1954 . a 5kg meteorite fell through theroof of a house in Alabama. * 1992. a small meteorite demolished a carnear New York city.2003· a 20 kg meteorite crashed througha double story house in uptown NewOrleans. * 20Q3 . 8 shower of meteorites destroysseveral houses and injures 20 people inIndia.Meteorite fragments have been found allover the surface of the Earth. althoughmost have been found in Antarctica. InAntarctica they are easily seen on thesnow covered su rface or embedded in ice.The fall of meteol'ites to the E,arth'ssurface is part of the continuing process ofaccretion of the Earth from the dust androck of space. When these rock fragmentscome close enough to the Earth to beattracted by its gravity they may fall tothe Earth to become part of it. Theevolution of life on the Earth has likelybeen affected by collisions with thesespace objects, and collisions could affectthe Earth in the future as well.

Environment V COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATIONOF METEORITESMeteorites can be classified generally into threetypes: * Stones - Stony meteorites resemble rocksfound on and within the Earth. They are themost common type of meteorite, althoughbecause they resemble Earth rocks they are notcommonly recognized as meteorites unlesssomeone actually witnesses their fall. Stonymeteorites are composed mainly of the minerals

olivine, and pyroxene. Some have a compositionthat is roughly equivalent to the Earth'smantle. Two types are recognized:o Chondrites - Chondrites are the mostcommon type of stony- meteorite. Theyare composed of small round glassylooking spheres, ca lled chondrules, thatlikely formed from condensation from thegaseous solar nebula early in the historyof the formation oft.he solar system. Most.chondrites have radiometric age dates ofabout. 4.6 billion years.o Achondrites -Achondrites are composedof the same minerals as chondrites, butlack the chondrules. They appear to havebeen heated, melted. and recrystallized sothat the chondrules are no longer present.Most resemble volcanic rocks found on theEarth's su rface.* Irons - Iron meteorit.es are composed ofalloys of iron and nickel. They are easilyrecognized because they hav(l a much higherdensity than normal crustal rocks. Thus, most.meteorites found by the general populace nrciron meteorites. When cut and polished, ironmeteorites show a distinct texture called aWidmanstatten pat.tern. This pattern resultsfrom slow cooling of a once hot solid material.Most researchers suggest that such slowcooling occurred in the core of much larger bodythat. has since been fragmented. Iron meteoritesgive us a clue to the composition of the Earth'score. * Stony IrOI1S - Stony iron meteoritesconsist of a mixture of stony silicate materialand iron. Some show the silicates embedded ina matri'( of iron· nickel alloy. Others occur as abreecif', where fragments of stony and ironmaterial have been cemented together by eitherheat or chemical reactions.Origin of Meteorites: MOSL meteoritesappear to be fragments of larger bodies calledparent bodies. These t:ouJd have been smallplanets or' large asteroids that were part of theoriginal solar system. There are severalpossibilities as to where t.hese parent bodies. ortheir fragments. originated.The Aste roid Belt: The asteroid belt islocated between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.It consists of a swarm of aboul 100,000 objectseaBed asteroids. Asteroids are small rockybodies with irregular shapes t.hat have acratered surface. About 4.000 of these asteroidshave been officially classified and their orbitalpaths are known. Once they are so classifiedt.hey are given a name.

The asteroids are either remnants of aplanet that. formed in the region between Marsand Jupiter but was later broken up by acollision with another planetary body, or arefragments that failed lO accrete into a planet.The latler possibiljty is more likely because thetotal mass of the asteroids is not even equal toour moon. It does appear that some of theasteroids are large enough to have undergoneinternal differentiation. Di.!1'erentiation is aprocess that forms layering in II planetary body(i.e. the Earth has differentiated into a core,man tIe, and crust). If these larger asteroids didin fact undergo djfferentiation, then this couldexplain the origin of the different types ofmeteorites. Because of the shapes of theasteroids it also appears that some of them haveundergone fragmentation resulting fromcollisions with other asteroids. Such collisionscould have caused the larger bodies to be brokenup into the smaller objects we observe asmeteorites.The Asteroids as Parent Bodies ofMeteorites: Much evidence suggests that theasteroids could be the parent bodies ofmet.eorit.es. The larger ones could havedifferentiated into a core, mantle. and crust.Fragmentation of these large bodies wou Id thenhave done two things: First the fragmentswould explain the various types of meteoritesfound on Earth· the st"nes representing themantle and crust. of the original parent body,the irons representing the cores. and the stonyirons the boundary between the core andmantIe of the parent bodies. Second, thecollisions thllt caused the fragmentation couldsend the fragments into Earth·crossing orbits.Some of the asteroids have orbits that bringthem close to Earth. These are called Arnorobjects. Some have orbital paths that cross theorbital path of the Earth. These are calledEarth·crossing asteroids or Apollo objects. Allobjects that have a close approach to the Earthare often referred to as Near Earth Objects orNEOs. About 150 NEOs with diametersbetween 1 and 8 km are known, but this is onlya fraction of the lOtal number. Many NEOs willeventually collide with the Earth. These objectsh&ve unstable orbits because they are under thegravitational influence of both t.he Earth a.ndMars. The source of these objects is likely theasteroid belt..

COMETS AS PARENT BODIES OFMETEORITES

A Comet is a body t.hatorbits around the Sunwith an eccentric orbit. These orbits are notcircular like those of the planets and are notnecessarily within the same plane as theplanets. Most comets have elliptical orbitswhich send them to the far outer reaches of thesolar system and back toward a closer approachto the sun. As a comet approaches the sun, solarradiation generates gases from evaporation ofthe comet's surface. These gases are pushedaway "rom the comet and glow in the sun light,thus giving the comet its tail. While the outersurface of comets appear to composed of icymaterial like water and cal'oon dioxide solids,they likely contain a Illore rocky nucleus.Because of their eccentric orbits, many cometseventually cross the orbit of the Earth. Manymeteor showers may be caused by the Earthcrossing an orbit of a fragmented comet.The collision of a cometary fragment isthought to have occurred in the Tunguskaregion of Siberia in 1908. The blast was aboutthe size of a 15 megaton nuclear bomb. Itknocked down trees in an area about 850 squaremiles, but did not leave a crater. The consensusamong scientists is that a cometary fragmentabout 20 to 60 meters in diameter exploded inthe Earth's atmosphere just above the Earth'ssurface. Only small amounts of materialsimilar to meteorites were found embedded intrees at the site.Other Sources: While the asteroid beltseems like the most likely source of meteorites.some meteorites appear to have come fromother places. Some meteorites have chemicalcompositions similar to samples brought backfrom the moon. Others are thought to haveoriginated on Mars. These types of meteol'itescould have been ejected from the Moon or Marsby collisions with other asteroids. or from Marsby volcanic eruptions.

IMPACT EVENTSWhen a large object impacts the surface of theEarth. the rock at the site of the impact. isdeformed and some of it is ejected into theatmosphe re to eventually fall back to thesurface. This results in a bowl s hapeddepression with a raised rim, called an ImpactCrater. The s ize of the impact crater de pendson such factors as the size and ve locity of theimpacting object and the angle at which itstrikes the surface of the Earth.Me te~rite Flux and Size Meteorite flux isthe total mass of extraterrestrial objects that

strike the Earth. This is currently about 107 to109 kg/year. Much of this material is dust-sizedobjects called micrometeorites. The frequencyat which meteorites of different sizes strike theEarth depends on the size of the objects.Meteorites of larger sizes s trike the Earth lessfrequently. If they have a size greater thanabout 2 or 3 cm, they only partially melt orvaporize on passage through the atmosphere,and thus strike the surface of the Earth.Objects with sizes greater than 1 km a reconsidered to produce effects that would becatastrophic, because an impact of such anobject would produce global effects. Suchmeteorites strike the Earth relativelyinfrequently· a 1 km sized object strikes theEarth about once every million years, and 10km sized objects about once every 100 millionyearsVe locity and Energy Release ofIncoming Objects: The velocities at whichsmall meteorites bave impacted the Earthrange from 4 to 40 km/sec. Larger objectswould not be slowed down much by the frictionassociated with passage through theatmosphere, and thus would impact the Earthwith high veloci ty. Calculations show that ameteorite with a diameter of 30 m, weighingabout 300,000 tons, traveling at a velocity of 15km/sec (33,500 mileslhour) would re leaseenergy equivalent to about 20 million tons ofTNT. Such a meteorite struck at MeteorCrater, Arizona (the Barringer Crater) about49,000 years ago leaving a crater 1200 m Indiameter and 200 m deep.Cr a tered Surfaces: Looking at thesurface of the Moon, one is impressed by the factthat most of the surface features of the moonare shaped by impact craters. The Earth issubject to more than twice the amount ofimpacting events than the moon because of itslarger size and higher gravitational attraction.Yet, the Earth does not show a cratered surfaceli ke the moon. The reason for this is that thesurface of the Earth is continually changingdue to processes like erosion, weathering,tectonism, sedimentation. a nd volcanism.Thus, the only craters that are evident on theEart.h are either very young, very large, oroccurred on stable continental areas that havenot been subject to intense surface modificationprocesses. Currently, approximately 200terrestrial impact structures have beenident ified, with the discovet'y rate of newstructures in the range of 3-5 per year.

The Mechanics of lmpnct Cratering:When a large extraterrestrial object enters theEa rth's atmosphere the initial impact with theatmosphere will compress the atmosphere,se nding a s hock wave through the ai r.Frictional heating will cause the object to heatand glow. Melting and even vaporization of theouter parts of the object will begin, but if theobject is large enough, solid material wil!remain when it impacts the surface of theEarth.

METEORITE IMPACTS AND MASS EXTINCTIONSThe impact of a space object with a size greatet'than about 1 km would be expected to be feltover the entire surface of the Earth. Smallerobjects would certainly destroy the ecosystem inthe vicinity of the impact. similar to the effects .of a volcanic eruption, but larger impacts couldhave a worldwide effe<:t on life on the Earth. Wewill here first consider the possible effects of animpact, and lhen discuss how impacts mayhave resulted in mass extinction of species onthe Earth in the past.Regional and Global Effects: Again, we8S humans have no firsthand knowledge ofwhat the effects of an impact of a largemeteorite or comet would be. Still, calculationscan be made and scaled experiments can beconducted to estimate the effects. The generalconsensus is summarized here.1. Massive earthquake up to RichterMagnitude 13, and numerous largemagnitude, aftershocks would result fromthe impact of a large object with the Earth.2. The large quantities of dust put into theatmosphere would block incoming solarradiation. The dust could take mont.hs tosettle back to the surface. Meanwhile. theEarth would be in a state of continualdarkness. and temperatures would dropthroughout. the world, generating globalwinter like conditions. A similar effect hasbeen postulated for the aftermath of anuclear war (termed a nuclear winter).Blockage of solar radiation would alsodiminish the ability of photosyntheticorganisms, like plants, to photosynt.hesize.Since photosynthetic organisms are the:base of the food chain, this would seriol1slydisrupt. all ecosystems.3. Widespread wildfires ignited by radiationfrom the fireball as the object passedt;hrough the atmosphere would begenerated. Smoke from these fires would

further block solar radiation to enhancethe cooling effect and further disruptphotosynthesis.4. If the impact occurred in the oceans, alarge steam cloud would be produced bythe sudden evaporation of the seawater.This water vapor and CO2 would remainin the atmosphere long after the dustsettles. Both of these gases are greenhousegases which scatter solar radiation andcreate ~ warming effect. Thus, ~fter theinitial global cooling, the atmospherewould undergo global warming for manyyears after the impact.5. lfthe impact occurred in the oceans. gianttsunamis would be generated. For a10 km·diameter object., the leading edgewould hit the seafloor of the deep oceanbasins before the top of the object hadreached sea level. The tsunami from suchan impact is estimated to produce wavesfrom 1 to S km high. These could easilyflood the interior of continents.6. Large amounts of n.itrogen oxides wouldresult from combining Nitrogen andOxygen in the atmoRphere due to theshock produced by the impact. Thesenitrogen oxides would combine with waterin the atmosphere to produce nitric acidwhich would fall back to the surface asacid rain, resulting in the acidification ofsurface waters.The Geologic Record of Mass Extinction:It hsslong been known that extinction of largepercentages families or species of organismshave occurred at specific times in the history ofour planet. Among the mechanisms that havebeen suggested to have caused these massextinctions, have been large volcaniceruptions,changes in climatic conditions, changes in sealevel, and, more recently, meteorite i.mpacts.While the meteorite impact theory of massextinctions has become accepted by manyscientists for particular extinction events, thereis sti ll considerable controversy amongscientists. An impact with a large object couldhave caused at least some of the massextinction events, as it would certainly seempossible given the effects that an impact couldhave.Human Hazards: It should be clear thateven if an impactofa large space object did notcause the extinction of humans, the effectswould cause a natural disaster of proportionsnever witnessed by the human race. Here we

first look at the chances that such an impactcould occur, then look at how we can predictorprovide warning of such an event, BDd finallydiscuss ways that we might be able to protectourselves from such an event.Risk - It is estimated that in any givenyear the odds that you will die from an impactof an asteroid or comet are about 1 in 20,000.Prediction a n d Warning - It i$estimated that over 90% of NEOs have not yetbeen discovered. Because of t.his. with ourpresent knowledge. there is a good chance thatthe only warning we would have is the flash oflight from the fireball as one of these objectsent.ered the Earth's atmosphere. Scientistshave proposed the "Spaceguard Survey" to findand track a ll of t.he large NEOs. If such asurvey is carried out, we could predict the pathsof all NEOs and have years to decades toprepare for an NEO that could impact theEarth.Mitigation -Impacts are the only naturalhazard that we ca.n prevent from happening byeither deflecting the incoming object ordestroying it. Of course, we must first knowabout such objects and their paths in order togive us sufficient warning to prepare a defense.

FORESTS OF INDIAThe 'jungles' oflnma are ancient in nature andcomposition. They are rich in variety andshelter a wide range of avifauna and mammalsand insects. The fact that they have existed forvery long time is proved from the ancient text.sall of which have some mention of the forests.The people revered forests and a large numberof religious ceremonies centred on trees andplants. Even today in parts ofIndia the sacredgroves exist and are worshipped. During theearly part of the British rule, trees were usedfor timber and forests were cut for paper. Largenumbers of trees such as sal. teak. andsandalwood were cut. for export also. Thehistory of modern Indian forestry was a processby which the British gradually appropriatedforest resources for revenue generation. Treescould not be felled without prior permission andknowledge of the authority. This step was takento ensure that they were the sale users of theforest trees. But. after some time, the Britishbegan to regulate and conserve. In 1800. acommissioner was appointed to look into theavailability of teak in thf' Malabariorests. In1806, the Madras government appointed Capt.Watson as the commissioner of forests for

organizing the production of teak and othertimber suitable for the buiJding of ships. In1855. Lord Dalhousie framed regulations forconservation of forest in the entire country.Teak plantations were raised in the Malabarhills and acacia and eucalyptus in the NiligiriHills. In Bombay. the conservator of forest,Gibson, tried to introduce rules prohibitingshifting cultivation and plantation of teakforests. From 1865lo 1894. forest reserves wereestablished to secure material for imperialneeds. From the 18th century, scientific forestmanagement syst.ems were employed toregenerate and harvest t.he forest to make itsustainable. Between 1926 and 1947afforestation was carried out on a large scale inthe Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. In the early1930s, people began showing interest in theconservation of wild life. Around the same timethe Indian rulers of the States also startedconservation of habitats to help conserve thebirds and mammals. Though all oft.hem werehunters and between them and t.he British theycleaned at least 5000 tigers if not more. But st.ilIthese areas of conservation helped save thespecies from extinction and formed most of themodern National Parks. The new Forest Policyof 1952 recognized the protective functions ofthe forest and aimed at maintaining one·thirdof India's land area under forest. Certainactivities were banned and grazing restricted.Much of the original British policy was kept inplace, such as the classification of forest landinto two broad types. The next. 50 years sawdevelopment and change in people's thinkingregarding the forest. A constructive attitudewas brought about through a number of fiveyearplans. Until 1976, the forest resource wasseen as a source of earning money for the stateand therefore little was spent in protecting it orlooking after it. Today India'S forests areprotected in National Parks like Corbett and193 UGC-JRF (Paper 1}-25Nagarhole or in Sanctuaries like Pakhui andLittle Rann of Katch. The modern way ofthinking has resulted in Biosphere Reservesand Biodiversity Hotspots and extensiveresearch on them have resulted in rediscoveryof new species of mammals like the Leaf Deer inArunachal Pradesh or the Hook Nosed Frog inWestern Ghats. Supporting more than 14percent of the wild fauna and a higherpercentage of the wild flora of the world theforests of India is an intricate web of life withmany surprises to explore. As we proceed to an

era of advanced wildlife management and as thepressure on the foreftjts. all over the worldincrease the need of the hou~ is to Irealize thepotentiall'esoul'ce that the forests have botheconomically and from the natural point ofview. A brief description of the wildlife zones ofIndia is given below:THE TRANS-HIMALAYAStretching from Ladakh to the Lahul-Spiti theTrans-Himalaya covers an estimated land areaof 186.200 sq. km. Trans-Himalaya, meansbeyond the Himalaya. Outside the Indianregion, the Trans·Himalaya is very extensive,covering a total of nearly 2.6 million sq_ km.comprising the Tibetan plateau.Nursery to the Indus, Brahmaputra andSutlej; decorated by the Zanskar, Ladakh andthe Karakoram, the Trans-Himalaya is hometo some of best biological grandeur whichsurvive this cold desert conditions throughtheir ability to economise resources. Some rarefauna like the Black Necked Crane breed in thebrackish lakes like Tso Morari, Hanle andChushul. Some parts of the Trans-Himalayaare above the snowline, including the Siachen,a 1,180 sq. km. glacier said to be the largestoutside the polar regions! Though thelandscape is characterised by a distinct lack ofnatural forests, along the river banks andvalleys, some greenery does exist. with willows,poplars, wild roses and many herbaceous plants'and shrubs which is home to at least eightdistinc~' species and/or sub-species of wild sheepincludill5 the nayan or great Tibetan sheep(Ovis ammon hodgsoni), the urial or shapu(Ovis orientaiis), the bharal OJ" blue sheep(pseudois nayaur) and the ibex (Capra ibex).On the plateau of the Trans-Himalaya, TheTibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni) or thechiru, and the Tibetan gazelle (Procaprapicticaudata) are occasionally s ighted. Smalleranimals of the region include pikas. marmotsand Tibetan hares. The mountains are sharedby predat.ors like the snow·leopard or ounce.The Pallas cat, Indian wolf and the lynx canalso be seen with extreme luck.THE HIMALAYAThe world's youngest, loft.iest and mostbreathtaking mountain chains are home toseveral tropical Jife forms. Extending some236,300 sq. km. in the Indian region, theHimalaya accounts for nearly seven per cent ofthe country's total surface area. The Himalayahas extreme habitat. types, ranging from aridMediterranean and temperate in the western

parts, to warm, moist, evergreen jungles in theeast. Currently there are 56 protected areas inthis zone and this cover roughly five per cent ofthe total su rface area. 10 of these protectedareas are National Parks where one can qxpectto see the amazing diversity of the flora andfauna that this region supports. In t.heluxuriant eastern parts where the tree-line ishigher, animals like the red panda, binturongand several lesser cats can be seen with someeffort. Of the existing 56 protected areas in theHimalaya, at least 41 lie in the temperatesector either completely, or partly (the higherreaches of some of these protected areas mergeinto the third major habitat type, t.he highaltitudesub-alpine). The sub-alpine habitattype, above the middle level temperate sector(higher than 3,500 metres) consists of birch,rhododendrons. junipers, dwarf bamboo and amixture or open meadows and scrub·doLtedgrasslands. As habitat types change. anoticeable transformation takes place in thefaunal community as weD. T~e higber reacheshouse several threatened species such as theibex, shapu, wolf and snow-leopard. Nearly halfthe 56 protected areas in the Himalaya extendpartially or extensively into the high-altitudesub-alpine. This area is supported withprotection programmes like Project Hangul,the Himalayan Musk Deer Ecology andConservation Project, the Snow Leopard Projectand several Pheasant Projects.The Himalayas offers fantastic trekking andoverIandjourney options to enjoy the fascinatingwealth that is nurtures in its icy foldB.THE INDIAN DESERTSpread through the majestic states of Gujaratand Rajasthan the Indian Desert is an amazingplace to look for truly fantastic wild flora andfauna. Animals that never drink and plantseeds that can stay alive for years withoutwater are typical of the miracles of this mostfragile zone. In the Indian subcontinent,deserts, with an area of about 225,000 sq. km.account for just under seven per cent of the totalland area.Divided into two distinct sub-divisions,Thar desert region covering 180,000 sq. kms. inthe state of Rajas than and the Rann ofKutchh,covering some 45,000 sq. kms. of westernGujarat. It is a land of grand mirage andmiracles. The desert system is characterisednot so much by the variety and numbers ofanimal species but by the adaptations exhibitedto tackle the rigours of desert life. The Thar

shows a good extent of endemism in its faunalstructure. The desert cat, desert fox, thewinter· visiting houbara bustard and severalssndgrouse species, as also a few reptiles arefound only in the Thar. Blackbuck, chinksra,the Indian wolf, caracal, great Indian bustardcan also be seen here.In contrast to the sandy Thar, the Littleand the Great Ranns, with very similarvegetation communities, have a high variety offaunal and floral composition. Though theRanns are predominantly flatlands, they areinterspersed with raised mour.ds or islands,locally called bets. Both the Ranns have uniquefaunal communities. The Great Rann is bestknown for its huge breeding colony of lesserflamingoes. The Little Rann is the only home ofthe wild ass in the Indian peninsula, besidesplaying host to a fair number of houbarabustards, sandgrouse and bther avifauna.THE SEMI-ARID ZONEBetween the Indian desert and the GangeticPlain, the Semi-arid Zone encompasses a totalarea of 508,000 sq. km. Covering nearly 15 percent of India's area, with vast grasslands andsome fascinating forests home to the Leopard,Tiger and the Asiatic Lion this is a truly wildbelt ofIndia. Most ofthis wne houses the flat,alluvial deposits of the Indus river drainagesystem. The region comprises predominantlycultivated flatlands, interspersed with anetwork of wetlands-marshes and rivers.Consisting of the Punjab Plains in theNorth home to the Keoladeo Ghana BirdSanctuary, Harike and Sultanpur and parts ofMadhya Pradesh, and Gujarat in the South theSemi-arid Zone is a vast land-mass. TheAravalli and the Vindhya mou~tain rangesdominate the central portions of this zone. AninY>resting feature of the zone is the heavyrainfall region of Mount Abu in the southernAravallis. Here several plant and animalspecies bear close affinity to the Western Ghats.Plants such as those of the genus Acacia,Anogeissus, Balanites, Capparis, Grewia andseveral others clearly have Aftjcan affinities.What is however, very interesting is the highdensity of wildlife (mainly ungulates) in theprotected areas here, where livestock grazingand other adverse impacts have been controlled.The herbivores in this area include nilgai,blackbuc.k, chowsingha or four horned antelope,chinkara or Indian gazelle, sambar and spotteddeer, the last two being more or less restrictedto the forested mountain ranges and valleys.

The Semi-arid Zone boasts of a good populationand variety of predators including the wolf,caracal and the jackal, all of which have closerelatives in Africa. Two of the finest tigerrescrvea- RanthaIllborc and Sariska-Brelocated in the Aravallis. Amongst the richest ofIndian wildlife areas. these two wildernessareas are true showpieces of lndian wildlife. Ont.he whole. itcan be stated that while the Semi·arid Zone does not exhibit any gteatendemism,it nevertheless holds viable populations ofseveral species of conservation criticality today.Besides those mentioned above. others includethe sloth bear. Lesser' Florican, the GreatIndian Bustard. mugger. gharial, severalturtles and also waterfowl. both resident andmigratory.THE WESTERN GHATSAlong the west coast of lndia .. beginning fromthe Surat Dangs at the western extremity of theSatpuras in south Gujarat, for over 1,500 km.to the southern tip of India in Kerala -- stretchthe Western Ghats. a mountain range secondonly to the Himalaya in magnificence. TheGhat.s are the second largest tropical evergreenand semi-evergreen forest belt of the sub·continent. There is a high degree of biologicalendemism; species desperately in need ofpreservation.The natural forests and protected areas ofWestern Ghats still house a biological wealthmatched only by the North-east. The famousforests of Silent Valley form a part of this vitalforested swatch. A wide climatic (rainfaU andtemperature) and geographical (altitude andassociated mountain spurs) gradient exists inthis zone. This is manifested in a tremendousdiversity of vegetal communities and animalassociations. From the coastal plains along thewestern flanks, the zone rises up to a maximumaltitude of 2,735 metres in the south. whilefalling gradually (sharply in a few places) alongthe eastern side, towards the dry DeccanPeninsula. The Western Ghats Zone coversbarely five per cent. of India's area, but. itsbiological rich ness can be best understood whenone realises t.hat 27 percent of all the species ofhigher plants recorded in the Indian region arefound here (about 4,000 of 15,000 species).Further. almost 1.800 species are endemic tothe region. The Nilgiri·Travancore·Anamalai·Palni·Cardamom hill areas in the southernparts of the zone exhibit t.he highest degree ofendemism. Further, several interesting plantassociations are observed in the evergreen

forcsts of the Zonc. There are montane 'sholn'forests, riverine or swamp forests and nearlyhalf 8 dozen ot.her evergreen·speclesassociations, mostly observed in the southernhalf of the Zone, where numerous ancillarymountain ranges converge to produce 8 regionof exceptional diversit.y. Becduse of the heavyrainfall and healthy soil co nd it..ions that muchof the Zone's southern half enjoys. cash cropslike coffee. cocoa, ca rdamom, Tubber. Lea andpepper are extens ively grown. setting in theirwake additional man·induced habitats. TheWestern Ghats Zone is also characterised by aseries offorestgaps or breaks. that are actuallyvalleys that break the continuity of themountain ranges a nd accordlOgly of thebiological components as well. Some of themajor ones are the Palghat Gap, the MoyarGorge or Gap and the Shencottah Gap. Theseseries of gaps have resulted in preventing thesp read of certain species and have hence,fa cilitated local speciation and endemism. Theassociated mountain ranges such as theAnnamal~is, the Nilgiris and theAgastyamalais are a ll separated by clear-cutbarriers and besides the interesting floralspeciation, a distinct faunal endemism andlorlocal speciation, is also found. Areas such asthi s are in urgent need of study anddocumentation. Though this zone has healthypopulations of much of the animal speciescharacteristic of peninsular India (tiger,elephant, gaur, dhole, s loth bear, panther andseveral species of deer), it also exhibits a fairlygood degree of endemism among primates.ungulates. carnivores, rodents, squirrels andseveral birds. Amongst flmphibia, most of thespecies and nearly half t.he genera are endemic,while a good degree of endemism is visible alsoamongst reptiles, fish and insects, most fau nalendemism and restriction being only in thecentraJ and and southern parta of the zone.Several of the zone's faunal components are of196great interest (&nd importance) in that theyhave helped provide justification for what iscalled The Hora Hypothesis. This explains thespread of several species from the Himalayaand North-east along a once continuous centralIndian mountain range into the WesternGhats. giving rise to several interestingbiological linkages between the Western Ghats.t he Himalaya and North-East! More naturalhistory field research would reveal vital clues tothe management of sllch areas.

CONSERVATION STATUSPresently, of all the Bio-geographic Zones, TheWestern Ghats with 44 Sanctuaries andNational Parks, covering some 15,935 sq. km.has the highest percentage of protected areas.However, the two sub-divisions of this Zone(viz., the coastal plains and the main WesternGhats) do not enjoy the same extent ofprotection. The coastal plains, from north tosouth, cover 60,000 sq. km. (37.5 per cent) ofthe zone. This is one of t he most highlydeveloped and populated areas of the oountry. Itis also the area with the least number ofprotected areas. Only four sites (threeSanctuaries and one National Park) totalling amere than 240 sq. km. (less than 0.5 per cent)exist in this section of the Western Ghats.Taking the tremendous pressures on thisregion into consideration, even by the mostconservative estimate the total protected areapercentage in this region can barely be extendedbeyond one per cent. Bombay'S Sanjay GandhiNational Park is the only National Park in thissub-division!In marked contrast to the coastal plainsregion, the 100,000 sq. km. main WesternGhats region has the largest extent of protected.areas in India. 41 sites (six national parks and35 sanctuaries) cover 15,695 sq. km. or 15.8 percent of lhe total area. On paper this might seemto be a considerable area, but taking theexception al biodiversity of this Zone intoconsideration, not only is this inadequate, but itis not uniformly distributed and some of thevital eco·zones, such as the Coorg, Palnis andthe Upper Nilgiris have either been totallyoverlooked or are barely represented throughtiny reserves.To successfully conserve the rich biologicalwealth reveal vital clues to the managementofsuch areas of evergreen tropical forest regions,it is imperative that there be large-sized,unbroken protected areas that have aminimum disturbance. The forests in thenorthern half of the Western Ghats are highlyfragmented, as a result of which consideringareas for protection is not possible. Hence theemphasis here is on smaller units, with a wellspread network to incorporate as much of thediversity as possible. Less than 25 per cent ofthe protected areas network of the WesternGhats lies in the northern half -- Gujarat,Maharashtra and Goa. Currently t.he largest,contiguous stretch of wilderness exists in theNagarahole-Bandipur··Mudumalai belt of

Karnataka and TamilNadu. and the adjoiningW ynaad region of North Kerala. This forms amore or less unbroken protected areaconservation unit of over 2.000 sq. km. Thesignificance can be gauged from the fact thatthe forests hold an estimated 1,500 elephantsIndia'slargest protected population ofpachyderms. Additionally, this area is home toseveral other threatened species. The otherwell-protected portion of the Western Ghatsextends over 1.500 sq. km. in the AnamalaiHills region of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Thehighest point in mainland India, south of theHimalaya, is to be found here as can some of thefinest examples oflowland Dipterocarp forests,which rise up into tho sholas. The presence ofextensive moist deciduous forests adds up to thefact that this is undoubtedly peninsular lndia'srichest bio-zone. Unfortunately, extensiveplantations and related human disturbancesthreaten much of this region, which is fastlosing most of its viable evergreen forest units.The Periyar·Cardamom Hills belt in Keralaand Tamil Nadu is a major elephantconservation area. The grizz led squirrel too isfound here. perhaps nowhere else in India. Thetotal protected area unit in this region extendssome 1,227 sq. km., much of it under greatpressure frO"Q1 all sides.Located more or less at the southernmostend of the Western Ghats Zone are theAgastyamalai Hills in Reraia and Tamil Nadu.Separated from the northern Kerala forests bythe Shencottah Gap, the Agastyamalais havean interesting biological commonness with theforests of Sri Lanka. There is great endemismobserved here in the floral and lesser faunal(amphibians, insects etc.) communities.Mundanthurai and Kalakad WildlifeSanctuaries form the southernmost range ofthe tiger in the sub-continent. The entireprotected area unit of this belt works out to justover 1,000 sq. km.It is believed that under the existingconservation programmes in this Zone, much ofthe end'emic flora l community appearsrelatively secure. However, the habitat of someof the faunal elements of principal concern,though well-protected in pockets, is underthreat from plantation encroachments. Rodgersand Panwar recommend a substantial increasethe size of the main conservation units in thiszone, particularly in the main Western Ghatsregion. Almost two dozen more protected areashave been recommended, to offer adequate

protection to species in additional areas.However, inspite of this increase in the numberof protected areas, the actual network will bereduced by nearly 500 sq. km. This is becausemuch ofthe over 5,000 sq. km. Dandeli WildlifeSanctuary in Karnataka, being a muchdisturbed and interfered area, is proposed to bedegazetted, for it is realised that it is far moreadvantageous to have healthy, undisturbedreasonably good-sized areas than a huge, highlyd isturbed region where much of theconservation and management programmescannot even be implemented. Implementation,in fact, is a key factor in the success of allwildlife plans which have invariably soundedgood on paper, yet failed in pr actice.

 SOILS The soils of India can he classified on the basisof several criteria. Indian AgriculturalResearch Institute (1ARl) Delhi divides soilsinto eight groups.(i) Alluvial Soil: The largest and the mostimportant group is alluvial soil, which coverabout 24% of India' land surface. This type ofsoil is composed of sediments deposited by themighty rivers in the interior parts of India andby the sea wave in the coastal areas of thecountry. The Great Plains of India runningfrom Punjab to Assam possess rich alluvial soil.It is also found in Narmada and Tapti valleys inMadhya Pradesh and Orissa, Godavari valleyin Andhra. Pradesh and Cauvery valley inTamil Nadu. It also occurs in the deltas ofMahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauveryrivers. Alluvial soils are generally deficient innitrogen ana humus and thus need repeateduse of fertilizers. Such soils are suitable forgrowing all types of cereals, pulses, sugarcane,vegetables, oilseeds etc.(ii) Black Soil: The second major group isblack soil. Ideal for the cultivation of cottoncrop, it is frequently referred to as black cottonsoil and covers large tracts of the Deccanplateau . This soil is also classified asChernozem though locally known as regur soil.It covers large areas in Maharashtra, Gujarat,Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradeshand in Tamil Nadu. The black colour is due tothe presence of compounds of iron andaluminium. The soil is sticky when wet and itslevel of fertility is well known. Possessing highmoisture retention capacity, black soil does notrequire much irrigation.(iii) Red Soil: The red soil, the third major

group occurs mosUy in the southern peninsulaand extends up to Jhansi in the north, Kutch inthe west and Rajrnahal Hills in the east. Thissoil is made up of crystalline and metamorphicrocks and is rich in ferromagnese minerals andsoluble salts but is deficient in nitrogen ~ndhumus and thus needs fertilisers. It has a lighttexture and a porous structure. Red soil is mostsuited to growth of rice, ragi, tobacco andvegetables.(iv) Laterite Soil: Laterites and lateriticsoil are the fourth group formed through t.heprocess oflaterisation. They contain tron oxideswhich import a red to the soil. The soil occursin the higher reaches of the Sahyadris, EasternGhats, Rajmahal Hills and other higher areasin the peninsular region. It can also be found onthe lower lands in parts of Maharashtra,Karnataka and in many parts of Kerala, as wellas pockets of Orissa, West Bengal and AssamGenerally poor in nitrogen and mineral saltsdue to heavy leaching, it is suitable for rice andragi cultivation if manured.(v) Forest Soil: Forest soil is rich inorganic matter and humus. It is found in t.heHimalayas and other mountain regions of thenorth, higher summit of the Sahyadris,Eastern Ghats, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,Kerala, Manipur, Jammu and Kashmir andHimachal Pradesh. Crops like tea, coffee, spicesand tropical fruits are grown on t.his type of soiL(vi, Arid and Desert Soil: It is found innorth western India. It covers the entire areawest of the Aravalli's in Rajasthan and parts ofHaryana, Punjab and Gujarat. It is rich inphosphates but poor in nitrogen and provesquite fertile if irrigated.(vii) Saline and Alkaline Soil: Soils inmany parts of the arid and se mi·arid areas ofRajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and UttarPradesh. Bihar have saline and alkalineeffervescences mainly of sodium, calcium andmagnesium. These soil are called reh or kallaror usar and are infertile. The salts are usuallyconfined to the upper layers and soil can bereclaimed by improving drainage.(viii) Peaty and other Organic Soils:Peaty soils contain large accumulations ofhumus, organic matter and soluble salts. Thesesoils are highly saline and are deficientphosphorus and potash. Marshy soU occurs inregions of Orissa, West-Bengal and TamilNadu. They are also found in central and. northBihar a nd in Almora district of V.P.

IRRIGATIONWater is vital for realising full potential ofagriculture sector and country's development.The productivity in fields is severely affected bythe vagaries of the 8C8son. Droughts,alternating 'With floods have been a commonfesture, making irrigat.ion and modernagricultural technology indispensable. A goodsystem of irrigation removes uncertainty aboutagricultural production by reducing thedependence on rains and assuring regular,continuous and copious water supply at theappropriate time for the crops. It helps inhaving multiple crops in a year from the field,ensuring full employment for the workersthrougbout the year. Assured supply of waterhelps adoption of modem agricultural technology,which in turn helps in increa8in~productivity. Irrigation helps in more economIcaluse of land by bringing in more area,including wastelands under cultivation.The importance of irrigation has beenrealised in the planning process and a largeoutlay has been provided for the sector. Withsustained and systematic development ofirrigation. Its potential has increased from 22.6mha prior to 1951 to about 95.4 mha at the endof 2000. Against this, the utilisation of irrigationpotential at the end of 2000 was about 85.4mha. Irrigation projects with a CulturableCommand Area (CCA) of more than 10,000hectare are cla8sified as major projects andthese with a CCA of more than 2,000 hectareand upto 10,000 hectare a8 medium projects.The irrigation system is ba..sed on three sub·systems, viz., (1) Tapping adequate resources ofwater; (2) Preservation and conveyance of thewater made available; and (3) Optimumutilisation of the water resources called thewater mRnagement systems.Types ofIrrigation: Three main types ofirrigation are known:(1) Well Irrigation: Open wells, dugwells, dug cum bored wells and tube welleprovide an assured supply ofwat.er _Tube·wellsare very popular in north India as poweroperated tube-wells can provide water for alonger period of time and cater to a large area.(2) Tank Irrigation: Tanks provide goodstorage of rain water for use in the dry season.They are found in different sizes In south India.(3) Canol Irrigation: Canals, carryLngwater from major rivers, transfer water to thedeficient areas. They form the mllJor means of

irrigation in India. accounting for t.bout 40% ofthe irrigated land. Perennial cauaIs have anassured supply of water throughout the year.While Inundate canale get water only d;rringthe rainy season. Storage canals get water fromthe reservoirs, conatructed specifically to storerain water.Command Area DevelopmentProgramme: It was initiated in 1974·75 withthe objective of bridging the gap betweenpotential created and utilised for optimisingagricultural production from irrigated lan~.The main assumption behind the programme ISthat the potential for improvement in theutilisation of water is maximum and that theunderperformance of irrigation systems is di·rectly linked to the absence of any government.involvement and influence over on-farm devel·opment activities like land shaping andlevelling, construction of field channels anddrains. realignment. of field boundarieswherever necessary, enforcement of a propersystem of warabandi and fair d18tribution ofwater to individual fields and supply of allinputs and services including credit andstrengthening of extension se rvices. Theprogramme Olvera Selection and introduction ofsuitable cropping pattern; Development ofground water to supplement surface irrigation;Development and maintenance of the main andintermediate drainage system andmodernisation, maintenance and efficient operationof the irrigation system.Beginning with 60 major and mediumirrigation projects in 1974, the Programmeincluded 236 irrigation projects at the end of2002 with Culturable Command Area (eCA) of22.78 million hectare spread over 28 states andtwo union territories.The performance of CAD programme hasbeen found to be generally disappointing.Farmers' disputes over land consolidations,absence of cooperation among variousgovernment departments and the lack of anintegrated approach to the problem of soil andwater management are the main resources ofCAD's poor performances. To make CAD asuccess, farmers' active involvement andcooperation in development a ctivities is veryessential.DrylandfRainfed Farming: Dryland orRainfed agriculture is practised on about 73 percent of the net cultivated area but itscontribution accounts for only about 42 per centof the total foodgrains production. Coarse

grains, pulses, cotton and oilseEl,ds are producedin the rainfed areas. The main\constituents ofdry farming techniques are soil management,harvesting of water, new crop varieties and newagronomic practices. Soil management includesmeasures relating to soil structure, soil fertilityand correction of alkalinity of the soil. Developmentof modern water harvesting proceduresincluding the use of Aluminium foil, polymerfilms and widespread installation of smallwater reservoirs. The new agronomic practicesenvisage the proper application of nutrients.I POWER SITUATION IN INDIA IThe installed power generation capacity in thecountry has increased from 1,400 MW in 1947to 1,12,058.42 MW as on 31 March 2004comprising 77,968.53 MW thermal, 29,500.23MW hydro. 1,869.66 MW wind and 2,720 MWnuclear. A capacity addition programme of5,245.52 MW has been fixed for the year 2004~05. Consdiering the fact that a large chunk ofproportion of the installed capacity will comefrom the public sector, the outlay for the powersector has been raised from Rs. 45,591 croreduring the Ninth Plan to Rs. 1.43,399 crore inthe Tenth Plan. This would include a grossbudgetary support of Rs. 25,000 crore and theremaining Rs. 1,18,399 crare would be internaland extra budgetary resources.Power generation during 2003-04 was558.134 BUs comprising 466.618 BUs thermal,73.796 BUs hydro and 17.720 BUs nuclear. Thetarget of power generation for 2004-05 has beenfied at 566.590 BUs. The plant load factor hasshown a steady improvement over the yea rsand has improved from 52.8 per cent in 1990-91to 72.7 per cent in 2003-04.Most of power in Inwa is generated through·h ydal or thermal conversion. Since thenorthern and eastern India have perennialrivers, hydal -power generation is more in thearea while thermal power plants are more inwestern and southern India where rivers dry upduring summer season. Hydal power projectsare sometimes part of multi-purpose projectswhich also curse flood control, water storage,fishery and irrigation. Damodar valleycorporation waS set up to look after first suchproject on Damodar river. Bhakra Beas Managementboard has an installed capacity of 2730MW and caters to the requirements of Northernstates.Nevyeli Lignite Corporation uses lignite forpower generation in Tamil Nadu. AtomicEnergy plants have been set up in Tarapur,

Ka lpakkam, Kota and Narora to produceenergy from nuclear fission. They contributeabout 1400 MW of energy. National ThermalPower Corporation (NTPC) has been set up toconstruct and manage the thermal plants ofcentral government. National Hydal PowerCorporation (NHPC) for hydal projects andNuclear Power Corporation (NPC) for nuclearplants. North Eastern Electric PowerCorporation (NEEPC) implements the powerprojects in North Eastern region. Power Grid201 UGC-JRF (Paper 1}-26RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL ANDACHlEVEMENTSCorporation of India was set up to operate interstat.e and inter-regional transmission system.Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) looksafter the electrification of villages and ruralareas.To encourage private sector investment inthe power sector, major policy changes wereinitiated in 1991. Procedures for cl~arances ofthe projects have been simplified a ndstreamlined. Liberal environment for privateentrepreneur is being provided, with someprojects being given counter-guarantee andassured rate of return. Dabhol power project inMaharashtra was the first major power sectorplant for which the State Governmentsigned aPower Purchase Agreement and Central Governmentgave counter-guarantee.~ides conventional sources of energy, dueemphasis has been given on t he nonconventional,renewable energy sources in thecountry. The main work has been done onharnessing solar, wind, small hydro !lI1d bioenergy_Photo-voltaic and solar thermalsystems have been developed. The Sagar Islandin West Bengal has been turned into "SolarIsland" as all needs of peopJe living there aremet with solar energy. In the field of windenergy development, India is third in worldwith 900 MW of installed capacity. Farmprojects have been set up in parts of the countrywhere wind· velocity is large enough. Small,mini and micro hydal projects have been set upto fit in small budgets and localresources. r n the bio--energy field, technology forconversion of agro - wastes to energy havebeen developed. The biomass systems andimproved chullah can be adopted, even at far flungareas. The rural and far-off areas dependon wood and agre- wastes for their energy requirementand efficient utilisation of these willsave wood and hence protect environment alRO

over 25 takh biogas plants installed in thecountry l:telp save 75lakh tonnes of fue l woodevery yed In the Ninth Five Year Plan thereis proposal' to add additional capacity of 3000MW through non-conventional sources orenergy. Attempts are being made to produceenergy from urban and industrial wastee wbchis increasing day by day.

Environment VI QUESTIONS1. Sericulture is:A. science of the various kinds of serumB. a r tificia l rearing offishC. art of silkworm breedingO. study of various cultu res of acommunity2. Tides in the oceans are caused by:A Gravitational pull of the moon on theearth's suCrace including sea waterB. Gravitational pull of the sun on theearth's surface only and not on the seawaterC. Gravitational pull of the moon and thesun on the earth's surface including thesea waterO. None of these3. Nagarjunasagar Project is situated on therIver:A Tungabhadra B. CauveryC. Krishna 0 ', Godavari4. The diffe r e nce between t he IndianStandard Time and the Greenwich meanTime is:A - 3~ hours B. + 3Yz hoursC. - 3~ hours D. + 5~ hours6. Which of the foUowing dams is not. onNarmada river?A. Indira·Sagar ProjectB. Maheshwar Hydel Power P rojectC. J obat. ProjectD. Koyna Power Project6. Which of the following statements is notrue about the availability of water on theearth, the crisis for which is going toincrease in the years to come?A About 97.5 per cent of the total volumeof water av8.ilable on the earth is saltyB. 80 per cent of the water available to usfor use comes in bursts as monsoonsC. About 2.5 per cent of t.he total wateravailable on the earth is polluted waterand cannot he used for humanactivities

D. Possibility is that some big glaciers willmelt in the coming ten·ftfteen yearsand sealevel will rise by 3--4 meters allover the earth7. Through which States does Cauvery RiverDow?A. Gujarat. M.P. Tamil NaduB. Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil NaduC. Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra PradeshD. M.P., Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu8. The biggest reserves of thorium are in:A. IndiaB.ChinaC. The Soviet UnionD. U.S.A.9. Photosphere is described as the:A. Lower layer of atmosphereB. Visible surface of the sun from whichradiation emanatesC. Wavelength of solar spectrumD. None of the above10. Different seasons are formed becau~A. Sun is moving around the earthB. of revolution of the earth around theSun on its orbitC. of rotation of the earth around its axisD. All of the above11. The world is divided into:A 12 time zones B. 20 lime zonesC. 24 time zones O. 36 time zones12. The term 'Hegur' refers to:A. Laterite soils8. Black Cotton soilsC. RedsoilsD. Deltaic Alluvial soils13. Location of sugar industry in India isshifting from north to south because of:A. cheap labourB. expanding regional marketC. cheap and abundant supply of powerD. high yield and high sugar content insugarcane14. Consider the following statements:1. Ozone is found mostly in theStratosphere.2. Ozone layer lies 55·75 km above thesurface of the earth.3. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiationfrom the Sun.4. Ozone layer has no significance for lifeon the earth.Which of thecorrect?above statements ar.E;'"A. 1 and 3

C. 2and3B. 2 and 4D. 1 and 415. Atmosphere exists because:A. The Gravitational force of the EarthB. Revolution of the EarthC. Rotation of the EarthD. Weight of the gases of atmosphere16. Where are most of the earth's activevolcanoes concentrated?A. Europe B. Pacific OceanC. Africa D. South America17. The area covered by forest in India isabout:A. 46% B. 33%C. 23% D. 19'%18. The natural vegetation of Sa van a consistsof:A. Tall grass B. Scrub jungleC. Short grass D. Trees19. The zone of excessively dry climate withvery cold temperature throughout theyear correspond to:A. Arctic deserts B. TundraC. Alpine meadouss D. Antarctica20. The fertility of the soil can be increased bygrowmg:A. Cereals B. Fibre CropsC. Legumes D. Root Crops21. India's Oil bearing areas are mostlyassociated with the:A. Plutonic rocksB. Volcanic rocksC. Sedimentary rocksD. Metamorphic rocks22. The much discussed Tehri Dam Project islocated in which of the following states?A. Madhya PradeshB. RajasthanC. HaryanaD. Uttaranchal23. Laterite soil develop as a result of:A. deposits of alluvialB. deposition of loessC. leachingD. continued vegetation cover~4. The coldest place on the earth is:A. Halifax B. ChicagoC. Siachen D. Verkhoyansk25. Which one of the following pairs is notcorrectly matched?A. Kota - ChambalB. Bhubaneshwar - MahanadiC. Jabalpur - NarmadaD. Surat - Tapti

26. Which of the following is the biggest freshwater lake in India?A. Dal Lake B. Sukhna LakeC. LoktakLake D. None of these27. Which of the following rivers is not atributory of the Indus?A. Sutlej B. JhelumC. Bhagirathi D. Chenab28. Which of the following pairs of the riverdam project and the State in which it islocated, is not correct?A Gandhi Sagar-Madhya PradeshB. Tungabhadra - TamilnaduC. Bhakra Nangal- PunjabD. Hirakud - Orissa29. Match List I and List II and select thecorrect answer using the codes given belowthe Lists:List I(Rivers)(a) Cauvery(b) Krishna(c) Narmada(d) ChambalCodes:(a) (h) (e) (d)A.I 4 2 3B. 2 I 4 3C.2 I 3 4D. I 3 4 2List II(D ams)1. Alamatti2. Mettur3. Gandhi Sagar4. Sardar Sarovar30. What is approximately the percentage offorest cover in India?A. 10 per cent B. 8.5 per centC. 25 per cent D. 19.5 per cent31. When does the moon come between thesun and the earth?A Lunareclipse B. Solar eclipseC. Sidereal day D. Full moon day32. The latitude of a place is expressed by itsangular distance in relation to:A. EquatorB. South PoleC. Axis of the EarthD. North Pole33. The southern tip of India is:A. Cape ComorinB. Point Cali mereC. Indira Point in Nicobar IslandsD. Kovalam in Trivandrum

34. During winter, the northern half of Indiais warmer than areas of similarlatitudinal location by 30 to 80 because:A. India is essentially a tropical countryB. The surface wind blows in a particulardirection in one seasonC. The Great Himalayas check thepenetration of cold polar air into Indiaeffectively.D. Dfwinte'r rains35. Turpentine oil used III medicine' ISobtained from:A Acacia B. Chir pinC. Myrobalans O. Kusum36. Which country IS known for the mostfrequent earthquakes?A. Italy B. JapanC. China. D. Iran37. In determining the Indian climate, majorrole played by Himalayas is/are:A. The east· west extension of the GreatHimalayasdoes not permit thesummer monsoon to cross it and thuskeeps its sojourn restricted to IndiaB. The direct the summer monsoontowards the north·westC. During the winter they stop thesouthward penetration of the cold anddry polar airD. All of the above38. Which river is flowing near Ayodhya?A. Ganga B. YamunaC. Saryu D. Krishna39. Which of the following is cold stream?A. Curasia B. Labrador,C. Gulf of Stream D. Hakuna Hatata40. High velds are the temperate grasslandsof:A. Africa B. South AustraliaC. EuropeandAsia D. SouthAmerica41. The rock material carried by a glacier iscalledA alluvium B. meandersC. nodules D. moraines42. Match List I and List IT and find out thecorrect answer from the codes given belowthe Lists:List I List II(Thermal (wcations)Power Plants)(a) Kahalgaon 1. West Bengal(b) Farakka 2. Bihar(c) Ramagundam 3. Gujarat(d) Gandhar 4. Andhra PradeshCodes:

(a) (b) (e) (d)A 1 2 3 48.4 3 1 2C.2 1 4 3D.3 2 1 443. Solar eclipse takes place when:A. The moon comes between the sun andthe earthB. The earth comes between the sun andthe moonC. The sun comes between the moon andthe earthD. None of the above44. The Suez Canal connects:A Baltic Sea and the Caspian SeaB. Mediterranean Sea and the Red SeaC. Red Sea and the Caspian SeaD. Mediterranean Sea and North Sea45. Krishna Raja Sagar Dam is built acrossthe river:A. Cauvery B. TungabhadraC. Krishna D. Godavari46. Which of the following States has richforests of sandalwood?A. Andhra Pradesh B. KarnatakaC. Kerala D. Madhya Pradesh47. Which of the following is the smallestocean of the world?A. PacificC. AtlanticB. lndianD. Arctic48. Light Year is a unit of:A Intensity of lightB. DistanceC. TimeD. Planetary motion20549. Match List t and List 11 and select. t.hecorrect answer using the codes given belowt.he Lists :List I(a) Troposphere(b) Stratosphere(e) Ionosphere(d) ExosphereCodes.'(a) (b) (e) (d)A I 2 4 36. I 2 3C.2 40.2 3434

List IT1. Dust particles2. Ozone layer3. Meteors4. Aurora50. The Nagarjunsagar project is on the river:A. Sutlej S. NarmadaC. Krishna D. Kaveri51. The planets are kept is motion in theirrespective orbits by the:A. Rotation of the sun on its axisS. Gravitation and centrifugal forcesC. Great size and spherical shapeD. Rotation and the density of the planets52. AU vitalalmospheric processes leading tovarious Cli018tic and weather conditionstake place in the:A. Troposphere S. IonosphereC. Exosphere D. Stratosphere53. The greatest diversit.y of animal andplants species occurs in:A. temperate deciduous forestsS. tropical moist forestsC. heavily poUuted riversO. desert lands54. The cold oceanic current passing throughthe coast. of North America is known as:A. Kuroshio CurrentS. Gulf StreamC. Labrador CurrentO. Falkland Current55. Which of the following soil is very hard tocultivate?A Alluvial B. RedC. Black o. Sandy56. The Hirakud Project is on which of thefoUowing rivers?A. Godavari B. MahanadiC. Damodar D. Kosi57. What is meant by the term "cirrusH?A. A low cloudB. A rain·bearing cloudC. A high-cloudD. A hail-hearing cloud58. Most of the w~athel' phenomena take placein the:A. stratosphere S. troposphereC. tropopause D. ionosphere59. Atmospheric pressure exerted on earth isdue to:A. rotation of earthB. revolution of earthC. gravitational pullD. uneven heating of earthGO. The circulation of ocean water occurs:

A. only laterallyB. only verticallyC. both laterally and verticallyD. neither laterally nor vertically61. Match List I and List U and select thecorrect answer using the codes givenbelow the Lists:List I(Storm)(a) Cyclone(b) Hurricane(e) Typhoon(d) Willy· WillyCodes:(a) (b) (e) (d)A.3 4 2 16.4 3 2 1C.3 4 2 10.4 3 I 2List II1. China2. Australia3. India4. U.S.A.62. Which is called the "Tiger State--?A RajasthanB. Madhya PradeshC. Uttar PradeshD. Jammu & Kashmir20663. Which one of the following rivers is knownas "Sorow of Bihar"?A. Damodar B. GandakC. Kosi O. Sone64. Given below are two statements. onelabelled as Assertion (A) and the otherlebelled as Reason (R):Assertion (A) : One of the movements ofthe su rface water of ocea n is known asocean current.Reason (R) : Ocean cu rrents are causedmainly due to planetary winds ancl thedifference in temperature and density ofwater.In the context of the above two statements,which one the following is correct?A. Both A and R are true and R is thecorrect explanation of A.B. Both A and R are true but. R is not acorrect explanation of A.C. A is true but R is false.O. A is false but R is t rue65. Tsunamis are huge sea waves caused by:A. Earthquakes B. VolcanoesC. Winds D. Icebergs

66. Through which of the following countriesdoes the river Tigris flow?A. Egypt B. ira nC. Italy D. Iraq67. Imaginary lines drawn on a global mapfrom pole to pole and from theperpendicular to the equator are calledA. Contours B. IsobarsC. Meridians D. Steppes68. The 23South latitude is known asA. The Tropic of CancerB. The Tropic of CapricornC. The EquatorD. The Prime Meridian69. 'Equinox' meansA. Days are longer than nightsB. Days and nights are equalC. Days a re shorter than nightsO. None of these70. Summer solstice occu rs onA. March 21 B. April 21C. May 21 D. June 2171. A lunar eclipse occurs whenA. Sun, Moon and Earth are not in thesame lineB. Earth comes between the Sun and t heMoonC. Moon comes between the Sun and theEarthD. Sun comes between the Earth and theMoon72. The sky appears blue becauseA. It is actually blueB. The atmosphere scatters blue lightmore than the othersC. All colours interfere to produce blueD. In white light. blue colour dominates73. International Date Line passes throughA. 0° Greenwich B. 1BOoGreenwichC. 90° Greenwich O. 270" Greenwich74. Port Blair is situated inA. North Anclaman B. South AndamanC. MlddleAndaman D. Little Andaman75. Which of the following passes throughLnrna?A. Tropic of CapricornB. Tropic of CancerC. EquatorO. 0° Longitude76. At the Equator, the duration of a day isA. 10 hrs B. 12 besC. 14 hrs D. 16 hrs77. Suez navigati on ca nal links upMediterranean Sea with theA. Atlantic Ocean B. Pacific Ocean

C. North Sea D. Red Sea78. Teak and Sal are the principal trees in theforests known asA. Tropical moist evergreenB. Dry deciduousC. Tropical moist deciduousD. Dry evergreen79. When a ship crosses the InternationalDate Line from west to EastA. ltlosesone day B. It gains one dayC. It.loseshalf·a-day D. ltgainshalf·a-daySO. Siachen isA. Limiting glacier zone between Indiaand PakistanB. Limiting desert zone between India andPakistanC. Limiting zone between China lindPakistan207D. Limiting zone between India andMyanmar81. Which oft.he following people are relatedto T.E. Lawrence?A. The people of ChinaB.lnhabitantsofMangoleC. The people of AfghanistanD. The people of Arab82. For which of the following reasons, cloudsdo not min in desert.?A. Maximum air velocityB. Minimum temperatureC. Minimum air velocityD. Minimum humidity83. Which countries are joined by the PalkStrait?A. India & Sri LankaB. North & South KoreaC. Pakistan & ChinaD. Britain & France84. The smallest Continent isA. Europe B. AustraliaC. Antarctica D. South America85. The longest dam in India isA. Bhakra DamB. Nagarjuna Sagar DamC. Hirakud DamD. Kosi Dam86. Jawahar Tunnel, the largest in India, islocated in the state ofA. Himachal PradeshB. RajasthanC. West BengalD.J&K87. 'Jog' the highest waterfall In India ISlocated in the state of

A. Uttar Pradesh B. West BengalC. Karnataka D. Maharashtra88. Where is the Siachin Glacier situated inIndia?A. Uttar PradeshB. Himachal Pr~deshC. Jammu & KashmirD. Sikkim89. The standard time of India is the localtime ofA. 81 a East longitudeB. East longitudeC. 84" East longitudeD. 86" East longitude90. In which South American country doesone find the Atacama desert?A. Chile B. PeruC. Brazil D. Columbia91. Which of the following ports has a freetrade zone?A. Kandla B. CochinC. Madras D. 1'uticorin92. Which one of the following mountainpeaks of the Himalayas is not in IndiaA. Annapurna B. Nanda DeviC. Mt. Kamel D. Kanchenjunga93. Match List I (Types of Natur':l.l Regions)with List II ( Areas Associated with theRegions) and select the correct answerusing the codes given below the lists:List I List II(Typ es of Natural (Areas AssociatedRegions) with the Natru'(JlRegions)(I) Dry continental 1. Brazil(11) Humid Subtropics 2. British Isles(III) Marine West Coast 3. Canada(IV) Subarctics 4. ChinaCodes: 5. MangoliaA. I - 5, fl - 4, IfI - 2. IV - 3B. 1- 2, III - 3. 11 - I, IV - 5c. 1- 2, II - 4, 111- I, IV-:-J'o,D. I - 5, II - 3, 1II - 2, IV - 494. Winter rains in north and north·westindia are generally associated with thephenomenon ofA. Retreating monsoonB. Temperate cyclonesC. Local thunderstormsD. Shift in Jet stream movement95. When the moon is near the horizon, thenit appears bigger because ofA. Atmospheric refractionB. Scattering of lightC. Diffraction

D. Total internal reflection96. Savanna grasslands are found inA. Australia B. AfricaC. East Asia D. SmIth America20897. Life expectancy is highest in the world inA. Canada B. GermanyC. J apan D. Norway9S. Israe l has common borders withA. Lebanon. Syria. J ordan and EgyptB. Lebanon. Syria. Turkey and J ordanC. Cyprus, Turkey. Jordan a nd EgyptD. Turkey, Syria. iraq and Yemen99. What is the correct sequence of therivers-Godavari, Mahanadi, Narmadaand Tapi in the descending order of theirlengths?A. Godavari-Mahanadi-Narmada-Ta piB. Godavo.ri-Narmada-Mahanadi-TapiC. Narmada-Godavari·Tapi-MahanadiD. Narmada-Tapi·Godavari-Mahanadi100. Among t he following cities, which one isnearest to the Tropic of Cancer?A. Delhi B. KolkataC. Jodhpur D. Nagpur101. Among the following which planet takesmaximum time for one revolution aroundthe Sun?A. Earth B. JupiterC. Mars D. Venus102. Which one among the following languageshas largest number of speakers in t heworld?A. Bengali B. FrenchC. Japanese D. Portuguese103. Which one of the fo llowing is the longestglacier of India?A. Pinda ri B. GangotriC. Siachen D. Zem\1104. In wha t regions can the sun be seen atmidnight?A. The tropical zoneB. Warm temperate regionsC. The Arctic and Antarctic regionsD. Anywhere at the time of lunar eclipse105. Match the rivers flowing through thecities below:CitiesA BaghdadB. CairoC. New YorkD. RotterdamRivers(I) Rhine(II) Hudson

(llI) Nile(IV) TigrisA B C DA IV 1U II IB. I II ill IVC. n I IV illD. ill IV I II106. Where was electricity supply firstintroduced in India?A Kolkata B. DarjeelingC. Mumhai D. Chennai107. Which of the following is the highestwaterfa ll in the world?A Angel B. RibbinC. Hungela D. QuecanaglOS. Which among the following planetsintersects the orbit of Neptune?A. Mercury B. PlutoC. Earth D. Uranus109. Nubian desen is inA. EthiopiaC. Sudan110. The capital of Laos isB. EgyplD. SomaliaA. Vientiane B. AnkaraC. Abu Dhabi D. Hanoi111. Peso is the currency ofA. Cuba B. BermudaC. Grenada D. Jamaica112. Which oflhe following countries is calledthe "Country of white elephants"?A. Thailand B. KuwaitC. South Africa D. India113. The longest highway in India runs fromA. Kolkata toJammuB. Jammu to Kanya KumariC. Ambala La NagercoiiD. Varanasi to Kanys Kumari114. Which strait separates India from SriLanka?A. Malldeb B. MagellanC. Malacca I). Palk115. Which city was known as the 'Manchesterof India'?A. Mumbai B. SuratC. Ahmeda,bad D. Ludhiana116. Where is the fa m Olls shore temple located?A. Puri B. VisakhapalnalllC. Mamallapuram D. Chennai117. The new alluvial del.osits found i'n LhiGangetic plain are known as I209 UGC-JRF (Paper 1)-27A. BhabarC. Khadar

B. BhangarO. Terai118. Which of theisland?following is the largestA. SumatraB. MadagascarC, HonshuD. Cuba119. Kodaikanal, the famous hill-station ofSouth India is situated on:A. Palni HillsB. Anaimalai MountainC. Nilgiri Mount-ainD. Cardamon Hills120. The largest continent in the world is:A. North America B. AfricaC. Asia O. Europe121. Which water body separates Aust.raliafrom New Zealand?A. Cook StraitsB. Tasman SeaC. McMunro SoundD. Great Barrier Reef122. 'Radcliff Line' is a boundary line betweenA. India and BangladeshB. India and BhutanC. India and ChinaD. India and Pakistan123. The samallest continent of the world isA.Europe B. AntarcticaC, South America D. Australia124. J og waterfall, the highest waterfaU inIndia, is located in-A. Kerala B. KarnatakaC. Maharashtra D. Madhya Pradesh125. Which of the following district is on theinternational border of IndiaA. Gor-akhpur B. West Khasi HillsC. Kinnaur D. Kullu126. Which of the following pairs is notcorrectly matched?A. Panna: DiamondB. Neyveli: LigniteC. Mysore: Marb!eD. Sambhar: Salt127. The earthquake waves which havetransverse movements are known asA. Primary wavesB. Secondary wavesC. Surface wavesD. None of the above128. The first man to reach the South Pole onDecember 14. 1911 wasA. Commander Robert, E. Peary of U.S.

NavyB. Racald Amundsen from NorwayC. The Navigator Ferdinand MagellanD. Sir Francis Drake of England129. Which one of the following is not t.hevegetalion in Selva forests?A. EpiphytesB. XerophytesC. LlanasD. Hydrophyr.es130. Where does the primitive cOl)'lmunity ofBushman live?A. Sahara desert B. Thar desertC. Kalahari desert D. Attacama desert131. Which region of India receives rainfall dueto western disturbance in wint.er?A. Western regionB. Central regionC. Eastern regionD. North·Western region132. Freely suspended magnetic needle standsin which direction?A. North-West directionB. North-South directionC. North-EastdirectionD. South·Westdirection133. How far the axis of earth is inclined of itsorbital surface?A. 23B.66C. 1800D. It is not inclined134. Difference of longitudinal of two places onthe earth is 15°. What will be thedifference in its local time?A. No differenceB. 1 hourC. 2 hoursD. 15 hours135. Which of the roHowing is only star?A. Moon 8. VenusC. Earth D. SunANSWERS1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10C C C D D D B A B B11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20C B D A A B D A A C21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30C D C D A D C B B D31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40B A C C B B D C B A41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50D C A B C B B B B C51 52 53 54 65 66 57 58 59 60B A B C B B C B C C

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70C B C C A D C B B D71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 60B B B B B B D C A C81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90D A A B C D C C B A91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100A A A A A B C A B B101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110B A C C A B A D C AIII 112 113 114 115 116 117 ]]8 119 120A A D D D C C B A C121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 J29 130 .B D D B C C B B B C131 132 133 134 135C B A B D

Part I TEACHING APTITUDETeaching is a complex process which bringssocially desirable behavioural change in aperson. Teaching is a part ofteaching-learningprocess. It is required to bring certain changes in a person according to the need of his societyand environment in which he is living.'Teaching is not an act as it is dynamic innature so it is termed as process. It is also nota fundamental concept as it is greatlyinfluenced by social and human factors.Teachlng is both artan,d science. It is · an 'activity involving teacher and student with aview to the development of student.The main aim of teaching is to bring aboutsocially desirable behavioural changes in thestudents and can be achieved only if teaching iseffective and based on certain values orprinciples.Teaching is one of the main parts of theteaching-learning system. So effective teachingis mostly depending on the teacher. It is acommon fact that a good teacher is born and notmade. Training and research can make a goodteacher better and a better teacher best.Teacher should follow various methods ofteaching devised from time to time. A teacherencourages the practice of thinking amongstudents. Teacher should give to the studentsthe' freedom and opportunity to express theirideas. .Teaching is required to give education tothe students. Edl,lcation may be defined as theprocess of drawing out least in an individual.We can define education as "the aggregate of allprocesses by means of which a person develops

attributes, attitudes and other forms ofbehaviour of positive value in the society in'which he lives". We can also define it as "the'social process by which people are subjecte.d totHe influence of a selected and controlledenvironment, so that they may attain socialcompetence and optimum individualdevelopment" .The complete process of education mustcontain four common factors (i) Educator(teacher) (ll) Educand (Student) (iii) the subjectmatter (iv) the context (setting).Now, education is the proces~ of developi~gsome abilities in an individual. Though abilitiesare in'born quality, it is also a fact that thesecan be nurtured and developed in an educandthrough various means by a n educator.Education must also be relevant and useful tothe society in which educand has to live. Since'every individual is unique in their own way, th~educator has to adopt strategies and methodssuitabl~ to i~dividual ·needs. Educati~n II,u-J-stalso be productive. The educational productivity(rate of efficiency of work) can be classified as.qualitative and quantitative. For bettereducation both qualitative and quantitativeproductivity is required. Quality means herethe excellence in the part of textbook, teachetsstudents's· aids, facilities and other teachingaids where as quantity refers the number ofteachers, institutions, professionals, etc.Education and teaching are interrelated.Education is a complex social cultural andethical process designed in a social or culturalcontent. It is related with social structures,cultural environments, values, and ideas ofpeople, society and government. All these. factors are dynamic in nature. So teaching isalso a dynamic process and its definitionchanges according to place and t ime .Morrison defines it as a disciplined socialprocess in which teacher influences thebehaviours of the less experienced pupil andhelps him develop according to the needs andideas ofthe society.Smith termed it as an organised system of worker. He/she must have proper guts to leadspecific activities aimed to help the learner learn by an example at a superior level as he is thesomething. leader of his pupil. He/she has to exerciseAn analytical approach makes it clear that neGe!?§.ary influence for bringing the .desiredneither of the definition fulfils the purpose. . modification in behaviour.A good definition ofteaching should Teacher works to change the behaviour of(i) Tell whether teaching is a process or students according to the need of the

society.act. He/she must also creates situation to ·increase(ii) Clearly indicates constitutional factors. the thinking capacity of mind of students. He(iii) Reveals objectives, and give education to the people. Education is a(iv) Say something about its organisational tripolar process involving educator, educant·and 'structural aspect. and social milieu. The educand is deperidentAccordirig to' this analysis we can define variable of education whereas educator isteaching as a-tripolar process ~nvol~ing human independent variable. Social milieu is requiredor material source ' of teaching students and a for the direction of education. Education shouldset of organi4ed ' activities designed and develop intellectual, moral, aesthetic,manipulated for bringing changes in the democratic, material and economic life to makebehavious of the taught. our country a leading force. Hard work andSince teaching is a process and' it is mental alertness should be the rst requisite ofdynamic in nature so it changes its concept the educational training.according to time and place. It is a professional . The teacher has to provide intellectual andactivity. TeachIng can be ' analysed and. social leadership. He is to follow a curriculumassessed. This analysis and assessm:ent . 'but his task is beyond this. He acts as an idealprovides feedback for further improvement in for his students. He has to follow the way ofmethods of teaching. Teaching is highly simple life with great thinking, His moraledominated by communicaitcin 'skilL It is should be high. He must be competent. Hisinteractive process carried· with .purpose and efficiency and enthusiasm is also veryobjectives, Teaching may have various forms as important. He must also possess some otherformal, imformal, diiectional,lnstructional . qualities ·as he is . the pivote of educationalformational; training, conditioning, talking: system. Such as 'J.se of good means for goodshowing etc. All these words single handly can't ends, clear thinking no prejudice, ability ofbe synonym of teaching. Teac41ng is a much critical judgements at the righttime, tolerencebroader term, All these activities ariparts of are all needed for a teacher. Teacher m~st beteaching at different leveL' . . ready to impart to their students allTeaching ' has been analysed in seve'ral information geographical, historical, politicalways for understanding it, fo r "designing social practical and strategic and scientific.teaching methods and inaterials with a view.to The complete educational process has fourreaI is m. g speci' fi c objectives making teaching important common factorsmore effective .. This modification is based on (i) teacher (ii) student (iii) subject matterfeedbacks. Teaching skill is o~e of the'.nlost(iv)setting (context).important thing required 'for it t¢acherhlt itis ' TEACHERnot the only requirerrie~t. :Tea:cning involve~ Teacher is -a person, who, due to his rich orinteraction. So, communication: ' skill, . unusual experience in education or both in a

personality, attitude, .attribute, interest .all . giyen field is able tocontribute ·to the growththese are also countedJor effective teachlng. A and development of the other person who comesteacher cannot be regarded only as a skilled in contact with him. There are four dimensionsassociated with a teacher, his competence,efficacy, enthusiasm and morale.Teacher's competence : Teacher'scompetence has been defined as the e~tent towhich the teacher has t~ relevant subje~tmatter and the pedagogical experties needed toimpart the curriculum effectively.Teacher's efficacy: It IS defined as the selfbelief in his capacity of doing what is expectedfrom them.Teacher's enthusiasm: A teacher must bevery enthusiastic.Teacher's Morale : It is very important inmaintaining balance in the classroo·minteraction. The various factors contributed tothe morale are psychological well being, selfesteem; commitment to a cause. Knowledge andidentification with the organisational goal. Theteachers morale is a combination ofpsychological, physiological and environmentalcause.These four factors 'are seen in process ofeffective classroom interaction. CLASSROOM INTERACTION : Theclassroom interaction between a student ~nd ateacher is completely based on the climatecreated by teacher. He should be able to bringthe blendiness of friendship with a definitedegree of firmness. The interaction must besmooth and pleasant without any friction for acomplete:and fruitful teaching learning process.Normally, verbalism' goes on in the name ofteaclfing. Students are merely expected to listento th~ explanation and lectures. This is knownas direct teaching. The effectiveness of directteaching has been questioned many times andit is found that this type of teaching is not veryeffective one. For effective teaching the active ,participation of students IS very important.This participation IS done through theclassroom interaction. 'This interaction consistof thier explanations and lectures withstudents , suggestions, ideas concepts, and questions,etc. These activ:ities of students makeimportant for making teaching learningprocess effective, democratic and friendly.Interaction is required for the rectificationof the drawbacks of direct teaching. Thisinteractive teaching is known as indirect

teaching. Through the interaction; the teacheranalyses the· capacity and tequirement ofstudents and can bring subsequent changes intheir behaviour according to the requirementand can also change way of teaching. IOne of the most important thing ill classroominteraction is the communication. Communication ·will be learned in UNIT-IV in details.SUBJECT MATTER : It is also known ascurriculum. Curriculum is a "general overallplan of the content or specific material ofinstruction, that an educational institutionshould offer to the student by way of qualifyinghim for graduation or certification". It is also abody of prescribed educational experience underan institutional supervision, designed toprovide an individual with the best possibletraining and experience to fit him foy the societyof which he/she is a part, or to qualify him fora trade or profession. It is also defined as"a subject matter, instructional materials,situations o~ experience that may , help todevelop understanding, skills, appreciation andattitudes". , Curriculum should be logical, .psychological and according to the needs of thepupil and also the society. It should be objectivein approach. Curriculum can be of two types:(i) Teacher oriented curriculum :''In thistype of 'curriculum the process of selection ofmaterials content is based on the needs-of theinstructor/teacher. The teacher is proficient in ,his particular field and is considered superior.(ii) Child/student orient~d cu~riculum : Acurriculum in which the criteria for theselection. and sequence of material, activitiesand experiences for any particular pupil are theneeds, maturity, interests and experientialbackgrounds ofthe individual child.In our country the NCERT is the maininstitution authorised for making curriculum.Every state has . his own curriculum makingbodies known as SCERT.Some 'states followsthe NCERT curriculum. All schools affliateduses. This is the most important step of-teaching learning process.the CBSE boards generally follow NCERTcurriculum. At higher _level every universitymake their own curriculum according to theguidelines of University Grant Commissionwhich acts for the uniformity in curriculum athigher level in our country.QUALITIES OF TEACHERCONTEXT (SETTING) : Previously schoolswere not designed to successfully teach all .students. Nowadays their motto have been

changed. Their nE;W motto is 'DO LEARN'. Thissetting is dynamic and flexible. This ischanging in view -of making it beneficial tosociety rather than for an individual.Teaching is a process carried out in .differeritsteps. There are five main steps of teaching(i) Preparatioli : This stage is required or -intended for the preparation of both theteacher and the students. The teacherprepare the ~tudent for a new topic or ~lesson in variety of ways.(ii) Presentation : At this stage the newlesson actually begins. The students knowthat what they are going to learn. Thesubject material should be carefullyarranged by the teacher. He has toencourage the students to observe,compare and contrast the. facts presentedto them. This stage requires mentalalertness from the students. Thepresentation rests in. the principle ofselection of the area to be covered. It is notnecessary for a· teacher to cover up allareas of the course of study. He. may leavesome areas for students self study.(iii) -Comparison : In this section afterpresentation of subject matter, the student(i) Teacher should be mentally nadphysically fit.(ii) Teacher should be keen in his wGrk andshould be enthusiastic and anxious tokeep his knowledge fresh & update.(iii) He should possess patience andtolerance and try to study thedifficulties and problem of students andtry to solve them in a quite and calmmanner.(iv) He should have feelings of love andsympathy.(v) He must not be superstitious about hisstudents and class.(vi) He should be well dressed and wellmaintained.(vii) His voice should be sweet, polite andclear.(viii) His language should be understandableto the students.(ix) He must not give any false promise.(x) He/she should have interest in hisprofession and the knowledge must beupdated.(xi) He must not have any bad habits.(xii) Teacher must have a goodcommunication skill and must be amaster of his area or field of teaching.

(xiii) Teacher should be trained in variousmethods of teaching.(xiv) He should know the child psychology.(xv) -Teacher should be a good researcher.(xvi) He should have a control over students- to maintain peace and order in,class.(xvii) Teaching should be pupil central ratherthan subject centres.is given opportunity to compare two ormore sets of facts. This enhance theuriderstanding of lesson among students asthey compare and observe different facts.(iv) Generalisation: This stage comes afterthe comparison and observation. DifferenttyPes of conclusions can be drawn fromcomparison and generalisation. Theseconclusions are systemised in a particular(xviii) Teacher should arose interest amongstudents about the subject./ order to give a generalised truth.(v) Appiication : At this stage thegeneralised facts are applied for various(;dx) .Teacher must be fair in grading andmarking.(xx) Teacher -should organise extracurricular activities for -betterunderstanding of subject matter.(xxi) Good interpersonal relationship shouldbe maintained.(xxii) Rewards and punishments should b~given according to their behaviour butusually punishment should be avoided.(xxiii) Teacher should use modern techniques,methods and gadgets in teaching forbetter understanding of subject matter.(xxiv) Teacher should evoke curiosity of thepupils by presenting the subject matterin an effective manner with clearexplanation leading to betterunderstanding of the matter.(xxv) Teacher should arrange subject matterin a logical way.(xxvi) Teacher should make a lesson planbefore presenting the lesson in the class . .(xxvii) Teacher should work as a leader in theclass.(xxviii) Teacher should maintain a democraticatmosphere in the class so that everystudent will be able to put his doubt,questions and ideas with suggestion.(xxix) Teacher should act as a role model forhis students with his character andbehaviour. He way follow the way of"simple living and great thinking".(xxx) Teacher should inspire his pupil.

Part II QUESTIONS 1. If majority of students in your class areweak you should(a) not care about the intelligent students(b) keep your speed of teaching fast sothat students comprehension levelmay increase(c) keep your teaching slow(d) keep your teaching slow along withsome extra guidance to bright pupils2. If some ,o f your pupils misbehave with youin the college campus you must(a) report to the principal(b) report to their parents(c) improve their behaviour by your owncharacter and scholarship(d) mobilize other teachers against theseguys3. A teacher in the class should keep thepitch of his voice(a) high enough(b) low(c) moderate(d) sometime low and somtime high4. If some students fail in the examination itisthe fault of(a) the teacher(b) the principal(c) pupils themselves(d) text books5. A teacher who is not able to draw theattention of his students should(a) evaluate hIS teaching method andimprove it(b) resign from the post(c) find fault in his pupils(d) start dictating6. Itback-benchers are always talking in theclassroom a teacher should(a) let them do what they are doing(b) punish them(c) ask them to sit on the front benches(d) none of the above7. A teacher(a) should introduce the lesson before hestarts teaching(b) should have command over hislanguage(c) should have command over hissubject(d) all of the above8. If a teacher is not able to answer the

question of a pupil he should(a) say that he will answer afterconsultation(b) rebuke the pupil(c) say that the question is wrong(d) feel shy of his ignorance9. Arrange the following teaching process inorder .(i) relating the present knowledge withthe preVious knowledge(ii) evaluation(iii) reteaching .(iv) . formulating objectives(v) preseritation of materials(a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)(b) (ii), (i), (iii), (iv), (v)(c) (v), (iv), (iii), (i), (ii)(d) (iv), (i),(v), (ii), (iii)10. Use oftelecast materials(a) enhances concentration and learning(b) reduces the burden ofthe teacher(c) increases retention power(d) all of the above11. If students are not able to follow, youshould(a) give them prompt(b) make the matter easy(c) illustrate with examples(d) All ofthe above12. Micro teaching is useful to students of(a) . primary classes only(b) junior classe~ only(c) 10 + 2 classes only(d) higher classes and primary classesboth13. If remarks are passed by students on you,as a teacher, you will(a) punish them(b) expel them from the college(c) take revenge while evaluating internaltest copies(d) be impartial at the time of evaluation14. Ma.ximum participation of . students ISpossible in teaching through(a) lecture method(b) discussion method(c) textbook method(d) audio-visual aids15. Which of the following IS the mostimportant single factor in underlying-thesuccess of beginning a teacher?(a) scholarship(b) communicative ability(c) personality and its abi~ity to relate tothe class and to the pupils

(d) organisational ability16. The greatest important cause of failure inbeginning for a teacher lies in the area·of(a) inter-personal relationship(b) verbal ability(c) know ledge oJ the teacher(d) tight handling of the students17. All ofthe following are the characteristicfeatures of an effective teacher except(a) emphasis upon standard(b) emphasizing group discussion for thepurpose of clarifying the objectives(c) emphasis upon the quick control ofthe problematic situation(d) differential treatment meted out tostudents of his class18. An effective-teachirig means all of the followingexcept(a) a teacher teaches with enthusiasm(b) a teacher finds fault in his students(c) a teacher puts emphasis more onteachi.ng than on class control(d) a teacher is interested in making thesubject . matter understood ratherthan on completing the course19. The field of education is permeated byconflicts and misconception because(a) problems In education call forsubjectivity of interpretation(b) problems encountered in teaching arenot amenable to rigorous scientificinvesti -gation(c) there are not good teaching methodsand procedures(d) teachers are not worthy of dOIngrigorous scientific investigation20. The introduction of career courses inschools and colleges aims at(a) developing the ability to make the intelligentchoice of jobs(b) providing professional knowledge tostudents(c) increasing G.K. in students(d) All ofthe above21. The main role of education according toPlato was'(a) to develop the power of contemplation(b) to develop the personality of eachindividual(e) to strengthen the state(d) All of the above22. Teachers should study educationalphilosophy because(a) they do not know it(b) they do not have their own philosophy '

(c) philosophy' is the backbone of all disciplines(d) they may improve their work by clarifyingtheir own philosophy23. Kindergarten (KG.) system o(educationmeans garden of small kids ;which ISindebted to(a) Dewey (b) Froebel(c) Plato (d) Spencer24. John Locke's phrase oftabula rl:!-sa means(a) Tal and Ras(b) free education(c) mind its eli is a result ofthe process ofevolution(d) All of the above25. A democratic society is one which(a) follows the principles of equality, free dom,fraternity and justice .(b) respects the enlightened individuals(c) believes Ill ' equal educationalopportunity(d) All of the above26. An effective teacher adopts the norms ofthe(a) democratic society(b) leizes faire society(c) autocratic society(d) all of the above according to thesituation27. While dealing with juvenile delinquents ateacher should(a) play them with filthy sex jokes(b) talk with them frankly and guide andchannelize their potentialities in constructiveways(e) complain to .the principal againstthem .UGC-JRF (Paper 1)- 2(d) none ofthe above28. TV is superior-to radio as teaching aidbecause it(a) is costly(b) invites two senses-hearing and .vision simultaneously leading to moreaccurate form of learning(c) is generally liked by pupils(d) all of the above29. The major responsibility with which theschool personnels have been entrusted isthatI (a) it harmonizes the needs of th~ childand demands of the society for thebenefit of both(b) it makes the child able to get job(e) ,it prepares the school programme accordingto the need of the child

(d) all oftheabove .30. The best educatiQnal programme is onewhich is according to the(a) need of the child(b) ability of the child(c) interest of child(d) all of these along with the need ofthesociety31. While delivering leeture if there is somedisturbance in the class, then a teachershould(a) keep quite for a while and then go on(b) . n0t bother of what is happening in theclass(e) punish those causing disturbance(d) all ofthe ~ove32. On which of the following statementsthere is consensus among educators?(a) Disciplinary cases should be sent tothe principal only when other meanshave failed(b) Disciplinary cases should never besent to the principal's office(e) Disciplinary cases should be totallyneglected in the class(d) None of the above33. Classroom discipline can be maintainedeffectively by .(a) knowing the cause of indiscipline andhandling it with stern hand(b). providing a programme which isaccordingto the need and interest of thepupils(e) by putting on fancy clothes in theclassroom(d) none of the above34. The most appropriate meaning oflearningis(a) inculcation of knowledge '.(b) modification of behaviour(c) personal adjustment(d) acquisition of skills35. In the final analysis, teaching must bethought of mainly as a process of .(a) asking questions and evaluating thelearning(b) directing the activities ofthe pupilsle) hearing the lrecitation of pupils(d) all ofthe above36. The functions of a teacher is in the orderof(a) guiding the child, helping himtowards progress and evaluation(b) checking homework, guiding him andassigning further task

(c) Both of these(d) None of the above37. A teacher in the class is(a) the president ofthe group(b) a director of the group(c) a leader and guide of the group(d) all of the above38. Teachers primary responsibilIty lies in(a) planning educational experiences(b) implementing policies(e) keeping students records(d) all of the above39. A teacher is expected to d0,all except(a) participation in community activities(b) help pupils to solve their problems(c) taking interest in politics(d) sponsor clubs and other school affairs(e) keeping students'records40. In order ' to develop rapport with yourpupils you should(a) guide them(b) behave them in a democratic ray(c) have communicative ability ,(d) all ofthe above I41.Verbal guidance is least effective m 'teaching(a) attitude (b) concept and facts(c) relationship (d) skills42.A teacher meeting his students for thefirst time should(a) start teaching without caring thestudents likes and dislikes.(b) develop rapport with the class(e) give a broad outline of the wholesubject(d) (b) and (c) both43: Before starting instruction a teachershould(a) know the existing knowledge of hisstudents and their backgroundknowledge(b) be aware of the environmentalvariables acting on the mind of thepupils(c) be competent enough to arouse thecuriosity of his pupils(d) all of the above44. Observable behaviours which a teachercan use in the class to bring home to thepupil an idea or point is technically called(a) teaching skills .(b) communication facilities(c) demonstration(d) none of these45. Quality of education in a school/college

can be measured through(a) infra structural facilities available(b) manpower, teachers arid principalavailable(c) students'achievement(d) all of the above46. Which of the following statement~regarding motivation is correct?(a) Freewill, intellect and reason are themotivating factors ac,cording to Plato(b) Inborn, unlearned tendencies, calledinstincts are the motivating forcesaccording to James Burt(c) Curiosity and level of aspiration arethe motivating factors according toBerlyne(d) All ofthe above47. An effective teacher is expected to(a) encourage the students to makeinitiative(b) reduce the anxiety level of students tomoderate leyel(c) to make students feel that educationis their need(d) all ofthe above ,48. The professional requirements of ateacher as explained in the UNESCOpublication is/are(a) mastery over the subject andcompetency for teaching(b) Innovativeness ill approach andteaching strategies(c) justice to the profession(d) All of the above49. Effective teaching means(a) Love, cooperation, sympathy,affection and encouragement given tostudents .(b) Corporal punishment given tostudents at the time of moral offences(c) Individualized instruction and openclassroom discussion(d) both (a) and (c)50. All ofthe following statements regarding ateacher are correct except):hat he islhe(a) a friend, guide and philosopher51.(b) teaches what the students do notknow(c) the leader of the Class(d) changes his attitudes and behaviourac~ordi~g to the need of the societyDrop outs are more likely to be(a) unemployed(b) vulnerable to the. requirement of

public assistance(c) engaged in antisocial behaviour(d) all ofthese52. Teacher's professionalism means(a) the extent to which a teachersubscribes to a professional code(b) a teacher has to teach for the sakI;! ofgetting salaries(c) a teacher must have completed professionalteachers training course beforehis appointment(d) all of the above53. Teachers' professionalism may beassessed in terms of all of the followingcommitments except ..(a) commitment to the profession andstudents(b) commitment to the colleagues andemployer(c) commitment to the religion and castes(d) commitment to the parents and community54. The first important step in teaching is(a) planning before }land .(b) organizing material to be taught(c) knowing the background of students(d) non~ ofthe above55. Suppose .you are an ambitious teacher.You have high ideals for class roomteaching but your hard labour goes Invain. The reason underlying this problemmaybe(a) Your teaching level is above theability level of students(b) Individual differences among studentsmake your efforts futile(c) both ofthese(d) none ofthc above56. If a student becomes unconscious in theclass what will you do first?(a) Rushing to theprincipal's office andcon vas sing for help impatiently(b) Telephoning student's parents andwaiting for them(c) Giving first aid to him and trying tocontact any nearby doctor(d) making arrangement to send him tohis home57.If you come across to teach a blind studentalong with the normal students what typeof behaviour you are expected·to exhibit?(a) Take care of him with sympathy(b) Don't give any extra attention becausemajority of students may suffer(c) Arrange the seat in the front row andtry to keep your teaching pace

according to him without making theother students suffer(d) none of the above , ,58. A new comer teacher w:ho is maltreated inhis class will deal with the students by(a) applying punitive measures(b) improving his qualities andexpressing it before them in a goodway(c) changing his class after consultationwith the principal(d) giving them a threat of expulsion59. If a child is a back bencher and is unableto watch the black board cleariy, As aresult he stands, sees and sits repeatedly.What inference will you draw regardingthe case? '(a) The child is of short height ascompared to his class mates(b) The blackboard is under shining effectoflight(c) The child has defective-vision(d) both (a) and (c) "60.A child may have hearing impairment if(a) he speaks loudly unusually(b) he comes nearer to the speaker duringconversation '(c) he generally says, "Please repeat" tothe teacher(d) all of the above -If a girl student requests you to collect herposts at your address what would you liketo do in this case ?( a) You would not gIve permission as it isagainst your own principles(b) You will never give her your ownaddress suspecting a foul game(c) You will permit the girl to collect the12posts at your address because as ateacher you should do it(d) You will permit her bec'ause you havesome attachment with her62: Suppose you are teaching in a minority -college where casteism and narrowmindedness victimize you, for betteradjustment there you should(a) uplift the humanistic values beyondthese narrow wall and developscientific temper in your students(b) be submissive there and save your jobat all costs(c) rebel against such attitudes as it isagainst the norms of the Indiansociety

(d) none ofthe above63.' If a high 'caste teacher adopts adiscriminatory attitude toward a low castestudents his behaviour is(a) correct according to his religion(bj against the national spirit, and needof the hour(c) not against the constitutiOnalprovisions(d) not against the code of teacher's professionalismof UNESCO64. If a student is-constantly rubbing his eyesand is 'unattentive during blackboardwork he is having(a) adjustment problem(b) ' hearing problem(c) visual problem(d) all of the above65. If you are irritated and show rashnessbecause of the inadequate behavioursshown by others what'do you think aboutyour own behaviour(a) it is justified because behaviours areecho lime(b) your behaviour is not good becauseelders have the right to qehave you inthis way(c) your behaviour is also the sign of maladjustment and so try to controlyouselfwhen you are maltreated(d) none' ofthese66. Suppose the teachers are busy in cracking (b) live in isolation or change the groupfilthy jokes and you are also there but you (c) instruct them to mind their languageare unable to stop them you should while passing leisure time(a) persuade them decently not to waste (d) be critical and remind them "for thetheir time-in-fifthy jokes nobility of their jobsANSWERS1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10(d) (c) (a) . (c) (a) (c) (d) (a) (d) (a)11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20(c) (d) (d) (b) (c) (a) (c) (b) (b) (a)21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 ,(a) (d) (b) (c) (d) (a) (b) (b) (a) (d)31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40(a) (a) (b) (b) (b) (a) (c) (a) (c) (d)41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50(d) (d) (d) (a) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (b)51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60(d) (a) (e) (c) (c) (c) (c) (b) (d) (d)61 62 63 64 65 66(a) (a) (b) (c) (c) (a)Note: Steps in teaching1. Planning before hand 5. Analysis and Synthesis2. Knowing the background 6. Evaluation3. Organizing the material to be taught 7. Recapitulation

4. Presentation of material. .

Communication Part I COMMUNICATIONINTRODUCTIONCommunication is one of the most generalfeatures of life. We cannot imagine life withoutit. Every living species have their own way ofcommunication. We use different symbols,gestures, and other different means tocommunicate with each other. Communicationis required not only to represent our ideas,views, . feeling but also to understand otherpeople. Classroom communication is veryimportant in teaching. It requires the attentionfrom both sides i.e. from the teacher as well asfrom the student. As, if a teacher explains a. topic in a languase which is not known to thestudents, his teaching will be unusable. He hasto communicate in a way which is mosta~ceptable to the students. Therefore,Communication may be defined as "anexchange of ideas, facts, opinion or emotions bytwo or more people". An important virtue to bedeveloped by teacher is the promotion ofcompetent communication skill. The teachershould be able to communicate in an effectivemanner by arranging the informationemphatically and logically. It should enablechildren to understand and conceptualisedtheir world. This is the essence ofcommunication in teaching. The word"Communication" is originally derived from theLatin verb "Communicare" which means "tomake commor.." or "to share". It is also believedto have been based on a Latin word,"communis", which means to communicate andshare, to impart a piece of information, amessage, an idea or concept. It is a process,which includes transmission of information,ideas, emotions, skills, knowledge by usingsymbols, words, pictures, graphs, drawings,illustrations etc. The act of communication isreferred as 'transmission'. Again,"Communication" is the process by which weunderstand and in turn try to be understood byothers. It is dynamic, constantly changing andshifting in response to the overall situation.Therefore, "communication" can be defined as"the interchange of thoughts or ideas".The objective of communication is tomotivate, inform, suggest, warn, order, changebehaviour and establish better relation with

others. Effective communica:;ion is aprerequisite for the attainment of objectives,more so in educational institutions . Allteaching-learning process is carried throughthe process of communication.Generally, it seems that communication isa one way process. But we can see in our dailylife that it is a two way process, as,cOIpmunication is a system through which themessages are sent, and feedback arereceived. Communication is, therefore, theprocess of transferring a particular informationor message from an information source to adesired, definite or a particular destination.One of the fundamentals of communicationmessages is perception. The effectiveness ofcommunication is limited by the recipient's rangeof perception. Secondly, people perceive only whatthey expect and understand. Thirdly,communication makes a demand on the recipient,in terms of his emotional preference or rejection.Finally, communication is not to be focused withinformation. While information is logical, formaland impersonal, communication is perception.Communication of message takes placethrough spoken or written words, pictures andin many other similar forms. · In oralcommunication, the transmitter is the "voicebox" of the speaker. In telegraphy, it is thetelegraphic key board (Morse key) which codesthe message into dashes and dots. The receiverdecodes the.transmitted message in a form hecan understand and comprehend.The receiver of the message may be thehuman ear, which converts sound waves into acomprehensible form which can be recognizedby the human brain; a television receiverdecodes the electromagnetic waves intorecognizable visual representation. Similarly,the printed message can be deciphered by areceiver which can recognize and understandthe language.Noted communication scholar, David K.Berlo, has stated that "we look to the message(speech, manuscript, play, advertisement, etc.)in order to determine the communicativepurpose". The process of communicationinvolves a procedure consisting of only a fewsteps. Berlo has suggested one model to properlycomprehend the process which includes:A communication source or an encoder,A message,A channel,A decoder or a communication receiver or a destination.

This is illustrated as under:The information source, decides tocommunicate and encodes a message,transmits it through a channel to the receiver,which is then decoded and acted upon. Thereare noises or distortions in between.Thus, as illustrated above, we see thatthere are six elements of communication: acode, a channel, encoding, decoding, encoderand decoder.A message is comm unicated or a piece ofinformation is conveyed by means of amechanism. This is necessary with a view tobeing able to convey the message/informationfully and completely. Thus, there is a sender ofthe message·who is also called an encoder, "justas a computer understands the language of acode." A channel or · device is used tocommunicate the message. It could be a radio ora television set, newspaper or magazine and thelike. The encoding process means putting themessage together or arranging the ideas in arecognizable and understandable form, forconveying it to the receivers. Unlike intelegraphy, the encoder here is an humanagent. The encoder decides the content of themessage. Similarly, decoder is the destinationwhere the message lands.The receiver has to wait for the words tobe spoken or written and to make out what he/she can make of them according to his/herknowledge, experience, assumption, andattitudes. When two people communicate whoare equally matched in intelligence, socialbackgrounds and comprehension power; · theadvantages and disadvantages pass from one tothe oth~r. Thus, the encoder (who is the initiatorof the communication activity) chooses his subjectand the channel of comm unication and makes thefirst impact on the mind of the decoder.Decoding is one of the most important andvery crucial elements of the communicationprocess. The entire process of comprehensionprocess of communication hinges on the decoderof course, the message will be received, recordedand interpreted differently by different peopleaccording to their knowledge, experience andunderstanding levels.

FEATURES OF COMMUNICATIONWe can· define communication as a systemicprocess in which people interact with andthrough symbols to create and interpretmeanmgs.The definition of communication has three

important facets.Process: Communication is a process, whichmeans that it is ongoing and always-in motion.It's hard to tell when communication starts andstops because what happened before we talkwith someone may influence our interaction,and what occurs in a particular encounter mayaffect the future. That communication is aprocess means it is always in motion, movingforward and changing continuously. We cannotfreeze communication at anyone moment. So itis dynamic in proce·ss. -Systemic: Communication takes place withinsystems. A system consists of interrelated partsthat affect one another. In classroomcommunication, teacher and each student ispart of the system. In addition, the physicalenvironment and the time of day are elementsof the system that affect interaction. Thehistory of a system also ~fects communication.If a student has a history of listening sensitivelyand working out problems constructively, thenhelshe will be in better communication mode.On the other hand, if the student has a recordof nasty conflicts and internal strife, helshe willnot communicate in a better way in classroom.Communication is also affected by the largersystems within which it t&~ces place. SymboliccommuniCation is symbolic. It relies symbols,which are abstract, arbitrary, arid ambiguousrepresentations of other things. Remember thathuman communication involves interactionwith and through symbols.Meanings: Finally, our definition focuses onmeanings, which are at the heart ofcommunication. Meanings are the significancewe bestow on phenomenon, or what they signifyto us. We do not find meanings in experienceitself. Instead, we use symbols to createmeanings.

THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATIONWe can determine the elements involved(circulatory and digestive systems, forexample), analyze how those elements' affect oneanother, and thus determine the nature oftheprocess as a whole. Applying this approach tothe communication process, we find eightelements (1) a source/encoder ofcommunication, which sends (2) a message(3) through a channel to (4) a receiver/decoder, which (5) responds via feedbackw'ith (6) possibilities of com'municationbreakdowns (Barrier) in each stage ofcomm~nication. However, these elements must

be understood and analyzed in relation to (7) thesituation or context, ;md (8) the system(such as relationship), which is created andmaintained . at some level by thecommunicators. ,The SourcelEncoder andThe sender begins the communication processby forming the ideas, intentions and feelingsthat will be transmitted. The sender is requiredto filter out the details that are uilimportantand focus hislher energy on the most relevantinformation. The source, or en~oder makes thedecision to communicate. The source alsodetermines what the purpose of the messagewill be to inform, persuade, or entertain. Thecommunication process starts from the source.First, the source must encode, or create, amessage. That is, the information that thesource wishes to convey must be put into a formthat can be sent to the receiver.Message : The . second element of thecommunication process is the message, or thatinformation which is being communicated. Thesource encodes an idea and then determineswhether or not to inform , persuade, orentertain. After deciding what message to send,the source uses symbols to get the messageacross to others. These symbols stand for otherthings. The most important symbols are words,which can represent objects, ideas, and feelings.These words permit us to share our thoughtswith other members of our species. To increasethe likelihood of successful communication, thesource must try to encode in a way that thereceiver understands, so that the receiver canproperly decode (interpret) the message.Channel: Channels are the means (that is,pathways or devices) by which messages arecomm).lnicated. Channels may be described andanalyzed in two different ways. The firstinvolves the form in which messages are sent toreceivers. Forms include both verbal andnonverbal channels of communication. We useour five senses to receive messages from others.Channels may also be described according tothe manner of presentation employed incommunication. Depending on the situation,the source would concentrate on verbal andlorrlonverbal channels of communication. If thespeaker is not infront of the audience hislherphysical appearance wouldn't matter, but ifheor she is giving lectures in a classroom or beforea live audience, personal appearance couldeasily influence the reception of the message.Whatever channels of communication are used,the source must learn to adapt the message to

make use of the most appropriate channelsavailable for the situation.ReceiverlDecoder : The person (or persons)who attends to the source's message is thereceiver. The act of interpreting messages iscalled decoding. Receivers decode messagesba sed on past experienc€s, perceptions,thoughts, and feelings . We first have aphysiological reception of stimuli (a noisecauses sound waves to hit our eardrum or amovement catches our eye). We then payattention to both the verbal and nonverbalstimuli and reduce all the stimuli bombardingus to one or two we can cope with more easily.Next, we try to understand the stimuli andinterpret them into messages (we decide thatthe noise is a telephone bell or that themovement is a friend waving to us acrosscampus). Finally,we store this information forlater use so that next time we will be able torespond to the stimuli more quickly. It isimportant to remember that receivers makeimmediate decisions about what they willrespond to in a given situation.F eedback : Another element in thecommunication process is feedback. Each partyin an interaction continuously sends messagesback to the other. This return process is calledfeedback. Feedback tells .the source how thereceiver has interpreted each message: Thefeedback, which conveys lack of understanding,is known as negative feedback. ' Positivefeedback, on the other hand, indicates that thereceiver has understood the source's message.It does not necessarily mean that he or sheagrees with the source, just that the messagewas interpreted accurately. Feedback can alsobe ambiguous, not clearly positive or n'egative.'q.. see" and "mm-hmm" can be examples of 'ambiguous feed back . Th e effectivecommunicator is always sensitive to feedbackand constantly modifies his or her messages asa result of the feedback received.BarrierslNoise : The human communicationsystem can be compared with a radio ortelephone circuit. Just as in radiotransmissions, where distortion can occur atany point along the circuit (channel), there canbe similar barriers in human communication.The source's information may be insufficient orunclear. Or the message can be ineffectively orinaccurately encoded. The wrong channel ofcommunication may be used. The message maynot be decoded the way it was encoded. Finally,the receiver may not equipped to handle the

decoded message in such a way as to producethe response (feedback) expected by the source.'Barriers' are any obstacles or difficulties thatcome in the way of communication. They maybe physical, mechanical, psychological, culturalor linguistic in nature. Besides, then are thebarriers, raised by interpersonal relationshipsbetween individual and groups, the prejudicesof both individuals and groups and the channelsthey use to communicate. Barriers tocommunication also occur if the sender andreceiver are not on the same "wavelength". Thisis as true in human communication as it is inradio transmission. In the 'jargon' ofcommunication, all barriers whatever theirnature are clubbed under a common label'noise', it denotes not only atmospheric orchannel disturbance, but all barriers thatdistort communications in any manner.Physical Barriers: Four main kinds ofdistractions act as 'physical barriers' to thecommunication process. These are:(1) The Competing Stimulus in the form ofanother conversation going on withinhearing distance, or loud music or trafficnoise in the background.(2) Environmental Stress: A hightemperature and humidity, poorventilation, vibrations felt, a strong glare all can contribute to distortions in thesending and receiving of messages.(3) Subjective Stress: Sleeplessness, illhealth, the effects of drugs and moodvariations give rise to forms of subjective35stress that often lead to great difficulties inlistening and interpretation.(4) Ignorance of the Medium: The variousmedia for communication are: oral,written, audio, visual and audiovisual.The use of a medium with which thecommunicators iue not familiar would ·turn the medium itself into a barrier.Psychological Barriers: Each of us has acertain 'frame of referenc-e', a kind of windowthrough which we look out at the world, atpeople,' and events and situations. A frame ofreference is a system' of standards and values,usually implicit, underlying and to some extentcontrolling aI! action, or the expression of artybelief, attitude or idea. No two individualspossess exactly similar frames of reference,even if they are identical twins. To a largeextent our experiences, particularly ourchildhood experiences, and the cultural

environment we have grown up in influence ourframes of reference.Linguistics and Cultural Barriers: Alanguage is the expression ofthe thoughts andexperiences of people in terms of their culturalenvironment. When the same language is madeuse of in a different culture, it takes an anothercolour, another meaning.Mechanical Barriers: Mechanical barriersare those raised by the channels employed forinterpersonal, group or mass communication.Channels become barrier when the message isinterfered with by some disturbance, which(1) increased the difficulty in reception or(2) prevented some elements of the messagereacping its destination or both. The absence ofcommunication facilities too would be amechanical barrier. This ' type of barrierincludes any disturpance, which interferes withthe fidelity of the physical transmission of thewritten, intentional- unintentional etc.. One ofthe' most common typology relates 0 the size ofthe social group or the number of peopleinvolved in the experience of communication.Such a typology ranges from the intrapersonaland interpersonal and t ranspersonal, to thegroup and the mass.

Communication Part II INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATIONThis means communicating within yourself.When you think, daydream, solve problems,and image, you a re in the realm ofintrap ersonal communication. Someinvestigators also include all physical feedbackmechanisms, such as the sensations of hunger,pain, and pleasure in this area.INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATIONThis form of comrriimication describes theinteract ions of two or more people. The mostsignificant setting for interpersonalcommu nication IS di r ect fac e-to -facecommunication between two persons. Aninterview, a conversation, and in timatecommunications come under this heading. It ismore per~uasive and int1uential than any othertype of communication. For it involves ,thein,terplay of words and gestures, the warmth ofhuman closeness and in fact all the five senses.Feedback is the key word here. Feedback isinstantaneous.

GROUP COMMUNICATIONGroup commun ica tion shares all these

qualities, though in a muchJess measure. Thelarger the group the less personal and intimateis the possibility of exchange. In fact, as thegroup grows in size communication tends tobecome more and more of monologue, forparticipation becomes problematic. The degreeof directness and intimacy, therefore, dependsupon the size of the group, the place where itmeets, as also the relationship of the membersof the-group to one another , and to the groupmessage.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATIONCommunication has been classified into severaltypes: in terms of the verbal-nonverbal, oral-I leader. Group communica tion requires thefollowing conditions: leadership, equal sharingof ideas, peer pressure, roles and norms, andfocus on a common goal.MASS COMMUNICATIONWhen a message needs help to get from itssource to its destination, mass communicationbegins to function. Usually some form ofmedium-one meaning of which is 'between'- isneeded to connect the sender to receivers. Thesemedia and visibility to some people and points ofviews, whereas it mutes other voices andviewpoints. Thus mass communication affectsour perceptions of issues, events, and people. BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATIONBarriers at the sender: Encoding meanscreating and sending of massage. The processof selecting and organizing symbols torepresent a message requires skill andknowledge. Obstacles listed below caninterfere with an effective message.1. Lack ...o. f Sensitivity to Receiver.Sender must know the receiver's needs,status, knowledge of the subject, andlanguage skills before creating andsending a massage as breakdown incommunication may result when amessage is not adapted to its receiver.2. Lack of Basic COInnllinicatio.nSkills. If the sender will not choose theprecise words needed and arranging thosewords in a grammatically correctsentence then the receiver is less likely tounderstand the message.3. Insufficient Knowledge of theSubject. If the sender lacks specificinformation about something, thereceiver will likely receive an unclear ormixed message.

4. Information Overload. If a message is .--'with too much information, thengenerally receiver may tend to put up abarrier because the amount ofinformation is coming so fast that he/shemay have difficulty in understanding ofinterpreting that information.5 . . Emotional Interference. Anemotional sender cannot send itsmessage III wellplanned manner. Ifsomeone is angry, hostile, resentful,joyful, or fearful, that person may be toopreoccupied with emotions to receive theintended messa,ge.Transmitting Barriers: Things that get inthe way of message transmission aresometimes called "noise." Communicationmay be difficult because of noise and some ofthese problems:1. Physical Distractions. A noisyclassroom can destroy communication. Ifa notes or something on board is notformatted properly, or if it containsgrammatical and spelling errors, thereceiver may not be able to concentrate on.the message · because the physicalappearance of the massage is sloppy andunprofessional.2. Conflicting Messages. Messages thatcause a conflict in perception for thereceiver may result in incompletecommunication. For example if a teacherrequests his pupil to answer somequestions immediately without giving thestudents enough time to gather theproper information.3. Channel Barriers. If the senderchooses an inappropriate channel ofcommunication, communication may notreach in a proper way. Such as if ateacher started saying something in 'aclass of deefs verbally he will not be ableto communicate properly to his students.Barriers . at the receiver: Thecommunication cycle may break down at thereceiving end for some of these reasons:1. Lack of Interest. If a student doesnothave any interest in your class orsubject he will not take care of whatyou are telling.2. Lack of Knowledge. If a studentdon't know the basics of a topic or. subject, he/she is unable to understandthe topic or subject if you will start ata higher level.

3. Lack of ComnlUnication Skills.Those who have weak reading andlistening skills make ineffectivereceivers. On the other hand, thosewho have a good professionalvocabulary and who concentrate onlistening, have less trouble hearing andinterpreting good communication.4. Emotional Distractions. Ifemotions interfere with the creationand transmission of a message, theycan also disrupt reception. If a student .does not like hislher teacher receive alesson from the teacher, he/she mayhave trouble even reading and listningthe lesson objectively. He/she mayread, not objectively, but to find fault.Student may misinterpret words andread negative impressions between thelines. Consequently, he/she is likely tomisunderstand part or all of thereport.5. Physical Distractions. If aclassroom is full of bright lights, glareon computer screens, loud noises, or inan area of excessively hot or cold place,or physical ailments, those studentswill probably experie ncecommunication breakdowns on aregular basis.

QUESTIONS I1. Following are the experimental learning _.activities adopted by a teacher. Arrangethem in cyclic order.(f) Avoid teaching when pupils are not inproper mood(g) All of these(i) Accommodation(ii) Converging(iii) Assimilation(iv) Diverging(a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) (b) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i)(c) . (ii), (iii), (iv), (i) (d) (iii), (i), (ii), (iv)2; Which of the following methods ofcommunicationis the most effective?(a) presenting written material(b) presenting written material(c)alongwith film projector(d)multi-media method(e)can not be determined3. Better classroom management means(a) per group work and better interactionamong pupils .(b) prior preparation of teacher in the

making of suitable aids(c) punctuality of ·the teachers incomming in the class and finishingthe course in time .(d) getting the attention and cooperationof all the students befo:re starting theclass/task(e) moving around the room to identifypupils having 0.1' creating problems4. Arrange the following activities ofinteraction in logical order(i) Analysis of the work done(ii) Plarining and preparation(iii) Presentation of material(iv) Modification and improvement(a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) (b) (ii), (iii), (i), (iv)(c) (iv), (i), (ii), (iii) (d) (i), (iii), (iv), (ii)5. Which of the following skills has thelargest share in communication time inschoolS/college?(a) Listening (b) Reading(c) Writing (d) Speaking6. All are the components of listening except(a) hearing(b) attending-being attentive(c) answenng(d) understanding and rememberingNote: These four components are used inthe order of hearing, atten~ing, understandingand remembering.7. Listening is badly affected by(a) message overload-excess of listenedmaterial(b) high speed of speaking(c) a sizable hearing loss-physiologicalproblem(d) all ofthe above8. The most important aspect of communication-listening, can be improved by(a) making the attention fully paid(b) making the communicated materialnovel-interes~ing and need based.(c) making voice effective and impressive(d) all of these9. Listening to a lecture is(a) informational listening(b) evaluative listening(c) emphatic listening(d) none of these10. The main purpose of evaluative listening is(a) to accept or reject an idea given to thelistener(b) to evaluate the speaker's credibilityand personality(c) ' both of above

(d) none of these11. A student helps a teacher to solve theproblem while the teacher was deliveringthe lecture. He was(a) an emphatic listener(b) an evaluative listener(c) a realistic listener(d) an informational listener12. The process of communication enhancesthrough:(a) belongingness(b) security and freedom to make choices(c) informality of meeting and avoidanceof pressure(d) all ofthese13. Software computer can not be used(a) for demonstration(b) for reading and writing(c) as a systematic programmed learningtechniques(d) as a machine for evaluating studentsprogress14. Which of the following can not be a goodway of communication in promotingliteracy among villagers?(a) Demonstration(b) Reading and writing(c) providing material on TV and filmprojector(d) Large group discussion15. All are the examples of the media of twoway communication except(a) public meeting(b) padyatra(c) streetplays(d) procession and rallies16. The latest development in the hardwaretechnology is the introduction of(a) FM channels (b) Z channels(c) M channels (d) Star channel17. CHEER stand for(a) Children Enrichment EducationThrough Radio(b) Child Health Education Electronic Recording(c) Children for Engineers and EnergyRequirement(d) None of the above18. Educational TV was first introduced inIndia in(a) 1961 (b) 1959(c) 1968 (d) 196119. SITE stands for(a) System for International Technologyand Engineering(b) Satellite Instructional Television Experiment

(c) South Indian Trade Estate(d) None ofthese20. Visualization in the instructional processcan not increase(a) interest and motivation(b) retention and adaptation(c) stress and boredom(d) curiosity and concentration21. Which of the following teachers will youlike most?(a) On~ who uses board occasionally(b) One who uses chart and maps(c) One who uses film projector alongwiththe proper use of the board(d) One who uses motion picture as a lastresort22. Overhead projector is superior to shortcircuit TV In a classroom teaching because(a) it is cheap and self devised(b) pictures in it may be shown in adesired sequence and with aminimum oflost motion (material)(c) information presented though it iseasily retained(d) it is easy to use .Which of the following groups of studentscan be most benefited computer basededucation programme?(a) Small group of low IQ(b) Large group of moderate intelligence(c) Heterogeneous groups in IQ(d) All of the above24. Closed circuit televisIon is useful25.26.(a) only for a restricted audience residingat a particular place(b) for large group communication(c) only for poor students of the class(d) none of the aboveTelevised educational programme isuseful because(a) it can present the natural phenomenonof the world in natural form(b) it can magnify the microscopic formsof life and can be presented on TV(c) it affords the opportunity for large audiencein the same auditorium or indifferent locations to view it clearly(d) all oftheseTeaching on TV is superior to class roominstruction because(a) very large classes are made possibleand thus it is economicallyadvantageous(b) experts for teaching a difficult topic

can be arranged and others can bebenefIted from them(c) teaching materials can be fIlmed for3927.(d) all of theseAll of the following are the limitations oftelevised instruction except(a) televised lesson moves at a fIxed speedand thus can not take the individualdifferences of students into account(b) it does not permit the exchange ofideas between the teachers and taught(c) it does not properly help the studentsin making the materials clearlyunderstood.(d) experts consume much time in ',planning and preparation of theprogramme.28. Which of the following is not a successfulcommunicator?(a) One who presents material in aprecise and clear way.(b) One who is able to adapt himself accordingto the language of thecommunicatee.(c) One who knows a lot but is somewhatreserve in his attitude.(d) One who sometimes becomes informalbefore the receiver and developsrappont29. Which of the following teachers will youlike most?(a) a loving teacher(b) a teacher of highly idealist philosophy(c) a teacher who often am uses hisstudents(d) a disciplined teacher30. As a chairmanofUPSC while selecting ateacher you should be(a) fair and impartial(b) able to judge the personality ofcandidates(c) encouraging to those appearing for interview.reuse (d) All oftheseAnswers:1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10(b) (c) (g) (b) (a) (c) (d) (d) (a) (c)11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20(a) (d) (a) (b) (c) (a) (a) (b) (b) (c)21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30(c) (b) (d) (a) (d) (d) (c) (c) (a) (d)

main features as objectives and different stages?Answer: Research is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for

new facts in any branch of knowledge. According to Redman and Mary research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge. According to D.Sleshinger and M.Stemson has defined research as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, heather that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art. Social research is a scientific undertaking which by means of logical and systematized techniques, aims to discover new factory verify a test old facts, analyze their sequence interrelationship and casual explanation which were derived within an appropriate theoretical frame of reference, develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilities reliable and valid study of human behavior. According to PV young social research the systematic method of discovering news facts or verifying old facts, their sequences, inter-relationships, casual explanation and the natural laws which governs them. Prof C.A Mosr defines social research as “systematized investigation to give new knowledge about social phenomena and surveys”. Rummel defined social research as it is devoted to a “study of mankind in his social environment and is concerned with improving his understanding of social orders, groups, institutes and ethics”. Mary Stevenson defined social research as “social research is a systematic methods of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to extend ,correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aid in the construction of a theory or in the practice of an art. The characteristic features of social research:Social research is scientific approach of adding to the knowledge about society and social phenomenon. Knowledge to be meaningful should have a definite purpose and direction. The growth of knowledge is closely linked to the methods and approaches used in research investigation. Hence the social science research must be guided by certain laid down objectives enumerated below Development knowledgeThe main object of any research is to add to the knowledge. As we have seen earlier, research is a process to obtain knowledge. Similarly social research is an organized and scientific effort to acquire further knowledge about the problem in question. Thus social science helps us to obtain and add to the knowledge of social phenomena. This one of the important objective of social research. Scientific study of social research:Social research is an attempt to acquire knowledge about the social phenomena. Man being the part of a society, social research studies human being as an individual, human behavior and collects data about various aspects of the social life of man and formulates law in this regards. Once the law is formulated then the scientific study tries to establish the interrelationship between these facts. Thus, the scientific study of social life is the base of the sociological development which is considered as second best objective of social research. Welfare of humanity: The ultimate objective of the social science study if often and always to enhance the welfare of humanity. No scientific research makes only for the sake of study. The welfare of humanity is the most common objective in social science research. Classification of facts:According to Prov P.V.Young, social research aims to clarify facts. The classification of facts plays important role in any scientific research. Social control and prediction: The ultimate object of many research undertaking is to make it possible, to redirect the behavior of particular type of individual under the specified conditions. In social research we generally study of the social phenomena, event and factors that govern and guide them. a) Social research deals with phenomena. It studies the human behavior. b) It discovers new facts and verifies old facts. With the improvement in the technique and changes in the phenomena the researcher has to study the. c) Casual relationship between various human activities can also be studies in social research. For the sake of systematic presentation, the process of research may be classifies under three stages 

Primary stageSecondary stageTertiary stageThe primary stage includesObservationInterestCrystallization, identification and statement of a research problemFormulation of hypothesisPrimary synopsisConceptual clarityDocumentationPreparation of bibliography andResearch designThe secondary stage includesProject planningProject formulationQuestionnaire preparationInvestigation and data collectionPreparation of final synopsisCompilation of dataClassificationTabulation and presentation of dataExperimentationAnalysisTesting of hypothesis andInterpretationThe tertiary stage includesReport writingObservation, suggestions and conclusions.

also mention the different problems of social research and how they are solved?within the last 20 to 25 years, courses in methods of social research have come to occupy an increasingly important role in sociological curricula. It likely that at present every major university offers such courses. This is because growing significance of social research and also growing job opportunities in this field. The market analysis, the public opinion expert, the investigator of communication and propaganda all are growing facts for governmental and business needs. Knowledge of social research is useful for interpreting and weighing such reports. In this present age, social science are accruing a scientific method of study for this method, research is an important factor. In the last two or three decades, a social research has become an important subject of the curriculum of sociology. In fact almost all the universities, where sociology is taught, social research is a apart of the curriculum of the sociology. Social research has therefore, assumed greater importance. Apart from thus, the social science research is essential for proper understanding the society and proper collection and analysis of social facts. The social research is an effective method. Research laboratory techniques are helping in finding further knowledge, about the subject. Through research only it has been possible to make progress and reach further. It is part of man’s nature. The importance saying goes, necessity is the mother of invention and invention is the result if research. So long as necessity exists the research shall be these social science and particularly sociology has come occupy an importance place for us. In fact, research is an organized effort to acquire new knowledge. It is based on the past experience and past knowledge. The richer the past knowledge, greater the surely of the results. In science sociology is assuming a scientific base, research has become a part of study, it is not an easy task to predict

social behavior because of human nature is ever changing. Problems of scientific social research In fact social research deals with social phenomena which are quite different than natural phenomena. Hence there are fundamental difference between research in social science and that of physical or natural science. Let us study main difficulities faced by the researcher in the application so scientific methods in social research. Complexity of social data It is a well known that social science studies the human behavior which depends on several factor such as physical, social, temperamental ,psychological, geographical, biological social cultural etc. because of these factors a researcher is generally confused. It is therefore said that because of this complexity of social fata human beings cannot be put to scientific test.Problems of concepts:In social science research, one has to face number of problems among which of a) Abstraction b) Faculty reasoning Plays major role in formulating and defining the concepts and laws. Problems in interpreting relationship between cause and effects: In social science research, we generally find interdependent relationship between cause and effect. The cause and effect are one and the same, for example, in underdevelopment countries, the economics development cannot be accelerated due to lack of technical know how and capital cannot be obtained due to underdevelopment of the country. Dynamic nature of social phenomenaMan is a social animal and human society undergoes constant change. What is true today may not be useful tomorrow. The techniques used in past may prove useless for present ad future studies. On a account of this dynamic nature of social phenomena our task of analyzing data becomes very much complicated and the interferences drawn may be misleading. Problems of maintaining objectivity The problem of impartiality in part of problem of objectivity. It is generally argued that the social scientific are less objective than natural scientific because their own interest affected by the finding of their studies, hence leading to prejudice and bias. UnpredictabilityPredictability is one of the most important characteristics of science. In case of physical science, high degree of predictability is possible but it is not so in case of social data. but this statement is also partially true, the social scientist can roughly estimate the behavior of the group. Difficulty in the verification of the inferences: In social research, the events of social science are non repetitive and the social science are ill-equipped with their tools to verify inferences. Difficulty in the use of experimental method. In case of social science research its product being a human being cannot be put to laboratory test. Even if it is done, their responses wouldn’t be natural but subject to the awareness of the artificial condition. Thus social scientist has to watch them in wide world. Difficulty in the use of experimental method. In case of social science research, its product being a human being cannot be put to lab test. Even if it is done, their responses wouldn’t natural but subject to the awareness of the artificial condition. Thus the social scientist has to watch them in the wide world. Incapability of being dealt through empirical method: An empirical method cannot be applied in case of social science research as repeated experiment is not possible ,for example, the problem of unbiased sampling selection of data etc. Problem of inter-disciplinary researchSocial science being, inter-disciplinary one i.e related with, economics, political science and sociology, we cannot draw water-tight compartments for each other social science. Paucity of funds:In case of social science research, we generally observed that small amount if finance is made available to them, it is not sufficient to conduct research effectively. Less resources:Prof Mitchell has rightly pointed out that social science researcher require less resources in comparing to physical science.

stages of research process.Research is a source which can be draw upon to make a substantial contribution to the body of the knowledge; research should be followed by some sort of original contribution. The primary stage includes Observation:Research start with observation, which leads to curiosity to learn more about what has been observed. Observation can either be unaided visual observation or guided and controlled observation. Sometimes a casual or associated observation leading to substantial research and a great invention. Deliberate and guided observation can also form the basis for research. While observation leads to research, research results in elaborate observation and convulsions; or even further research observation can either be subjective or objective. These are participant observation, on –participant observation, controlled observation and non controlled observation. Interest: The observation of certain occurrences creates an interest and inquisitiveness in the mind of the researcher to study it further. This is the basis of interest to study the subject matter of observation. It may be self interest or group interest. The interest is the guiding force behind any research.Crystallization, Crystallization is the process of designing the definite form of Research to be undertaken for the purpose of studying the subject matter. It is the formulation of the research project, a defining its objectives, rationale, scope, methodology, limitations, including financial commitments and sources. It is at this stage that the research project is given a concrete shape and structure, forming a basis of further investigation. Formulation of hypothesisAt this stage the hypothesis is formed on the basis of observation. Hypothesis is apart of the scientific method, and has been dealt with in detail in the chapter on “scientific method and hypothesis” Primary synopsisSynopsis is a summary /outline/brief of any subject. It is not a complete subject still formalization of a subject/replica of a subject. It saves time. It will give an idea of time required for presentation of the main subject. Once the subject is decided you can arrange titles likes like main headings, paragraph heading-elaborate the paragraph with important of main issues. Conceptual clarityAny researcher should have in-depth background knowledge of the topic of his study. He can gain such basic knowledge only be an extensive reading of text books, specialized books and publications on the topic in addition to articles and research papers published in journals and periodicals, reports of the past studies, etc. he can also gain knowledge by details discussion with the people concerned and by his own observation. However it is imperative for a researcher to gain a deep knowledge form any reliable source prior to actually plunging himself into a research, so theta he may have clear knowledge of the concepts which would be of value to him in his task. DocumentationThe documentary sources are important sources of information for a researcher. A document is anything in writing – a record, files or diaries, published or unpublished- which can be extracted and used in research. It is very valuable source of information for research either in management or in social science. it may comprises office files, business and legal papers, biographies, official and unofficial records, letters, proceedings of any courts ,committees, societies, assemblies and parliaments, enactments, constitution, reports of surveys or research of commissions, official statistics, newspapers editorials, special articles, company news, cases or company directors reports etc. documentation is the process of collecting and extracting the

documents which relevant research. Documents may be classified into

1) Personal documents2) Company documents3) Consultants report and published materials and4) Public documents

BibliographyAt the end of any research report a bibliography is generally added. This is the list of books publication, periodicals, journals, reports, etc which are used by researcher in the connection with the study. It is a description of books, their authorship, editions, publishers, year of publication, place of publication etc. in ordinary circumstance, a researcher reads, and makes notes form, many books and publications at the primary stage of researcher in order to gain conceptual clarity. He prepares a list of such publications are reports then and there, which helps him in the course of his research. Some mistakenly believe that a bibliography is merely a list of publication compiled at the end of report writing like an appendix. On the contrary a bibliography contains and is composed of the details of publications that the researcher has used in connection with his study. These facilities any further reference to the matter either by the researcher himself or anybody who goes through the researcher report.

 questionnaire- mention its characteristics and illustrate a sample questionnaire for any product you can chooseAnswer: Questionnaire is a method used for collecting data; a set of written questions which calls for responses on the part of the client; may be self-administered or group-administered. Questionnaires are an inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number of respondents. Often they are the only feasible way to reach a number of reviewers large enough to allow statistically analysis of the results. A well-designed questionnaire that is used effectively can gather information on both the overall performance of the test system as well as information on specific components of the system. If the questionnaire includes demographic questions on the participants, they can be used to correlate performance and satisfaction with the test system among different groups of users. It is important to remember that a questionnaire should be viewed as a multi-stage process beginning with definition of the aspects to be examined and ending with interpretation of the results. Every step needs to be designed carefully because the final results are only as good as the weakest link in the questionnaire process. Although questionnaires may be cheap to administer compared to other data collection methods, they are every bit as expensive in terms of design time and interpretation. The steps required to design and administer a questionnaire include: 1. Defining the Objectives of the survey 2. Determining the Sampling Group 3. Writing the Questionnaire 4. Administering the Questionnaire 5. Interpretation of the ResultsThis document will concentrate on how to formulate objectives and write the questionnaire. Before these steps are examined in detail, it is good to consider what questionnaires are good at measuring and when it is appropriate to use questionnaires. What can questionnaires measure? Questionnaires are quite flexible in what they can measure, however they are not equally suited to measuring all types of data. We can classify data in two ways, Subjective vs. Objective and Quantitative vs. Qualitative. When a questionnaire is administered, the researchers control over the environment will be somewhat limited. This is why questionnaires

are inexpensive to administer. This loss of control means the validity of the results are more reliant on the honesty of the respondent. Consequently, it is more difficult to claim complete objectivity with questionnaire data then with results of a tightly controlled lab test. For example, if a group of participants are asked on a questionnaire how long it took them to learn a particular function on a piece of software, it is likely that they will be biased towards themselves and answer, on average, with a lower than actual time. A more objective usability test of the same function with a similar group of participants may return a significantly higher learning time. More elaborate questionnaire design or administration may provide slightly better objective data, but the cost of such a questionnaire can be much higher and offset their economic advantage. In general, questionnaires are better suited to gathering reliable subjective measures, such as user satisfaction, of the system or interface in question. Questions may be designed to gather either qualitative or quantitative data. By their very nature, quantitative questions are more exact then qualitative. For example, the word "easy" and "difficult" can mean radically different things to different people. Any question must be carefully crafted, but in particular questions that assess a qualitative measure must be phrased to avoid ambiguity. Qualitative questions may also require more thought on the part of the participant and may cause them to become bored with the questionnaire sooner. In general, we can say that questionnaires can measure both qualitative and quantitative data well, but that qualitative questions require more care in design, administration, and interpretation. When to use a questionnaire?There is no all encompassing rule for when to use a questionnaire. The choice will be made based on a variety of factors including the type of information to be gathered and the available resources for the experiment. A questionnaire should be considered in the following circumstances. a. When resources and money are limited. A Questionnaire can be quite inexpensive to administer. Although preparation may be costly, any data collection scheme will have similar preparation expenses. The administration cost per person of a questionnaire can be as low as postage and a few photocopies. Time is also an important resource that questionnaires can maximize. If a questionnaire is self-administering, such as a e-mail questionnaire, potentially several thousand people could respond in a few days. It would be impossible to get a similar number of usability tests completed in the same short time. b. When it is necessary to protect the privacy of the participants. Questionnaires are easy to administer confidentially. Often confidentiality is the necessary to ensure participants will respond honestly if at all. Examples of such cases would include studies that need to ask embarrassing questions about private or personal behavior. c. When corroborating other findings. In studies that have resources to pursue other data collection strategies, questionnaires can be a useful confirmation tools. More costly schemes may turn up interesting trends, but occasionally there will not be resources to run these other tests on large enough participant groups to make the results statistically significant. A follow-up large scale questionnaire may be necessary to corroborate these earlier results Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire•         Questions worded simply and clearly, not ambiguous or vague, must be objective•         Attractive in appearance (questions spaced out, and neatly arranged)•         Write a descriptive title for the questionnaire•         Write an introduction to the questionnaire•         Order questions in logical sequence•         Keep questionnaire uncluttered and easy to complete•         Delicate questions last (especially demographic questions)•         Design for easy tabulation 

•         Design to achieve objectives•         Define terms •         Avoid double negatives (I haven't no money)•         Avoid double barreled questions (this AND that)•         Avoid loaded questions ("Have you stopped beating your wife?") tendency?In statistics, the general level, characteristic, or typical value that is representative of the majority of cases. Among several accepted measures of central tendency employed in data reduction, the most common are the arithmetic mean (simple average), the median, and the mode. FOR EXAMPLE, one measure of central tendency of a group of high school students is the average (mean) age of the students. Central tendency is a term used in some fields of empirical research to refer to what statisticians sometimes call "location". A "measure of central tendency" is either a location parameter or a statistic used to estimate a location parameter. Examples include: #Arithmetic mean, the sum of all data divided by the number of observations in the data set.#Median, the value that separates the higher half from the lower half of the data set.#Mode, the most frequent value in the data set. Measures of central tendency, or "location", attempt to quantify what we mean when we think of as the "typical" or "average" score in a data set. The concept is extremely important and we encounter it frequently in daily life. For example, we often want to know before purchasing a car its average distance per litre of petrol. Or before accepting a job, you might want to know what a typical salary is for people in that position so you will know whether or not you are going to be paid what you are worth. Or, if you are a smoker, you might often think about how many cigarettes you smoke "on average" per day. Statistics geared toward measuring central tendency all focus on this concept of "typical" or "average." As we will see, we often ask questions in psychological science revolving around how groups differ from each other "on average". Answers to such a question tell us a lot about the phenomenon or process we are studying Arithmetic Mean The arithmetic mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It simply the sum of the numbers divided by the number of numbers. The symbol mm is used for the mean of a population. The symbol MM is used for the mean of a sample. The formula for mm is shown below: m=SXN m S X N where SX S X is the sum of all the numbers in the numbers in the sample and NN is the number of numbers in the sample. As an example, the mean of the numbers 1+2+3+6+8=205=4 1 2 3 6 8 20 5 4 regardless of whether the numbers constitute the entire population or just a sample from the population. The table, Number of touchdown passes, shows the number of touchdown (TD) passes thrown by each of the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000 season. The mean number of touchdown passes thrown is 20.4516 as shown below. m=SXN=63431=20.4516 m S X N 634 31 20.4516 Number of touchdown passes37  33  33  32  29  28  28  23 22  22  22  21  21  21  20  20 19  19  18  18  18  18  16  15 14  14  14  12  12  9  6  

Although the arithmetic mean is not the only "mean" (there is also a geometic mean), it is by far the most commonly used. Therefore, if the term "mean" is used without specifying whether it is the arithmetic mean, the geometic mean, or some other mean, it is assumed to refer to the arithmetic mean. Median The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpoint of a distribution: the same number of scores are above the median as below it. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th highest score (which equals 20) is the median because there are 15 scores below the 16th score and 15 scores above the 16th score. The median can also be thought of

as the 50th percentile. Let's return to the made up example of the quiz on which you made a three discussed previously in the module Introduction to Central Tendency and shown in table 2. Three possible datasets for the 5-point make-up quizStudent  Dataset 1  Dataset 2  Dataset 3 You  3  3  3 John's  3  4  2 Maria's  3  4  2 Shareecia's  3  4  2 Luther's  3  5  1For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For Dataset 2, the median is 4. Therefore, your score is below the median. This means you are in the lower half of the class. Finally for Dataset 3, the median is 2. For this dataset, your score is above the median and therefore in the upper half of the distribution. Computation of the Median: When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle number. For example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number of numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers. Thus, the median of the numbers 22, 44, 77, 1212 is 4+72=5.5 4 7 2 5.5 . mode The mode is the most frequently occuring value. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes, the mode is 18 since more teams (4) had 18 touchdown passes than any other number of touchdown passes. With continuous data such as response time measured to many decimals, the frequency of each value is one since no two scores will be exactly the same (see discussion of continuous variables). Therefore the mode of continuous data is normally computed from a grouped frequency distribution. The Grouped frequency distribution table shows a grouped frequency distribution for the target response time data. Since the interval with the highest frequency is 600-700, the mode is the middle of that interval (650). Grouped frequency distributionRange  Frequency 500-600  3 600-700  6 700-800  5 800-900  5 900-1000  0 1000-1100  1TrimeanThe trimean is computed by adding the 25th percentile plus twice the 50th percentile plus the 75th percentile and dividing by four. What follows is an example of how to compute the trimean. The 25th, 50th, and 75th percentile of the dataset "Example 1" are 51, 55, and 63 respectively. Therefore, the trimean is computed as: The trimean is almost as resistant to extreme scores as the median and is less subject to sampling fluctuations than the arithmetic mean in extremely skewed distributions. It is less efficient than the mean for normal distributions. . The trimean is a good measure of central tendency and is probably not used as much as it should be. Trimmed MeanA trimmed mean is calculated by discarding a certain percentage of the lowest and the highest scores and then computing the mean of the remaining scores. For example, a mean trimmed 50% is computed by discarding the lower and higher 25% of the scores and taking the mean of the remaining scores. The median is the mean trimmed 100% and the arithmetic mean is the mean trimmed 0%. A trimmed mean is obviously less susceptible to the effects of extreme scores than is the arithmetic mean. It is therefore less susceptible to sampling fluctuation than the mean for extremely skewed distributions. It is less efficient than the mean for normal distributions. Trimmed means are often used in Olympic scoring to minimize the effects of extreme ratings possibly caused by biased judges. 

dispersion, explain each of them?Answer: In many ways, measures of central tendency are less useful in statistical analysis than measures of dispersion of values around the central tendency The dispersion of values within variables is especially important in social and political research because:• Dispersion or "variation" in observations is what we seek to explain.• Researchers want to know WHY some cases lie above average and others below         average for a given variable: o TURNOUT in voting: why do some states show higher rates than others?o CRIMES in cities: why are there differences in crime rates?o CIVIL STRIFE among countries: what accounts for differing amounts?• Much of statistical explanation aims at explaining DIFFERENCES in observations -- also known as o VARIATION, or the more technical term, VARIANCEIf everything were the same, we would have no need of statistics. But, people's heights, ages, etc., do vary. We often need to measure the extent to which scores in a dataset differ from each other. Such a measure is called the dispersion of a distribution Some measure of dispersion are1) Range The range is the simplest measure of dispersion. The range can be thought of in two ways. 1. As a quantity: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. "The range of scores on the exam was 32." 2. As an interval; the lowest and highest scores may be reported as the range. "The range was 62 to 94," which would be written (62, 94). The Range of a Distribution Find the range in the following sets of data: NUMBER OF BROTHERS AND SISTERS { 2, 3, 1, 1, 0, 5, 3, 1, 2, 7, 4, 0, 2, 1, 2,1, 6, 3, 2, 0, 0, 7, 4, 2, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 5, 12,4, 2, 0, 5, 3, 0, 2, 2, 1, 1, 8, 2, 1, 2 } An outlier is an extreme score, i.e., an infrequently occurring score at either tail of the distribution. Range is determined by the furthest outliers at either end of the distribution. Range is of limited use as a measure of dispersion, because it reflects information about extreme values but not necessarily about "typical" values. Only when the range is "narrow" (meaning that there are no outliers) does it tell us about typical values in the data. 2) Percentile rangeMost students are familiar with the grading scale in which "C" is assigned to average scores, "B" to above-average scores, and so forth. When grading exams "on a curve," instructors look to see how a particular score compares to the other scores. The letter grade given to an exam score is determined not by its relationship to just the high and low scores, but by its relative position among all the scores. Percentile describes the relative location of points anywhere along the range of a distribution. A score that is at a certain percentile falls even with or above that percent of scores. The median score of a distribution is at the 50th percentile: It is the score at which 50% of other scores are below (or equal) and 50% are above. Commonly used percentile measures are named in terms of how they divide distributions. Quartiles divide scores into fourths, so that a score falling in the first quartile lies within the lowest 25% of scores, while a score in the fourth quartile is higher than at least 75% of the scores. Quartile Finder The divisions you have just performed illustrate quartile scores. Two other percentile scores commonly used to describe the dispersion in a distribution are decile and quintile scores which divide cases into equal sized subsets of tenths (10%) and fifths

(20%), respectively. In theory, percentile scores divide a distribution into 100 equal sized groups. In practice this may not be possible because the number of cases may be under 100. A box plot is an effective visual representation of both central tendency and dispersion. It simultaneously shows the 25th, 50th (median), and 75th percentile scores, along with the minimum and maximum scores. The "box" of the box plot shows the middle or "most typical" 50% of the values, while the "whiskers" of the box plot show the more extreme values. The length of the whiskers indicate visually how extreme the outliers are. Below is the box plot for the distribution you just separated into quartiles. The boundaries of the box plot's "box" line up with the columns for the quartile scores on the histogram. The box plot displays the median score and shows the range of the distribution as well. By far the most commonly used measures of dispersion in the social sciences are Variance and standard deviation.Variance is the average squared difference of scores from the mean score of a distribution. Standard deviation is the square root of the variance. In calculating the variance of data points, we square the difference between each point and the mean because if we summed the differences directly, the result would always be zero. For example, suppose three friends work on campus and earn $5.50, $7.50, and $8 per hour, respectively. The mean of these values is $(5.50 + 7.50 + 8)/3 = $7 per hour. If we summed the differences of the mean from each wage, we would get (5.50-7) + (7.50-7) + (8-7) = -1.50 + .50 + 1 = 0. Instead, we square the terms to obtain a variance equal to 2.25 + .25 + 1 = 3.50. This figure is a measure of dispersion in the set of scores. The variance is the minimum sum of squared differences of each score from any number. In other words, if we used any number other than the mean as the value from which each score is subtracted, the resulting sum of squared differences would be greater. (You can try it yourself -- see if any number other than 7 can be plugged into the preceeding calculation and yield a sum of squared differences less than 3.50.) The standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance. In some sense, taking the square root of the variance "undoes" the squaring of the differences that we did when we calculated the variance. Variance and standard deviation of a population are designated by and , respectively. Variance and standard deviation of a sample are designated by s2 and s, respectively. 4) Standard DeviationThe standard deviation ( or s) and variance ( or s2) are more complete measures of dispersion which take into account every score in a distribution. The other measures of dispersion we have discussed are based on considerably less information. However, because variance relies on the squared differences of scores from the mean, a single outlier has greater impact on the size of the variance than does a single score near the mean. Some statisticians view this property as a shortcoming of variance as a measure of dispersion, especially when there is reason to doubt the reliability of some of the extreme scores. For example, a researcher might believe that a person who reports watching television an average of 24 hours per day may have misunderstood the question. Just one such extreme score might result in an appreciably larger standard deviation, especially if the sample is small. Fortunately, since all scores are used in the calculation of variance, the many non-extreme scores (those closer to the mean) will tend to offset the misleading impact of any extreme scores. The standard deviation and variance are the most commonly used measures of dispersion in the social sciences because: • Both take into account the precise difference between each score and the mean. Consequently, these measures are based on a maximum amount of information. • The standard deviation is the baseline for defining the concept of standardized score or "z-score". • Variance in a set of scores on some dependent variable is a baseline for measuring the correlation between two or more variables (the degree to which they are related).

 Scores"Actual scores from a distribution are commonly known as a "raw scores." These are expressed in terms of empirical units like dollars, years, tons, etc. We might say "The Smith family's income is $29,418." To compare a raw score to the mean, we might say something like "The mean household income in the U.S. is $2,232 above the Smith family's income." This difference is an absolute deviation of 2,232 emirical units (dollars, in this example) from the mean. When we are given an absolute deviation from the mean, expressed in terms of empirical units, it is difficult to tell if the difference is "large" or "small" compared to other members of the data set. In the above example, are there many families that make less money than the Smith family, or only a few? We were not given enough information to decide. We get more information about deviation from the mean when we use the standard deviation measure presented earlier in this tutorial. Raw scores expressed in empirical units can be converted to "standardized" scores, called z-scores. The z-score is a measure of how many units of standard deviation the raw score is from the mean. Thus, the z-score is a relative measure instead of an absolute measure. This is because every individual in the dataset affects value for the standard deviation. Raw scores are converted to standardized z-scores by the following equations: Population z-score Sample z-score where is the population mean, is the sample mean, is the population standard deviation, s is the sample standard deviation, and x is the raw score being converted. For example, if the mean of a sample of I.Q. scores is 100 and the standard deviation is 15, then an I.Q. of 128 would correspond to: = (128 - 100) / 15 = 1.87For the same distribution, a score of 90 would correspond to: z = (90 - 100) / 15 = - 0.67A positive z-score indicates that the corresponding raw score is above the mean. A negative z-score represents a raw score that is below the mean. A raw score equal to the mean has a z-score of zero (it is zero standard deviations away). Z-scores allow for control across different units of measure. For example, an income that is 25,000 units above the mean might sound very high for someone accustomed to thinking in terms of U.S. dollars, but if the unit is much smaller (such as Italian Lires or Greek Drachmas), the raw score might be only slightly above average. Z-scores provide a standardized description of departures from the mean that control for differences in size of empirical units. When a dataset conforms to a "normal" distribution, each z-score corresponds exactly to known, specific percentile score. If a researcher can assume that a given empirical distribution approximates the normal distribution, then he or she can assume that the data's z-scores approximate the z-scores of the normal distribution as well. In this case, z-scores can map the raw scores to their percentile scores in the data. As an example, suppose the mean of a set of incomes is $60,200, the standard deviation is $5,500, and the distribution of the data values approximates the normal distribution. Then an income of $69,275 is calculated to have a z-score of 1.65. For a normal distribution, a z-score of 1.65 always corresponds to the 95th percentile. Thus, we can assume that $69,275 is the 95th percentile score in the empirical data, meaning that 95% of the scores lie at or below $69,275. The normal distribution is a precisly defined, theoretical distribution. Empirical distributions are not likely to conform perfectly to the normal distribution. If the data distribution is unlike the normal distribution, then z-scores do not translate to percentiles in the "normal" way. However, to the extent that an empirical distribution approximates the normal distribution, z-scores do translate to percentiles in a reliable way. scope and testing of hypothesis?Answer: A tentative proposal made to explain certain observations or facts that

requires further investigation to be verified. A hypothesis is a formulation of a question that lends itself to a prediction. This prediction can be verified or falsified. A question can only be use as scientific hypothesis, if their is an experimental approach or observational study that can be designed to check the outcome of a prediction. Nature of hypothesisN the various discussions of the hypothesis which have appeared in works on inductive logic and in writings on scientific method, its structure and function have received considerable attention, while its origin has been comparatively neglected. The hypothesis has generally been treated as that part of scientific procedure which marks the stage where a definite plan or method is proposed for dealing with new or unexplained facts. It is regarded as an invention for the purpose of explaining the given, as a definite conjecture which is to be tested by an appeal to experience to see whether deductions made in accordance with it will be found true in fact. The function of the hypothesis is to unify, to furnish a method of dealing with things, and its structure must be suitable to this end. It must be so formed that it will be likely to prove valid, and writers have formulated various rules to be followed in the formation of hypotheses. These rules state the main requirements of a good hypothesis, and are intended to aid in a general way by pointing out certain limits within which it must fall.In respect to the origin of the hypothesis, writers have usually contented themselves with pointing out the kind of situations in which hypotheses are likely to appear. But after this has been done, after favorable external conditions have been given, the rest must be left to "genius," for hypotheses arise as "happy guesses," for which no rule or law can be given. In fact, the genius differs from the ordinary plodding mortal in just this ability to form fruitfulHypotheses in the midst of the same facts which to other less gifted individuals remain only so many disconnected experiences. Hypothesis is to determine its nature a little more precisely through an investigation of its rather obscure origin, and to call attention to certain features of its function which have not generally been accorded their due significance. The scope hypothesis We should be surprised that language is as complicated as it is. That is to say, there is no reasonable doubt that a language with a context-free grammar, together with a transparent inductive characterization of the semantics, would have all of the expressive power of historically given natural languages, but none of the quirks or other puzzling features that we actually find when we study them. This circumstance suggests that the relations between apparent syntactic structure on the one hand and interpretation on the other --- the “interface conditions,” in popular terminology --- should be seen through the perspective of an underlying regularity of structure and interpretation that can be revealed only through extended inquiry, taking into consideration especially comparative data. Indeed, advances made especially during the past twenty-five years or so indicate that, at least over a broad domain, structures either generated from what is (more or less) apparent, or else underlying those apparent structures, display the kind of regularity in their interface conditions that is familiar to us from the formalized languages. The elements that I concentrate upon here are two: the triggering of relative scope (from the interpretive point of view), and the distinction between those elements that contribute to meaning through their contribution to reference and truth conditions, on the one hand, and those that do so through the information that they provide about the intentional states of the speaker or those the speaker is talking about, on the other. As will be seen, I will in part support Jaakko Hintikka’s view that the latter distinction involves scope too, but in a more derivative fashion than he has explicitly envisaged.

TESTING OF HYPOTHESISHypothesis testing refers to the process of using statistical analysis to determine if

the observed differences between two or more samples are due to random chance (as stated in the null hypothesis) or to true differences in the samples (as stated in the alternate hypothesis). A null hypothesis (H0) is a stated assumption that there is no difference in parameters (mean, variance, DPMO) for two or more populations. The alternate hypothesis (Ha) is a statement that the observed difference or relationship between two populations is real and not the result of chance or an error in sampling. Hypothesis testing is the process of using a variety of statistical tools to analyze data and, ultimately, to fail to reject or reject the null hypothesis. From a practical point of view, finding statistical evidence that the null hypothesis is false allows you to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Hypothesis testing is the use of statistics to determine the probability that a given hypothesis is true. The usual process of hypothesis testing consists of four steps.1. Formulate the null hypothesis (commonly, that the observations are the result of pure chance) and the alternative hypothesis (commonly, that the observations show a real effect combined with a component of chance variation).2. Identify a test statistic that can be used to assess the truth of the null hypothesis.3. Compute the P-value, which is the probability that a test statistic at least as significant as the one observed would be obtained assuming that the null hypothesis were true. The smaller the -value, the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis.4. Compare the -value to an acceptable significance value (sometimes called an alpha value). If , that the observed effect is statistically significant, the null hypothesis is ruled out, and the alternative hypothesis is valid. Flow Diagram1 Identify the null hypothesis H0 and the alternate hypothesis HA.2 Choose ?. The value should be small, usually less than 10%. It is important to consider the consequences of both types of errors.3 Select the test statistic and determine its value from the sample data. This value is called the observed value of the test statistic. Remember that a t statistic is usually appropriate for a small number of samples; for larger number of samples, a z statistic can work well if data are normally distributed.4 Compare the observed value of the statistic to the critical value obtained for the chosen ?.5 Make a decision.If the test statistic falls in the critical region:Reject H0 in favour of HA. If the test statistic does not fall in the critical region:Conclude that there is not enough evidence to reject H0. Practical ExampleA) One tailed TestAn aquaculture farm takes water from a stream and returns it after it has circulated through the fish tanks. The owner thinks that, since the water circulates rather quickly through the tanks, there is little organic matter in the effluent. To find out if this is true, he takes some samples of the water at the intake and other samples downstream the outlet, and tests for Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). If BOD increases, it can be said that the effluent contains more organic matter than the stream can handle. The data for this problem are given in the following table:

Table 3. BOD in the streamOne tailed t-test :Upstream Downstream6.782 9.0635.809 8.3816.849 8.6606.879 8.4057.014 9.248

7.321 8.7355.986 9.7726.628 8.5456.822 8.0636.448 8.0011. A is the set of samples taken at the intake; and B is the set of samples taken downstream.o H0: ?B < ?A o HA: ?B > ?A 2. Choose an ?. Let us use 5% for this example. 3. The observed t value is calculated 4. The critical t value is obtained according to the degrees of freedom The resulting t test values are shown in this table:Table 4. t-Test : Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances  Upstream DownstreamMean 6.6539 8.6874Variance 0.2124 0.2988Observations 10 10Pooled Variance 0.2556 Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 Degrees of freedom 18 t stat -8.9941 P(TThe numerical value of the calculated t statistic is higher than the critical t value. We therefore reject H0 and conclude that the  effluent is polluting the stream. Answer: Case study research excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research. Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships. Researchers have used the case study research method for many years across a variety of disciplines. Social scientists, in particular, have made wide use of this qualitative research method to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of ideas and extension of methods. Researcher Robert K. Yin defines the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984, p. 23). Critics of the case study method believe that the study of a small number of cases can offer no grounds for establishing reliability or generality of findings. Others feel that the intense exposure to study of the case biases the findings. Some dismiss case study research as useful only as an exploratory tool. Yet researchers continue to use the case study research method with success in carefully planned and crafted studies of real-life situations, issues, and problems. Reports on case studies from many disciplines are widely available in the literature. This paper explains how to use the case study method and then applies the method to an example case study project designed to examine how one set of users, non-profit organizations, make use of an electronic community network. The study examines the issue of whether or not the electronic community network is beneficial in some way to non-profit organizations and what those benefits might be. Many well-known case study researchers such as Robert E. Stake, Helen Simons, and Robert K. Yin have written about case study research and suggested techniques for organizing and conducting the research successfully. This introduction to case study research draws upon their work and proposes six steps that should be used: • Determine and define the research questions• Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques

• Prepare to collect the data • Collect data in the field • Evaluate and analyze the data • Prepare the report Step 1. Determine and Define the Research QuestionsThe first step in case study research is to establish a firm research focus to which the researcher can refer over the course of study of a complex phenomenon or object. The researcher establishes the focus of the study by forming questions about the situation or problem to be studied and determining a purpose for the study. The research object in a case study is often a program, an entity, a person, or a group of people. Each object is likely to be intricately connected to political, social, historical, and personal issues, providing wide ranging possibilities for questions and adding complexity to the case study. The researcher investigates the object of the case study in depth using a variety of data gathering methods to produce evidence that leads to understanding of the case and answers the research questions. Case study research generally answers one or more questions which begin with "how" or "why." The questions are targeted to a limited number of events or conditions and their inter-relationships. To assist in targeting and formulating the questions, researchers conduct a literature review. This review establishes what research has been previously conducted and leads to refined, insightful questions about the problem. Careful definition of the questions at the start pinpoints where to look for evidence and helps determine the methods of analysis to be used in the study. The literature review, definition of the purpose of the case study, and early determination of the potential audience for the final report guide how the study will be designed, conducted, and publicly reported.Step 2. Select the Cases and Determine Data Gathering and Analysis Techniques During the design phase of case study research, the researcher determines what approaches to use in selecting single or multiple real-life cases to examine in depth and which instruments and data gathering approaches to use. When using multiple cases, each case is treated as a single case. Each case?s conclusions can then be used as information contributing to the whole study, but each case remains a single case. Exemplary case studies carefully select cases and carefully examine the choices available from among many research tools available in order to increase the validity of the study. Careful discrimination at the point of selection also helps erect boundaries around the case. The researcher must determine whether to study cases which are unique in some way or cases which are considered typical and may also select cases to represent a variety of geographic regions, a variety of size parameters, or other parameters. A useful step in the selection process is to repeatedly refer back to the purpose of the study in order to focus attention on where to look for cases and evidence that will satisfy the purpose of the study and answer the research questions posed. Selecting multiple or single cases is a key element, but a case study can include more than one unit of embedded analysis. For example, a case study may involve study of a single industry and a firm participating in that industry. This type of case study involves two levels of analysis and increases the complexity and amount of data to be gathered and analyzed. A key strength of the case study method involves using multiple sources and techniques in the data gathering process. The researcher determines in advance what evidence to gather and what analysis techniques to use with the data to answer the research questions. Data gathered is normally largely qualitative, but it may also be quantitative. Tools to collect data can include surveys, interviews, documentation review, observation, and even the collection of physical artifacts. The researcher must use the designated data gathering tools systematically and properly in collecting the evidence. Throughout the design phase, researchers must ensure that the study is well

constructed to ensure construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability. Construct validity requires the researcher to use the correct measures for the concepts being studied. Internal validity (especially important with explanatory or causal studies) demonstrates that certain conditions lead to other conditions and requires the use of multiple pieces of evidence from multiple sources to uncover convergent lines of inquiry. The researcher strives to establish a chain of evidence forward and backward. External validity reflects whether or not findings are generalizable beyond the immediate case or cases; the more variations in places, people, and procedures a case study can withstand and still yield the same findings, the more external validity. Techniques such as cross-case examination and within-case examination along with literature review helps ensure external validity. Reliability refers to the stability, accuracy, and precision of measurement. Exemplary case study design ensures that the procedures used are well documented and can be repeated with the same results over and over again.Step 3. Prepare to Collect the Data Because case study research generates a large amount of data from multiple sources, systematic organization of the data is important to prevent the researcher from becoming overwhelmed by the amount of data and to prevent the researcher from losing sight of the original research purpose and questions. Advance preparation assists in handling large amounts of data in a documented and systematic fashion. Researchers prepare databases to assist with categorizing, sorting, storing, and retrieving data for analysis. Exemplary case studies prepare good training programs for investigators, establish clear protocols and procedures in advance of investigator field work, and conduct a pilot study in advance of moving into the field in order to remove obvious barriers and problems. The investigator training program covers the basic concepts of the study, terminology, processes, and methods, and teaches investigators how to properly apply the techniques being used in the study. The program also trains investigators to understand how the gathering of data using multiple techniques strengthens the study by providing opportunities for triangulation during the analysis phase of the study. The program covers protocols for case study research, including time deadlines, formats for narrative reporting and field notes, guidelines for collection of documents, and guidelines for field procedures to be used. Investigators need to be good listeners who can hear exactly the words being used by those interviewed. Qualifications for investigators also include being able to ask good questions and interpret answers. Good investigators review documents looking for facts, but also read between the lines and pursue collaborative evidence elsewhere when that seems appropriate. Investigators need to be flexible in real-life situations and not feel threatened by unexpected change, missed appointments, or lack of office space. Investigators need to understand the purpose of the study and grasp the issues and must be open to contrary findings. Investigators must also be aware that they are going into the world of real human beings who may be threatened or unsure of what the case study will bring. After investigators are trained, the final advance preparation step is to select a pilot site and conduct a pilot test using each data gathering method so that problematic areas can be uncovered and corrected. Researchers need to anticipate key problems and events, identify key people, prepare letters of introduction, establish rules for confidentiality, and actively seek opportunities to revisit and revise the research design in order to address and add to the original set of research questions.4. Collect Data in the Field The researcher must collect and store multiple sources of evidence comprehensively and systematically, in formats that can be referenced and sorted so that converging lines of inquiry and patterns can be uncovered. Researchers carefully observe the object of the case study and identify causal factors associated with the observed phenomenon. Renegotiation of arrangements with the objects of the study or addition of questions to interviews may be necessary as the study progresses. Case study research is flexible, but when changes are made, they

are documented systematically. Exemplary case studies use field notes and databases to categorize and reference data so that it is readily available for subsequent reinterpretation. Field notes record feelings and intuitive hunches, pose questions, and document the work in progress. They record testimonies, stories, and illustrations which can be used in later reports. They may warn of impending bias because of the detailed exposure of the client to special attention, or give an early signal that a pattern is emerging. They assist in determining whether or not the inquiry needs to be reformulated or redefined based on what is being observed. Field notes should be kept separate from the data being collected and stored for analysis. Maintaining the relationship between the issue and the evidence is mandatory. The researcher may enter some data into a database and physically store other data, but the researcher documents, classifies, and cross-references all evidence so that it can be efficiently recalled for sorting and examination over the course of the study.Step 5. Evaluate and Analyze the Data The researcher examines raw data using many interpretations in order to find linkages between the research object and the outcomes with reference to the original research questions. Throughout the evaluation and analysis process, the researcher remains open to new opportunities and insights. The case study method, with its use of multiple data collection methods and analysis techniques, provides researchers with opportunities to triangulate data in order to strengthen the research findings and conclusions. The tactics used in analysis force researchers to move beyond initial impressions to improve the likelihood of accurate and reliable findings. Exemplary case studies will deliberately sort the data in many different ways to expose or create new insights and will deliberately look for conflicting data to disconfirm the analysis. Researchers categorize, tabulate, and recombine data to address the initial propositions or purpose of the study, and conduct cross-checks of facts and discrepancies in accounts. Focused, short, repeat interviews may be necessary to gather additional data to verify key observations or check a fact. Specific techniques include placing information into arrays, creating matrices of categories, creating flow charts or other displays, and tabulating frequency of events. Researchers use the quantitative data that has been collected to corroborate and support the qualitative data which is most useful for understanding the rationale or theory underlying relationships. Another technique is to use multiple investigators to gain the advantage provided when a variety of perspectives and insights examine the data and the patterns. When the multiple observations converge, confidence in the findings increases. Conflicting perceptions, on the other hand, cause the researchers to pry more deeply. Another technique, the cross-case search for patterns, keeps investigators from reaching premature conclusions by requiring that investigators look at the data in many different ways. Cross-case analysis divides the data by type across all cases investigated. One researcher then examines the data of that type thoroughly. When a pattern from one data type is corroborated by the evidence from another, the finding is stronger. When evidence conflicts, deeper probing of the differences is necessary to identify the cause or source of conflict. In all cases, the researcher treats the evidence fairly to produce analytic conclusions answering the original "how" and "why" research questions.Step 6. Prepare the report Exemplary case studies report the data in a way that transforms a complex issue into one that can be understood, allowing the reader to question and examine the study and reach an understanding independent of the researcher. The goal of the written report is to portray a complex problem in a way that conveys a vicarious experience to the reader. Case studies present data in very publicly accessible ways and may lead the reader to apply the experience in his or her own real-life situation. Researchers pay particular attention to displaying sufficient evidence to gain the reader?s confidence that all avenues have been explored, clearly communicating the boundaries of the case, and giving special attention to conflicting propositions. Techniques for composing the report can include

handling each case as a separate chapter or treating the case as a chronological recounting. Some researchers report the case study as a story. During the report preparation process, researchers critically examine the document looking for ways the report is incomplete. The researcher uses representative audience groups to review and comment on the draft document. Based on the comments, the researcher rewrites and makes revisions. Some case study researchers suggest that the document review audience include a journalist and some suggest that the documents should be reviewed by the participants in the study.Case studies are complex because they generally involve multiple sources of data, may include multiple cases within a study, and produce large amounts of data for analysis. Researchers from many disciplines use the case study method to build upon theory, to produce new theory, to dispute or challenge theory, to explain a situation, to provide a basis to apply solutions to situations, to explore, or to describe an object or phenomenon. The advantages of the case study method are its applicability to real-life, contemporary, human situations and its public accessibility through written reports. Case study results relate directly to the common reader?s everyday experience and facilitate an understanding of complex real-life situations.Assumption of case study methodThe case study method is based on several assumptions. The importance assumptions are explained belowUniformity of human natureThe assumption of uniformity in the basic human nature in spite of the fact that human behavior may vary according to situations. This assumption underlines the collection of case data.Nature history of the unitThe assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned. It gives the background for the studyComprehensive studyThe assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concernedApplicabilityPsychologist has stated that some statement about human broadly apply to each individual or to each member of a large group.HomogeneityAccording to cora dubois,an antraopologist, the case study is possible only because of certain basic homogeneity or similarity in evidenced in the mankind.Major steps of case study method:I. Identify the case topic, setting, primary focus, and perspective.II. Obtain relevant public background materials and knowledgeable informant insights.III. Obtain access, approval, and clarify anonymity issues with key gatekeeper.IV. Obtain relevant documents, minutes, reports and other appropriate materials.V. Develop preliminary chronology of key events leading to controversy or decision and identify key players and issues.VI. Consider varied perspective and sources of information and pedagogical purpose of the case.VII. Develop interview protocol (key questions for various informants) and further information to collect. This will evolve further.VIII. Conduct interviews and collect other documents, information and materials.IX. Develop case outline and style of presentation.X. Draft case. Obtain comment and feedback from key gatekeeper (and other students). Revise and finalize the case 

sources are important sources of information for a researcher. A document is anything in writing – a record, files or diaries, published or unpublished- which can be extracted and used in research. It is very valuable source of information for research

either in management or in social science. it may comprises office files, business and legal papers, biographies, official and unofficial records, letters, proceedings of any courts ,committees, societies, assemblies and parliaments, enactments, constitution, reports of surveys or research of commissions, official statistics, newspapers editorials, special articles, company news, cases or company directors reports etc. documentation is the process of collecting and extracting the documents which relevant research.Documents may be classified into1) Personal documents:personal documents are those are written by or on behalf of individuals. They may include autobiographical, biographies diaries memories letters observations and inscriptions, which are primarily written for the use and satisfaction of individuals and which can be utilized for research purposes. Personal documents play a very vital role in research.2) Company documents3) Consultants report and published materials and 4) Public documents

b) sources and tabulationsIt is the process of condensation of the data for convenience, in statistical processing, presentation and interpretation of the information.A good table is one which has the following requirements :1. It should present the data clearly, highlighting important details.2. It should save space but attractively designed.3. The table number and title of the table should be given.+4. Row and column headings must explain the figures therein.5. Averages or percentages should be close to the data.6. Units of the measurement should be clearly stated along the titles or headings.7. Abbreviations and symbols should be avoided as far as possible.8. Sources of the data should be given at the bottom of the data.9. In case irregularities creep in table or any feature is not sufficiently explained, references and foot notes must be given.10. The rounding of figures should be unbiased."Classified and arranged facts speak of themselves, and narrated they are as dead as mutton" This quote is given by J.R. Hicks. The process of dividing the data into different groups ( viz. classes) which are homogeneous within but heterogeneous between themselves, is called a classification. It helps in understanding the salient features of the data and also the comparison with similar data. For a final analysis it is the best friend of a statistician. c) Classification and tabulationThe data is classified in the following ways : 1. According to attributes or qualities this is divided into two parts :(A) Simple classification(B) Multiple classification.2. According to variable or quantity or classification according to class intervals. -Qualitative Classification : When facts are grouped according to the qualities (attributes) like religion, literacy, business etc., the classification is called as qualitative classification.(A) Simple Classification : It is also known as classification according to Dichotomy. When data (facts) are divided into groups according to their qualities, the classification is called as 'Simple Classification'. Qualities are denoted by capital letters (A, B, C, D ......) while the absence of these qualities are denoted by lower case letters (a, b, c, d, .... etc.)(B) Manifold or multiple classification : In this method data is classified using one or more qualities. First, the data is divided into two groups (classes) using one of the qualities. Then using the remaining qualities, the data is divided into different

subgroups. For example, the population of a country is classified using three attributes: sex, literacy and businessClassification according to class intervals or variables : The data which is expressed in numbers (quantitative data), is classified according to class-intervals. While forming class-intervals one should bear in mind that each and every item must be covered. After finding the least value of an item and the highest value of an item, classify these items into different class-intervals. For example if in any data the age of 100 persons ranging from 2 years to 47 years In deciding on the grouping of the data into classes, for the purpose of reducing it to a manageable form, we observe that the number of classes should not be too large. If it were so then the object of summarization would be defeated. The number of classes should also not be too small because then we will miss a great deal of detail available and get a distorted picture. As a rule one should have between 10 and 25 classes, the actual number depending on the total frequency. Further, classes should be exhaustive; they should not be overlapping, so that no observed value falls in more than one class. Apart from exceptions, all classes should have the same length. f) Scope of managerial research:Management Research (MR) is an international journal dedicated to advancing the understanding of management in private and public sector organizations through empirical investigation and theoretical analysis. MR attempts to provide an international dialogue between researchers and thereby improve the understanding of the nature of management in different settings and, consequently, achieve a reasonable transfer of research results to management practice in several contexts. MR is especially dedicated to foster the general advancement of management scholarship among iberoamerican scholars and/or those academics interested in iberoamerican issues. Iberoamerica is defined broadly to include all of Latin America, Latino populations in North America, and Spain/Portugal. However, submissions are encouraged from all management scholars regardless of ethnicity or national origin and manuscripts should not be limited to themes dealing with iberoamerican populations. MR is a multidisciplinary outlet open to contributions of high quality, from any perspective relevant to the field and from any country. MR intends to become a supranational journal which gives special attention to national and cultural similarities and differences world-wide. This is reflected by its international editorial board and publisher and its sponsorship by the Iberoamerican Academy of Management. MR is open to a variety of perspectives, including those that seek to improve the effectiveness of, as well, as those critical of, management and organizations. MR is receptive to research across a broad range of management topics such as human resource management, organizational behavior, organization theory, strategic management, corporate governance, and managerial economics. The management and organization contributions present in MR articles can also be grounded in the basic social disciplines of economics, psychology, or sociology. Articles can be empirical, theoretical or measurement oriented. Conceptual articles should provide new theoretical insights that can advance our understanding of management and organizations. Empirical articles should have well-articulated and strong theoretical foundations. All types of empirical methods -quantitative, qualitative or combinations- are acceptable. MR encourages the interplay between theorizing the empirical research in the belief that they should be mutually informative. MR is especially interested in new data sources. That includes models that test new theory and expand our sample pools by including alternative approaches to sampling and measurement and samples drawn from non-traditional sources (e.g., from iberoamerican firms), and the examination of the validity and reliability of such samples. MR publishes only original research as articles or research notes. Manuscripts will be considered for publication with the understanding that their contents are not under consideration for publication elsewhere. Prior

presentation at conference or concurrent consideration for presentation at a conference does not disqualify a manuscript from consideration by MR.

POLITY AND GOVERNANCEMaking Of The Constitution : TheConstituent Assembly which had been electedfor undivided India and held its first sitting on9th Dec.1946, re-assembled un the 14th August1947, as The Sovereign Constituent Assemblyfor the dominion of India. In regard to itscomposition the members were elected byindirect election by the members of TheProvisional Legislative Assemblies (lower houseonly). According to the schemes recommendedby the Cabinet, the essentials of the Schemeswere as follows: -1. Each Province and each Indian State orgroup of States were allotted the total no. ofeats proportional to their re spectivepopulation, roughly in the ratio of1:1000000. As a result, The Provinces wereto elect 292 members while the Indian Stateswere allotted a minimum of93 seats.2. The seats in each Province were distributedamong the three main communities,Muslims, Sikh and general, in proportion totheir respective populations.3. Members of each community in theProvisional Legislative Assembly electedtheir own representatives by the method ofproportional representations with singletransferable vote.4. The method of selection in the case ofrepresentatives of Indian States was to bedetermined by consultation.Unfortunately as a result of a partition underthe plan of June3, 1947, the territories, whichfell under Pakistan and those members whowere part of'T'ht' ConstituentAssembly, ceasedto be members of the Constituent Assembly,which re ·assembled on the 31st Oct.1947. Themembers of the house was reduced to 299 ofthese 284 was actually present on the 26th Nov.1949 and appended their signature to theConstitution as finally passed.Constitutional Background: Theconstitution was passed by the ConstituentAssembly on 26 Nov 1949 and is fully applicablesince 26 Jan 1950. Thanks to the help of Prof.K.B. Agrawal, the ICL-Edition of theConstitution now incorporates all amendmentsuntil and includin~ e 78th amendment (1995)[30 Aug 1995]; there are no newer amendmentsuntil Dec 1996. Amendments after Dec 1996have not yet been included. India is a federal

democratic republic of 25 states and sevenUnion Territories. Each state is administeredby a Governor appointed by the President whileeach Union Territory is administered by thePresident through a Minister. The bicameralparliamentiB composed of the Council of States,Rajya Sabha, and the House of the People, LokSabha. The Council of States will consist of250members out of which the President of Indiawill nominate 12 persons having specialknowledge or practical experience in respect ofliteratul"e, art, science and social service. Theremaining 238 seats are to be filled in by thepersons to be elected by the legislativeassemblies of their respective states instaggered re-elections of one-third every secondyear. The House of People is composed of 550members, Le., 530 members from the Statesand 20 members £l'om the Union Territories.The states of Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir,Karnataka, Maharshtra, and Uttar Pradeshhave bicameral legislatmes while the other23 states have unicameral legislatures. Upperhouses (Legislative Councils) are re-elected toone-third of thetr members every two years.Legislative Assemblies are chosen by directelection. There are some extraordinaryfeatures of the Indian system of government.For example, the Constitution encourages thestates to introduce the prohibition. The states ofAndhra Pradesh, Manipur, and Haryana havealready banned the production, possession. andconsumption of alcohol.Commencement: The provisions relatingto Citizenship, elections, pl'ovi sionalParliament, temporary and transitionalpositions were given immediate effect. on The26th Nov.1949. While the rest of theConstitution came into force on the 26th Jan.1950. And this date is referred to in theConstitution as The D"lte of itsCommencement.

PREAMBLE TO INDIAN CONSTITUTIONThe Preamble to the IndIan ConstItutlOn readsthus;"We, the people of India, having solemnlyresolved to constitute India into a Sovereign,Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic and tosecure to all its citizens;Justice, social,economic and political:Liberty of thought.expl·ession, belief, faith and worship:Equality ofstatus and of opportunity; and to promoteamong them all Fraternity assuring the dignityof the individual and the unity and integrity ofthe Nation: In our Constituent Assembly this

twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do herebyadopt, enact and give to ourselves thisConstitution" .The Preamble seeks to establish whatMahatma Gandhi described as The India of myDreams," ... an India in which the poorest shall feel thatit is their country in whose making they havean effective voice; ... an India ~n which allcommunities shall leave wIth perfect harmony.There can be no room in such an India for thecurse of untouchability or the curse ofIntoXicating drinks and drugs. Woman willenjoy as t.he same rights as man."SALIENT FEATURES OFCONSTITUTION OF INDIA(1) It makes India Sovereign, Socialist,Secular. Democratic Republic.(2) It is designed to work as FederalGovernment in normal times and as aUnitary Government in an emergency.(3) It establishes India as a Secular State.(4) It establishes a Parliamentary System ofGovernment in India(5) It introduces adult franchise and thesystem of Government in India(6) I ndia is a U mon of 28 States and 7 U ruonTerritories.(7) It abolishes untouchability in India(8) It guarantees Fundamental Rights to allcitizens of India.(9) It lays down Directive Principles of statePolicy for the guidance of Legislature andthe Executive of the country.(10) It establishes independence of judiciaryfrom the executiVe.(11) It declares Hindi as the Nationallanguage of India which would rep laceEnglish as early as possible.(12) A Union Public Service Commission hasbeen set up to make recruitment tovarious services.(13) Provision has been made for amendingthe constitution.Fundamental Rights: The provisions of Partrn of our Constitution, which enumerates theFundamental Rights, are more elaborate thanthose of any other existing writtenConstitutions of the World and cover a widerange of topics.The Purpose of the Fundamental Rightsare to act as limitations not only upon thepowers of the Executive but also upon the powerof the Legislature. The model haa been taken(rom the Constitutions of The United States,

though The Indian Constitutions does not gO sofar, and rather affects the compromise betweenthe doctrines of Parliamentary Sovereignty andJudicial Supremacy.The Constitutions itse lf classifies theFundamental Rights under seven groups asfollows: .a. Right to Equalityb. Right to Particular freedomsc. Right against Exploitationd. Right to freedom of religione Cultural and educational rightsf. Right to Constitutional l'emediesg. Right to property - has been eliminatedby the 44th amendment Act. thus only sixfreedom now remain. in Article 19 (I ).Fundamental Duties: A countervailingfactor has been introduced by t he 42ndamendment Act of 1976, known as theFundamental Duties. These duties arementioned in Art. SlA.Under thie Article, it shall be t.he duty ofevery citizen of India:·I. To abide by the Constitution and respectthe national flag and the nationa lanthem;11. To che risr. and follow the noble idealswhich inspired our national struggle forfreedom;III. To protect the Sovereignty, unity andintegrity of India;rv. To defend the country;V. To promote the spir it of commonbrotherhood amongst all the people ofIndia;VI. To preserve the rich heritage of ourcomposite culture;VI[. To protect and improve the naturalenvtronment;VIII. To develop the scientific temper and spiritof inquiry:IX. To safeguard Public property;X. To strive towards excellence in all spheresof individual and collective activity.These duties are not them servesenforceable in The Courts nor their violation, assuch, punishable, nevertheless, if a Court,be fore which a Fundamental Right is sought tobe enforced, has to be read all parts of theConstitution, it may refuse to enforce aFundamental Right at the instance of anindividual who has patently violated any ofilieduties specified in Art, 51A.Directive Principles:PART IV of the Constitution Art. (36-51)

contains the Directive Principles of StatePolicy. These Principles are in the nature ofinstruments of instruction to the govt. of theday to do certain things and to achieve certainends by their actions, in other words DirectivePrinciples are essentially guidelines to theState. A Directive Principle required to beimplemented by legislation and so long as thereis no Law carrying out the Policy laid down ina Directive, neither the State nor an individualcan violate any existing Law or legal rightunder the color of a Directive. Further still theDirectives ali'e not enforceable in the Courts anddo not create any justicable rights in favor ofthe individuals.In case of a conflict between DirectivePrinciples and Fundamental Rights of theConstitution, the latter shall prevail.These Directive Principles may beclassified as follow s: -a) Certain ideals, particularly Economic,which according to the framers of theConstitution, State should strive for.b) Certain directions to the legislature andthe executive intended to show in whichmanner The State should exercise theirlegislative and executive powers.c) Certain Rights of the citizen shall not. beenforceable by The Courts (FundamentalRights) nevertheless The State Gon. shallaim to secure by regulations of itslegislative and administrative policy.It shall be the duty of The State to foUowt hese Principles both in the matter ofAdministration as well as in the making ofLaws.

Differences between Fundamental Rights andDirective Principles(1) Fundamental Rights are enforceable inthe courts of law while DirectivePrinciples cannot be enforced.(2) While Fundamental Righ ts constitutelimitations upon state action, theDirective Principles are in the nature ofinstructions to the Government to achievecertain ends by their decisions.(3) Judiciary can declare any law void on theground that it contravenes any of theFundamental Rights, while the same isnot in the case of Directive Principles.(4) In the case of conflict between theFundamental Rights and t.he DirectivePrinciples. the former prevail.I PARTS I

PART I The Union and Its Territory Art.( 1-4)PART II Citizenship Art.( 5- 11 )PART TlI Fundamental Rights Art.(12-35)PART IV Directive Principles of State PolicyArt. (36-51)PART IVA Fundamental Duties Art.. (51A)PART V The UoionArt.. (52- 151)PART VI The States Art. (152-237)PART VII The States in Part B of The FirstSchedule Art. (238)PART VI II The Union Territories Art. (239-243)PART IX Panchayats Art. (2.13-243 zg)PART lXA Municipalities Art. (243 243)PART X The Scheduled and Tribal Areas Art.(244-244A)PART XI Relations Between The Union andThe States Art. (245-263)PART XU Finance Property, Contracts andSui .. Art. (264-300A)PART XIII Trade. Commerce and Intercoursewithin the Territory of Inuis Art. (301·307)223PART XlV Services Under The Union and TheStates Art. (308·323)PART XlVA Tribunals Art. (323A·323B)PART}''V Elections Art. (324·329A)PART XVI Special Provisions Relating ToCertain Classes Art. (330-342)PART XVll Official Language Art. (343-35 1)PART XVIII Emergency Provisions Art. (352·360)PART XIX Miscellaneous Art. (361 ·367)PART XXAmendment of the Constitution Art.(368):>ART XXI Temporary, Transitional andSpecial Provisions Art. (369-392)PART XXII Short Title, Commencement,Authoritative Text in Hindi and RepealsI SCHEDULES IFIRST SCHEDULE - [Article, 1 and 4]I. THE STATESII. THE UNION TERRITORIESSECOND SCHEDULE - [Articles 59(3},65(3}, 75(6}, 97.125, 148(3}, 158(3}, 164 (5},186and 22J1PART A-Provisions as to the President andthe Governors of States.PART B-[Repealed.)PART C-Provisionsas to the Speaker and theDeputy Spe~er of the House of the People andthe Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of theCouncil of States and the Speaker and theDeputy Speaker of the Legislative Assemblyand the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman ofthe Legislative Council of a State

PART D - Provisions as to the Judges of theSupreme Court and of the High CourtsPART E - Provisions as to the Comptrollerand Auditor-General oflndiaTHIRD SCHEDULE - Forms of Oaths orAffirmations [Articles 75(4), 99, 124(6),148(2},164(3}, 188 and 219]FOURTH SCHEDULE -Allocation of seatsin the qouncil of States [Articles 4(1) and80(2}]FIFTH SCHEDULE - Provisions as to theAdministration and Control of Scheduled Areasand Scheduled Tribes [Article 244(1)]Part A - GeneralPart B - Administrative and control ofScheduled Areas and Scheduled TribesPart C - Scheduled AreasPart D - Amendment of the ScheduleSIXTH SCHEDULE - Provisions as to theAdministration of Tribal Areas in [the States ofAssam, Meghalaya, Tripura and MizoramJ[Articles 244(2) and 275(1)JSEVENTH SCHEDULE - (Article 246)List 1-Union ListList II-State ListList III· Concurrent ListEIGH'1'H SCHEDULE - Languages [Articles344(1} and 351)NINTH SCHEDULE - Validation of certainActa and Regulations (Article SIB)TENTH SCHED\JLE - Provisions as todisqualification on ground of defection [Articles102(2} and 191(2}]ELEVENTH SCHEDULE - Powers,authority and responsibilites of Panchayats[Article 243G)TWELTH SCHEDULE - Powers, authorityand responsibilites of Municipalities, etc. UGC Governance II NATURE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTIONThe Constitution of I ndis proVIdes for a FederalSystem of Government, though the term'federation' has nowhere been used in theConstitution. For resolving the controversyregarding the nature of the IncUan FederalSystem, it is desirable to understand as to whatis im'plied by a Federal System; what are itsspecial features and how far these features arepresent in India.FEDERAL FEATURES OF THECONSTITUTIONThe main federal features of the IndianConstitution are as follows:

(1) Written Constitution : The firstessential feature of a Federal System is awritten Constitution which defines thestxucture, organization and powers of theCentral 8S well as the State Governments80 that the two 'Operate with each other'sjurisdiction. The Indian Constitution is awritten document which now contains440 Articles and 12 Schedules. It standsat he top of hierarchy of all laws and allthe authorities in India are legally boundto respect it.(2) Rigid Constitution: Another essentialfeature of our federation is a rigidConstitution which can be amended eitherby the joint action of the Federal and StateLegislatures or by an independentauthority. The lndian Constitution isrigid to a large extent.(3) Indep.endent Judiciary: The existenceof an independent judiciary is anotherimportant feature of the Indian FederalSystem. The Supreme Court of India,which is the apex court in India, acts 8Sthe guardian of the Constitution and candeclare any law or order ultra vires if itcontravenes any provision of theConstitution. The Supreme Court alsoensures that the Federal and the StateGovernments operate witbin the spheresallotted to them by the Constitution.(4) Division of Powers: Another feature ofa federation is statutory division of powersbetween the Federal Government and theState Governments. The IndianConstitution divides the powers on thepattern of the Canadian Constitution. Allthe powers have been divided into threelists-the Union List, the State List andthe Concurrent List. The residuaJ'ypowers have been vested by theConstitution in the Central Government.(5) Bicameral Legislature: Like otherFederations, the Constitution of India alsoprovides for a bicameral Parliamentconsisting of the Lok Sabha and the RajyaSabha. While the Lok Sabha comprisesrepresentatives directly elected by thepeople on the basis of universal adultfranchjse, the Rajya Sabha mainlycomprises representatives of the units.(6) Supremacy of the Constitution: Thesupremacy of the Constitution, anotherfeature of federalism, IS also prescnt inIndia. The Constitution of India stands at

tht: top of the hierarchy of all laws bothnational and state.NON-FEDERAL OR UNITARY FEATURESIn addition to the above federal features, theConstitution contains certain non-federal orunitary features, which have led the critics ofthe Indian Constitution to challenge its federalcharacter and charge that it is merely federal inform but unitary, in,s pirit. Some of theimportant unitary features of our Constitutionare as under:(1) A Strong Centre: In the first instance,the Constitution provides for a very strongCentre, a feature of unitary government.In the division of powers, 99 items havebeen included in the Union Ust, while theState List contains only 61 items.Further, even on the subjects contained inthe Concurrent List (52 items), both theCentre and the States have power tolegislate, but the Central Governmentenjoys an over-nding position. Theresiduary powers have also been vested inthe Centre. In short, the Constitutionprovides for a very strong Centre.(2) A Single Constitution for Union andStates! Unlike ot.her Federations of theworld, the States in India have not beengiven any right to make or unmake theirown Constitution. The framers provided asingle common and unified Constitution,both for the Centre and the States.Further, the States have not been givenany power to initiate amendments to theConstitution. a power which exclusivelyvests in the Indian Parliament. This hasenhanced the power and prestige of theCentre at the cost of the States.(3) Flexibility of the Constitution: Incomparison to other federations,amendments to the constitution can bemade only with lhe consent and approvalof the units. In Indio on the other hand,the parliament can amend most of theprovisions of the Constitution singlehandedly.either by single majority or bya two third majority. Only incase of someof the provisions the approval of thelegislatures of the majorityofthe states isalso required moreover, the states do notpossess any power to initiate amendmentto the constitution. All this hascontrib uted to the strengthening of thecentre at the cost of the states.(4) Single Citizenship: Usually in other

federation provision for double citizenshipexit, viz., each citizen is not only thecitizen of the country as such but is alsoa citizen of a particular State in which heresides. The Indian Constittltion on theother hand. creates a single citizenship ofIndia which is oommon to all the people ofvarious states and Union territories.(5) Inequality of representation in theRajya Sabha: The Indian Constitutionalso deviates from the traditionalprinciple of providing equalrepresentation to the States in the UpperHouse of the federal legislature. Unlikethe US Senate, which accords equalrepresentation to all the Statesirrespective of their size, the IndianConstitution accords representation to thevarious States in the Rajya Sabhs on thebasis of their population. This means lhatthe States with larger population sendmore representatives in comparison to theStates with smaller population. This is aclear departure from the federal principle.(6) Existence of Union Te rritories!Another feature, whIch is a clear pointerto the unitary character of the InclianConstitution , is the existence ofadministrative units known as the UnionTerritories. These units are directlygoverned by the Centr:al Government anddo not enjoy any independent powers orautonomy.(7) Special Powers of Rajya Sabha onState Subjects: Under the IndianConstitution, the Rajya Sabha canauthorize the Parliament to make lawseven on the subjects mentioned in theState List. The existence of this provisionin the Constitution implies that theCentre can encroach on the State List atwill.(8) Emergency Provisions: The existenceof the e mergency provisic.ns in theConstitution also poses a seriouschallenge to the federal character of theIndian polity. The President of Indin isauthorized to proclaim a state ofemergency under Articles 352, 356 and360. During the proclamation ofemergency. the Parliament gets thepower to legislate for the whole or any partof the temtory of India with respect to anyof the matters enumerated in the StateList. The Union Government can also

issue directions to the States as to themanner in which their executiveauthority is to be exercised.226(9) Appointment of Governors by thePresident{ The provision regarding theappointment of GovemorsofStat.es by thePresident is also a clear violation of thefederal principles. Under the IndianConstitution, the Governors, who are theadministrative heads of the Stateadministration, are appointed by thePresident and hold office during hispleasure. The States do not have any say intheir appointment or removal. Naturally,the Governors act as the agents of theCentre rather than as representatives ofthe States. This clearly gives power to theCentre to control the administration ofilieStates which is contrary to the principlesof a true federation.(10) Common All~lndia Services: Anotherfeature, which is a pointer to the unitarycharacter of the Indian Constitution, isthe provision of common AlI·IndiaServices like LA.S., IIP.S., etc. Themembers of these Services are appointedby the President of India on therecommendations of the Union PublicService Commissiotl and are accountableto the Union Government. The Stateshave hardly any control over the membersof these Services.(11) Single Unified Judiciary: Unlike otherfederations, India possesses a singleunified judiciary with the Supreme Courtat the apex. The Supreme Court not onlyexercises supervision but also control overthe functioning of other Courts. The writsof the Supreme Court are observedthroughout the country in all spherescivil,constitutional and criminal. Thejudges of High Courts are alsoindependent of the States, which do notpossess any power with regard to theirappointment, removal and serviceconditions. They are appointed by thePresident and can be removM by him onlyafter -they are impeached by theParliament. Further, there are noseparate sets oflaws and a single ~ivil andcriminal procedure operates throughoutthe country. AU this is a clear pointer tothe unitary character of the Constitutionand is incomplete contrast to the position

prevailing in the USA, where twoseparate sets of Courts exist·one for theCentre and the other for the States.(12) Centralised Election Machinery: TheConstitution provides for an ElectionCommission which is responsible for theconduct, supervision, direction and controlof the elections not only to the parliamentbut to the State Legislatures as well. Themembers of the Election Commission areappointed by the President in consultationwith the Prime Minister and the States donot have say in there appointment,removaJ, working or service condition.This is yet another unitary feature of theIndian Constitution.(13) Compt t'oller and Auditor·General:The creation of the office of theComptroUer and Auditor-General of India.who is responsible for the audit of theaccounts of the centre as well as the states,is also a violation of the federal principle.The Comptroller and Auditor· General of[ndia is appointed by the President and theStates have no say in his appointment orremoval.(14) Inter-State Councils and Boards: TheConstitution makes provision for theappointment of Inter·State Councils andBoards the settlement of disputes anddifferences between the centre and theState, and among the States. Themembers of these Inter·State Councils andBoards are appointed by the president andmake necessary recommendations to thepresident regarding the settlement ofdisputes. It is noteworthy that in theappointment of the councils and boards.the stales have no say. This is a clearencroachment on the autonomy of theunits of the lndilln fcdcrutioll.227(16) Constitution does not ProtectTerritorial Integrity of States: Unlikeother federations, where the territorialintegrity of the states is protected by theConstitution. the Constitution of Indiadoes not contain any provision to thiseffect. On the other hand, it specificallydenies this righ t to the states' Forexample, Article 3 of the Constitutionaut.horises the President to change thename, lerritory or boundary of any Statewithout ascertaining their wishes. Theparliament can also bifurcate an existing

State or combine two or more States intoone State. In other words, the veryexistence of the States depends on thesweet will of the Central Government..Conclusion: It. is evident from the abovediscussion that t.hough the IndianConstitution outwardly possesses a federalstructure, in spirit, it is unitary. Theframers of the Constitution deliberatelymade the Centre st.rong in keeping withthe inescapable realities of the situation. CITIZENSHIPThe Constitution of India provides for a singlecitizenship for the hole oflndia. It does not laydown a permanent law relating to the Indiancitizensh.ip but has left the matter entirely tolegislation by Parliament. However. it laysdown the classes of persons who would bedeemed to be citizens of India at thecommencement of the Constitution.(I) Domicile: A person domiciled in J ndis atthe commencement of the Constit.ution ofIndia is a citizen of India provided:(i) he was born in India;(il) either of his parents was born in India;and(ill) he has ordinarily been resident in Indiafor the last five years immediatelypreceding the rommencement of theConstitution.(2) Immigrants from Pakistan: Any personwho has migrated to India from Pakistan isa citizen of India provided he or either of hisparents or grand·parents were born in thepre· partition India. and(a) if he migrated before the 19th July,1948 and he has been ordinarilyresident of Inetia since the date ofmigration,(b) ifhe migrated on or after the 19th July.1948, he has been registered as acitizen.(3) Migrants to Pakistan: A migrant toareas now forming Pakista n after the 1stMarch, 1947 is not a citizen of I.ndia. But ifhe returned to Inwa undel' a proper permitfor resettlement or under the authority ofany law and is duly registpred, he is acitizen of India.(4) Residents in Foreign Countries: Anyperson ordinarily residing out of India isdeemed to be a citizen of India ifhe or eitherof his parents or any of his grand-parentswas born in pre-parution India provided

that he is registered as a Ci tizen by adiplomatic or consular representative ofIndia.ACQUISITION OF CITIZENSHIPAccording to the Citizenship Act, 1955, thecitizenship could be acquired through any of thefollowing five methods:(1) By Birth: All the persons born in India onor after 26th January, 1950, are treated ascitizens by birth. However, the childrenborn to foreign diplomats posted in Indiaare not. e ntitled to Indian ciLizenship.(2) By Descent: A person born even outsideIndia shall be treated as citizen of India bydescent if at the time of his birlh, his fatheris a citizen of India.(3) Registration: A person can acquirecitizenship of India by registration with theappropriate authority, The persons whocould acquire citizenship by registrationinclude (a) persons of Indian origin whohave ordinarily been resident in India forSLX months, immediately before making an228application for registration. A person isdeemed to be of Inctian origin ifhe, or eitherof his parents, or an) of his grand-parents,was born in the undivided lndia; (b) personsoflnctian origin ordinarily resident outsidelndia; (c) women married to Indian citizens;(d) minor children of persons who arecitizens of India; (e) persons of adult age andcapacity who are citizens of Commonwealthcountries or Republic of Ireland.(4) By Natura lisation: A person can acquirecitizenship of India by naturalization ifhefulfils the foUowing qualifications:(a) he belongs to a country where thecitizens of India are allowed to becomesubjects or citizens of that country bynaturalization:(b) he renounces the citizenship of hiscountry in accordance with the law of thatcountry and intimates the renunciation tothe Government of India;(c) he has been residing in India or servingthe Government oi India for at least 12months immediately preceding the date ofapplication; and(d) he possesses workable knowledge of anIndian language.(5) By Incorporation of Territory: In theevent of certain territory being added to theterritory of India, the Government canspecify the persons or categories of persons

who shall be entitled to India.n citizenship,by reasons of their connection with theterritory.LOSS OF CITIZENSHIPThe Act envisages three methods for the loss ofthe Indian citizenship, which are as foUows:(1) By Renunciation: An Indian citizen, whowants to become the national of anothercountry, can volun tarily renounce hiscitizenship by ma king a necessa rydeclaration to this effect in the prescribedform. It may be noted th at even the minorchildren of such a person also cease to becitizens of India.(2) By Termination: The citizenship of aperson is automatically terminated if hevoluntarily acquired the citizenship of nnyother country by naturalization,registration or otherwise. However, theutizenship of a person is not terminated ifhe acquires the citizenship of a countrywith which India is at war, till such time asnormal relations are restored between thetwo countries.(3) By Deprivation: A person can be deprivedof his citizenship under the followingconditions:(a) ifhe obtains the certificate of citizenshipby fraud, false rep resentation orconcealment of any material fact:(b) if he shows disloyalty or disaffectiontowards the lndian Constitution;(c) ifhe assists a country with whom Indiais at war;(d) ifhe stays abroad for seven consecutiveyears without showing any intention tocontinue as Indian citizen; and(e) if he is sentenced to imprisonment for aperiod not less than two years withinfive yea rs of naturalization orregistration.It is noteworthy that the citil.el"..ship of a personcan be taken from him only if he has acqnirndIndian citizenship by naturaliultion, pure domicileor registration. The persons. who are citizens ofIndia by birth or descent., cnnnot be deprived oftheir citizenship in any of the above manner.

MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT OF THE UNION .THE EXECUTIVEThe Constitution provides for a parliamentaryexecutive which consists of the President. theVice· President and the Council of Ministers,with the Prime Minister at its head.THE PRESIDENT

Election : The President is elected by anelectoral coUege composed of elected members ofboth HOllses of Parliament and electedmembers of State Legislative Assemblies by asystem of proportional representation by meansof 8 single transferable vote; the voting shall beby secret ballot.Tenure of Office: The President holds office fora period of five years [rom the day on which heenters upon his office, He is eligible for reoelection,Qualifications for Election as President:(1) He should be a citizen of India. (2) Heshouldnot be less than 35 years of age. (3) He shouldbe qualified for election as ,a member of LokSabha. (4) He should not. hold any office of profitunder the Government. (5) He should not be amember of either House of Parliament or StateLegislature,Powers:(a) Executive Powers: (1) The President isthe executive head of the Sovereign, Socialist,Secular. Democratic Republic of India. (2) He isex·officio Supreme Commander of the defenceforces. He can declare wat' and make peace,(3) He makes all important appointments suchas those of Governors, Chief Justice, PrimeMinister and Ministers. (4) He governs theUnion Territories directly through LieutenantGovernors.(b) Legislative Powers: (1) Any Bill passed bythe Parliament must receive his assent before itbecomes an Act, except in the case of MoneyBills on which prior assent is necessary.(2) President can issue Ordinances when theParliament is not in session. (3) He cannominate 12 members to the Rajya Babha and2 Anglo-Indian members to the Lok Babha.(4) He can address either House QfParliament.(5) He can dissolve the Lok Sabha and orderfresh elections.(c) Financial Powers: (1) No Money BiD canbe introduced in Parliament without his priorassent. (2) He can appoint a FinanceCommission after every five years.(d) Judicial Powers: (1) He can grantpardon, reprieve or remission of punishment orcommute death sentence. (2) He is notanswerable to any court.oflaw. (3) He appointsJudges of Supreme COllI't and High Courts.(e) Emergency Powers: Th~ President. cansuspend the whole Const.itution or some articlesof it under emergency <:onditions arising out of:(i) threat to the security of I.ndia or any partthereof by war, external aggression or

armed rebellion;(ii) fa.ilure of constitutional machinery in aState; and(iii) financial emergencyDiscretionary Powers: (I) If after thegem.ral election, no single party is able tosecure a majority or post·electlon splits red ucethe majority to minority, the President can usehis own discretion to determine which partyhas the best chances oCforming a Government.Similar is the case in the case of death of aPrime Minister. (2) In case th£! President comesto a conclusion that none -of the partiesrepresented in the Parliament is to a position toform a stable Government, he can dissolve theLok Sabha and order fresh elections. (3) Whenan advice is sent by the Council of Ministers tothe President for approval, he can once I'eturnthe same to the Council of Ministers forreconsideration under Art. 74(1) of theConstitution. However, once an advice isreconsidered by the Council of Ministers andreturned to the President of approval, he cannotrefuse to it in accordance with it.Impeachme nt: The President may beremoved form office by impeachment for theviolation of the Constitution. The charge .. forthis may be preferred in either House ofParliament. The Resolution for impeachmentmust be passed by a two· thirds majority of thetotal membership of t.he House. The otherHouse will investigate the charge. If theinvestigating House passed by a two-thirdsmajority of the total membership, a resolutionthat the charge preferred against the Presidenthas been sustained, it will have the effect ofremoving the President from his office.Salary and Allowances: The President isentitled to an official rent·free residence anddraws a salary of &.50,000 per month besidesvarious allowances. He is entitled to pension ofRs.30,000 per month.

VICE-PRESIDENTMethod of Election: The Vice·President iselected by the members of both Houses ofParliament at a joint session by meaDS of singletransferable vote according to the system ofproportional representation. Voting is by secretballot.Qualifications: (1) He must be a citizen ofIndia. (2) He must not be less than 35 years ofage. (3) He must be qualified to become amember of the Rajya Sabba. (4) He should notbe holding any orfice of profit under the

Government. (5) He should not be 8 member ofe ither House of Parliament or StateLegislature.Terms of Office: The Vice· President holdsoffice for a maximum period of five years and iseligible for re-election.Functions:(1) The Vice· President is ex·officio Chairman ofthe Rajya Sabhs.(2) If there occurs any vacancy in the office ofPresident by reason of his death,resignation or removal. then he acts 8SPresident till a new President is elected,subject to a maximum period of six months.During this period he ceases to be theChairman of Rajya Sabhn.(3) He also acts as the President during thetemporary abse nce of the P¥esident due toillness or any other cause.Removal: The Vice· President can be removedfrom his office by a resolution of the RajyaSabha by a majority of its total membershipand agreed to by the Lok Sabha by a simplemajority.COUNCIL OF MINISTERSThe Constitution provides for a Council ofMinisters with a Prime Minister as its head toaId and advise the President in the exercise ofhis functions. The Prime Minister is appointedby the President. The other Ministers areappointed by the President on the advice of thePrime Minister. The Council of Ministers IScollectively responsible La the Lok Sabha underArt. 75(3) of the Constitut.ion, The President isbound by the advice of Council of Ministers.INDIAN PARLIAMENTThe Union Parliament consists of the Presidentand two Houses· Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.

RAJYASABHAComposition: It consisls of not more than 250members, out of which 238 are elected and theremaining 12 nominated by the President fortheir special contribu tion to art, literature,science and social services. The electedmembers are chosen by the Stote Assemblies inaccordance with the system of proportionalrepresentation by means of a singletransferable vote. The allocat.ion of seats amongthe States is not on the basis of equality ofrepresentation. In the case of Union Territories.members are chosen in such a manner as theParliament by law determines. A candidate forelection to the Council of States (Rajya Sabha)must be (i) a citizen ofTndia: (ii) not less than

30 years of age; (iii) not holding any office ofprofit under the Government: and (iv)ordinarily a resident of the State from which heis contesting.Duration: The Council ofStat.es isa permanent.body, not subject. to dissolu tion. The term of officefor its melT!bers is six yea rs, one·t.hird of themembers retiring after every second year.Other Provisions: The Vice· President ofIndia is e.(·o~cio Chairman of the Council ofStates. The Council elects one of ils members asDeputy Chairman. who presides over itsmeetings in the absence of the Vice·President.But whenever the Council is considering aResolution for the removal of the Vice· Presidentor the Deputy Chairman from his office. theseofficers shall n9t preside over the sitting of theHouse, nor can they vo~ on the resolution,though t.hey are entitled to speak ..Powers and Functions: With regard tolegislative powers, the authority of the RajyaSabhs is co-extensive with that of the LokSabha. No measure can become a law. unless ithas been passed by the Rajya Sabha. Itexercises control over the UnionAdministration by seeking information. bymeans of questions and supplementaries. bymoving resolutions or motions of adjournmentor censure. Blit it cannot oust the Ministryfrom office. As regards the Mom~y Bills. thesecannot be introduced in the Council of States.Also when a Money Bill is passed by the LokSabha and transmitted to the Rajya Sabha, theiatt2r can delay the Bill for 14 days. It cannotreject the Bill

LOKSABHAComposition: It consists of not more than 552members, out of which 530 members are electedfrom States and not more than 20 membersfrom the Union Territories and tribal areas.The representatives from the States 8redirectlyelected by the people on the basis of adultfranchise. At present there are 543 electedmembers. The representatives of the UnionTerritories are to be chosen in such manner asthe Parliament may, by law, provide. ThePresident can also nominate two Members toLok Sabha to represent the Anglo-Indiancommunity if, in his opinion, it is notadequately represented. [Art. 331JA member for election to Lok Sabha mustbe (i) a citizen of India; (ii) not less than 25 yearsof age; and (iii) not holding any office of profit.The number of seats to each State is so allotted

that the ratio between the members andpopulation, as far as practicable, is the SRme foreach State. Each member of the House shouldrepresent not less than 51akh citizens.Tenure: Lok Sabhs has a tenure of 5 yearsunless dissolved earlier. But while a Proclamationof Emergency under Art. 352 is in operation, thisperiod may be extended for a period not exceedingone year ata time and not exceeding in any casebeyond a period of six months after theproclamation has ceased to operate.Disqualification of Members of ParliamentA person shall be disqualified for being chosenas, and for being, a member of either House ofParliament:(i) if he holds any such office of profit underthe Government of India or Government ofState, as is declared by Parliament. by lawto disqualify its holder;(ii) if he is of unsound mllld and stands sodeclared by a competent court;(iii) if he is an undischarged insolvent;(iv) if he is not a citizen of India. or hasvoluntarily acquireu citizenship of aforeign State; and(v) ifhe is so disqualified by any law made byParliament.Powers and Functions of Parliament(1) Its main function is to enact laws for thegood government of the counLry. (2) It can passa vote of No-confidence and thus dismiss theGovernment in power. (3) It controls thefmances of the Union. (4) The members canelicit information by asking questions andsupplimentaries. (5) The members can moveadjournment motions and thus criticize thegovernment. (6) It ean impeach the President incase he violates the Conj>titution.(7) MaximumGap between two sessions of ParUament is 6months under Art. 85(1).

JOINT SESSIONFor Non Money BillsAfter a Bill has been passed by one House ofParliament and transmitted to the other Houseand(a) the Bill is rejected by the other Hom.e; or(b) the two Houses have finally disagreed as tothe amendments to be made in the Bill; or(c) more than six months have elapsed fromthe date of receipt of the Bill by the otherHouse without the Bill being passed by it.The Parliament may. unless the Bill haslapsed by reason of dissolution of the LokSabhs, notify to the Houses by message, if they

are sitting, or by public notification, if they arenot sitting, his intention to summon them tomeet in a Joint session for the purpose ofdeliberating and voting on the Bill.If at the joint sitting of the two Houses, theBill, with such amendments, if any. as areagreed to in the joint sitting, is passed by themajority of the t-Ota1 number of members of bothHouses present and voting, it shall be deemed tohave been passed by both the Houses.For Money sms: A Money Bill can beintroduced in the Lok Sabha only on therecommendations of the President. Aner aMoney Bill has been passed by the Lok Sabha.it is transmitteu to Rajya Sabha forrecommendations. The Rajya Babha mustmake its ~ecommendations within 14 days ofthe receipt of the Bill. It is up to the Lok Sabhato accept or reject any of the recommendations.If the Lower House accepts any of thereoommendationsofthe Hajya Sabha, the Bill isdeemed to have been passed by both the Houseswith the amendment recommended by theHajya Sabha and accepted by the Lok Sabha.Ifthe Lok Sabha does not accept any of therecommendations of the Rajya Sabha, theMoney Bill is deemed to have been passed byboth Houses in the form in which it was passedby the Lok Sabha. If the Bill is not returnedwithin 14 days, it is deemed to have been passedby both the Houses at the expiration of the termof 14 days. It is then transmitted to the Presidentfor assent. After this. it becomes an Act.In the case of an amendment toConstitution, the deadlock cannot be resolvedby the joint session of the Parliament. The BiUfor the amendment of the Constitution has to bepresented again to both the Houses of.Parliament and it becomes an act only whenpassed by both the Houses by requisitemajority.THE SPEAKERElection: The Speaker of the Lok Sabha iselected by the members of Lok Sabha by asimple majority. The term of his office is co·terminus with the life of the House itself.Power and Functions(1) He presides over the sitting ofLok Sabhaand the joint session of Parliament. (2) Hedecides whether a particular Bill is a Money BUIor not Bnd his decision is £in al. (3) Hedetermines the order of the business in theHouse in consultation with the Leader of lheHouse. (4) He decides about the admissibility ofquestions and Adjournment Motions, etc. (5) He

appoints Chairmen of the Select Commit.tees.(6) He maintains proper decoru m in the Housc.He warns disorderly members and suspendsthem from s ittings of the House. if any memberflouts his authority.Removal: The House of the People canremove the Speaker at any time by aresolution passed by the majority of themembers of the time being. Such a resolutioncan be introduced in the House only after anotice has been given to t.hat effect at. leastfourteen days in advance.MONEY BILLA Bill is said to be a Money Bill if it containsonly provisions dealing with all or Bny of thefollowing matters:(i) the imposition, abolition. remission.alteration or regulation of any tax:(ii) regulation of borrowing of money orcreating or regulation of any tax;(iii) custody of the Consolidated Fund of Indiaor Contingency Fund of India and itsoperation;(iv) appropriation of money out of theConsolidated Ftlnd of India;(v) the declaring of money charged on theCOl!:;oli:l.ated Fund of India or increasingthe amount of such expenditure;(vi) the receipt of money on account of theConsolidated Fund of India or PublicAccount of I ndin or cllstody or iSSlle of 8 nysuch expenditure;(vii) audit of accounts of the Union or a State;or(viii) any other matter incidental to any of thematters referred to above.The Privileges of Parliament are certain rightsbelonging to each House collectively and someto the members individually for maintaining itsfreedom, status and dignity.The following are the privileges, viz.,(i) freedom of speech in Parliament;(ii) no member of Parliament is liable to anyproceedings in any court in respect ofanything said or any vote given by him inParliament or any committee thereof; and(ill) no peeson is liable in ,espeot of thepublication by or under the orders of eitherHouse of Parliament of any report, paper,votes or proceedings.Powers of Parliament: The privileges,powers and immunities of a House ofParliament are:(i) that no court. shall look into the validity ofits proceedings;

(ii) no Officer or Member of Parliament isanswerable to any court for exercise of thepowels vested in him under theConstitution;(iii) To make its own rules for regulating itsprocedure and business;(iv) To regulate recruitment and conditions ofservice of persons appointed to theSecretaria t of the House; and(v) To punish any person for contempt of theHouse and breach of privileges ofMembers, Committees and the House.COMNUTTEESOFPARL~NTTo cope with the ever-increasing work, theIndian ParliamenT. has set up a number ofcommittees. These committees play an effectiverole in the working of the Indian Parliament.The members of these committees areappointed by the Speaker or are elected by theHouse from amongst its members. Thesecommittees are authorized to call witnesses andcollect evidence by asking for official papers andrecords.The important committees of the Lok Sabhs areas follows:(1) Business Advisory COITlITlittee: Thiscommittee is concerned with the planningand regulation of t~e business of theHouse. It also advises the H Oll~e regardingallocation of ti.me for T.he discussion ofvarious issues. This 'Committee is formedat the beginning of the Lok Sabha'ssession and consists of 15 members. TheSpeaker is the Chairman of thisCommittee. Toensure.the smooth workmgof the House, the leaders of the majoropposition parties are also associated withthis Committee.(2) Select Conunittees on Bills: There area number of Select Committees of theHouse which collect information onvarious issues and submit necessaryreport on the basis of the examination ofrelevant material and witnesses. 'I'heCommittee is dissolved soon after it hassubmitted the report on the subject underreference. The members of the SelectComrcittee are appointed by the House.The strength of members of various SelectCommittees differs according to theimport.ance of the Bill.(3) Committee on Privi leges: TheCommittee tries to safeguard and protectthe privileges of the members of the Houseand suggests appropriate action against

the erring authorities. It may be notedthat the members of the Parliament havebeen granted certain privileges andimmunities, and any violation or denial ofthese is tantamount to a crime for whichlegal proceedings can be instituted againstthe erring authority. The PrivilegesCommittee consists of 15 members, whoare nominated by the Speaker at thecommencement of the session of the LokSabha. Generally, the Deputy Speakeracts as the Chairman of this Committee.(4) Committee on SubordinateLegislation; The Committee ISconstituted to ensure that the rule· makingpowers delegated to the executive are notmisused. It scrutinizes the rules andregulations enacted by the variousdepartments to ensure that these conformto the main law enacted by theParliament.Thus the Committee plays an importantrole in preventing llsurpation ofParliament's powers by the executive.This Committee also consists of 15members who are nominated by theSpeaker. The Ministers cannot bemembers of this Committee.(5) Committee on Public Undertakings:This is a Committee of both the Houses ofParliament. It consists of22 members· 15from the Lok Sabha and 7 from the RajyaSabha. The Committee examines theworking of the Public Undertakings,including their fmancial matters. It is alsothe function of the Committee to examinethe reports and accounts of PublicUndertakings specified in the Rules ofProcedure and the reports of theComptroller and Auditor-General thereon,if any, and to examine, in the context ofthe autonomy and efficiency of the PublicUndertakings, whether the affairs of thePublic Undertakings are being managedin accordance with the sound businessprinciples and prudent commercIalpractice.(6) Committee on GovernmentAssurances: This Committee examinesthe various assurances and undertakingsgiven by the Ministers on the floor of theHouse to find out how far these have beenfulfilled or implemented within thestipulated time. This Committee consistsof 15 m~mbers who are nominated by the

Speaker for one year. The Ministers arcnot eligible for membership of thisCommittee.(7) Estimates Committee: It is verysignificant Committee and performs thefollowing functions: (i) It reports whateconomies, improvements in organization,efficiency or administrative reforms,consistent with the policy underlying theestimates, can be effected. (ii) It suggestalternative policies to bring aboutefficiency and economy in administration.(Ui) It ensures that tge money is weU laidoutwithin the limitS of the policy impliedin the estimates. (iv) It suggests the formin which the estimates should bepresented to the Parliament. TheEstimates Committee consists of 30members of the House on the basis of theproportional representation and singletransferable vote. The Chairman of theEstimates Committee is appointed by theSpeak-er. However, if the Deputy Speakerhappens to be a member of thisCommittee. he ipso facto becomes itsChairman.(8) Public Accounts Committee: This isalso a joint committee of the two Houses.It consists of 22 members - 15 from LokSabha and 7 from Rajya Sabha. It may benoted that Rajya Sabha members are onlyassociate members and are not. entitled tovote. The members of the Committee areelected for one year but by convention theygeneraUy continue in office for at least twoyears. The election is held on the basis ofproportional representation through asingle transferable vote. The Ministerscannot be members of this Committee.The Chairman of the Committee isappointed by the Speaker'from amongst itsmembers. The main function of theCommittee is to examine the repprt of theComptroller and Auditor-General of Indiaand to ascertain that the expenditure hasnot exceeded the grants made by theParliament and the money has been spentfor the purpose it was sanctioned by theParliament. It also sees to it that thefmaneia! rules and regulations have beenfoUowed by the executive. The Committeeplays an important role in ensuringregularity and economy in expenditure.

UGC Governance IV

 SUPREME COURTAppointment of judges: Every judge of theSupreme Court is appointed by the President bywarrant under his band and sea l afterconsultation with such Judges of the SupremeCourt and of the High Courts a6 the presidentmay deem necessary for the purpose. In case ofappoint.ment of a judge, other than chiefJustice, t.he Chief Justice of India is to benecc'3sanly consulted. A Judge of the SupremeCourt remains in office until he attains the ageof65 years. No person can be appointed a Judgeof the Supreme Court unless (i) he is a citizenof India, (ii) has been for at. least five years aJudge of High Court or has been for at least tenyears an advocate of a High Court or two ormore courts in succession, (iii) is in the opinionof the President a distinguished jurist.Privileges of Judges: A Judge of the SupremeCourt is entilled to such salaries as are specifiedin the Second Schedule. Every Judge of theSupreme Comt is entitled to the use of anofficial residence without rent. Also, every judgeis entitled to such privileges and allowances andto such rights.in respect of leave of absence andpension as may, from time to time , bedetermined by the Parliament.Removal of Judges: Judge of the SupremeCourt can only be removed from office by anorder of the President, Parliament, supportedby a majority of not less than two-thirds of themembers of that house present and voting. Hasbeen presented to the President in the samesession for such removal on the ground ofproved misbehavior or incapacity. Theparliament has been empowered to regul,ate theprocedure for the presentation ofan address andfor the investigation and proof of themisbehavior or incapacity of a Judge underArticle 124.Composition: The Supreme Court is thehighest court of justice in fndia. ft consists ofone chief justice and 25 other judges. There isprovision for the appointment of ad hoc judgeaand even the retired judges may be at times.when the neceSSlty arises, requested to bepresent.Powers and Functions: The Supreme Courtis a court of recol'd and exercises all the powersof such a court, including th~ power to punishfor the contempt of itself. Ita malO functionsmay be studied under the following heads:{l) Original Jurisdiction: The SupremeCourt has exclusive jurisdiction in aU

disputes-(a) between the Government of India andone or more States;(b) between the Government of India andany State or States on the other; and(e) between two or more States.Such jurisdiction, however, does notextend to a dispute al'ising out of anytreaty, agreement, coven a nt ,engagement or sanad or any similarinstrument which was executed beforethe commencement of the Constitution.(2) Appellate Jurisdiction in Civil Cases:An appeal to the Supreme Court lies fromany judgement, decree or final orders of aHigh court or, a certificate from a highcourt concerned that the case involves asubstantial question as to theinterpretation of the Constitution.(3) Jurisdiction in criminal Cases: Incriminal cases an appeal lies to theSuprema Court if the High Court(i) has given any decree or final order inthe case;(li) has withdrawn for trial before it self anycase from any court subordinate to itsauthority a nd ha s in s uch trialsentenced the accused to death; or(iii) certifies that the case is a fit one forappeal to the Supreme Court.(4) Advisory Jurisdiction: The Presidentmay refer to the Supreme Court anyquestion of law or fa ct of s ufficientimportance for its opinion. The Presidentmay also refer to the court disputes arisingout of any provision of treaty, agreement,co.-ensnt, engagement or sanad, etc. Theopinion 80 expressed is not binding on thePresident.(5) Enforcement of Fundamental Rights:The Supreme Court has been armed withpowers to issue directions or orders or writsin the nature of habeas corpus,mandam us, prohibition, quo warranto andcertiorari for the enforcement of theFundamental Rights conferred by theConstitution.(6) Additional Jurisdiction: Article 138 ofthe Constitution provides for enlargementof the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court byParliament with reference to any mattercontained in the Union List. It has alsojurisdiction on any such matter as theGovernment ofIndia and the Governmentof any State may, by agreement, confer.

But the Parliament has to give effect tothis agreement by passing a law.(7) Power to Review: The Supreme Courthas power to review sny judgement ororder made by it, subject to any law passedby the Parliament in this regard.(8) Supplementary Powers: Parliamentmay by law confer such supplementalpowers on the Supreme Court ss mayappear to be necessarY and desirable for thedue discharge of its functions.Guardian of the Constitution: It is clearfrom the powers and functions of the SupremeCourt that it is the ultimate interpreter of theConstitution and, as such, its guardian. Theauthority of the Court is further re-inforced bythe provision that "the law declared by theSupreme Court shall be binding on all courtswithin the territory of India" (Art. 141).Further, in the exercise of its jurisdiction, thecourt is authorized to pass appropriate decreesor orders in the interests of complete justice inany case before it.Independence of Judiciary: Theindependence and impartiality of the SupremeCourt is the corner-stone of democracy. Justiceis said to be blind and this must be so, especiallyin a democracy which professes all its citizensto be equal before law. Our Constitutionensures the independence of the Judiciarythrough the following measures:(1) Though appointed by the President~ ajudgeofthe Supreme Court can only be removeda fter an address of each House ofParliament supported by a majority of thetotal membership of that House and by amajority of not less than 2/3 of the memberspresent and voting and presented to thePresident on the ground of provedmisbehaviour or incapacity.(2) The salary and the conditions of service of ajudge of the Supreme Court cannot be variedto his disadvantage after his appointment.(3) After retirement, a judge of the SupremeCourt cannot plead or act in any other Courtor before any authority within the territoryofIndia.(4) The salaries. etc., of the judges andadministrative expenses of the SupremeCourt are chargeable on the ConsolidatedFund of India and are, therefore, notvotable.HIGHCOURTSAppointment of Judges: Ajudge of the HighCourt is appointed by the President by warrant

under his hand and seal after consultation withthe Chief Justice ofIndia, the Governor of theState, and in the case of appointment of a judgeother than Chief Justice, the Chief Justice ofthe High Court concerned. Provision has alsobeen made for the attendance of the retiredjudges at sittings of the High Courts.Qualifications: A pErson cannot be appointeda judge of a High Court unless:(i) he is a citizen of India;(ij) has for at least ten years held a judicialoffice in the territory of India; and(iii) has for at least ten years been the advocateof a High Court or of two or more suchCourts in succession.Conditions of Services: A judge of a HighCourt holds office until he attains the age of 62years. He may be removed from his office in thesame manner in which a judge of the SupremeCourt is removed (discllssed earlier). Everyjudge is entitled to such allowances and to suchrights in respect oC leave and pension as mayfrom time to time be determined by theParliamentary enactment. His allowances andother rights are not to be varied to hisdisadvantage after the appointment.THE GOVERNORAppointment: The Governor of a State isappointt:d by the President. Only a citizen ofIndia, who hAS completed 35 years of age, iseligible for appointment 88 a Governor. He neednot be a residentoCthat State for appointmentas Governor. He holds office during the pleasure~fthe President. Subject to this, he holds officefor a period of five years. He receives asalary ofRs. 36,000 per month, and is entitled to certainother allowances and privileges.Powers of a Governor:(a) Legislative Powers: He summons, fixesthe time and place for the meeting of theLegislature. He addresses the meeting ofthe Legislature at the commencement ofsession once in a year, He can sendmessages to the State Legislature. Every ~Bill passed by the Legislature must have hisassent. He has the power to promulgate anordinance, whenever the legislature is notin session.(b) Executive Powers: He appoints ChiefMinister of the State and the otherMinisters on the advice of the ChiefMinister, He also appoints the Chairmanand members of the State Public ServiceCommission. He acts ss the agent of theCentre during an emergency.

(c) Financial Powers: No Money Bill can beintroduced in the Legislative Assembly ofthe State except on the Governor'srecommendation. The State ContingencyFund is at his disposal and he can makeadvaoces out of it to meet unforeseenexpenditure pending its authorization bythe State Legislature.(d) Judicial Powers: He haa the power togrand pardons, and suspend, remit orcommute sentences where the offence isunder a low relating to matters within theexecutive competence ofthe State.(e) Discretionary Powers:(i) He detcrm.ines whether the Government ofa State can or cannot be carried on inaccordance With the provisions of theConstitution.lfhe feels that it cannot be SOcarried on, he can make a report to thePresident under Art. 356(1).(0) If after the general elections, no singleparty is able to secure a clear majority orpost-election splits reduce the majority to aminority, the Governor can use his owodisrretion to determine which party hasthe best chances of forming a stablegovernment.(iii) In case the Governor comes to conclusionthat none of the parties represented in thelegislature is in a position to form a stablegovernment he can in his discretiondissolve the legislature and order freshelections.(iv) The Governor can reserve a bill or billspassed by the State Legislature forconsideration of the President.Role of Governor: Ordinarily, the Governorhas to act according to the wishes of the Councilof Ministers. No other role can fit in well in aParliamentary set up. It is only in the exerciseof discretionary powers when he may ignore thewishes of the Ministers. Apart from the role ofGovernor as a Constitutional head of the State,the Constitution certainly visualizes anotherrole on his part when he acta 88 the agent of theCentre. Itis only, when so doing that the use ofdiscretionary powers become relevant. Whenthe administration of State is not carried on inaccordance with th~ provisions of theConstitution, he is to report to the Centre,During President's Rule, be runs theadministration directly with the help of theAdvisers appointed by the Central GovernmentSTATE COUNCIL OF MINISTERSThe Constitution provides for a Council of

Ministers, with a Chief Minister at its head, toaid and advise the Governor in the exercise ofhis functions. The Governor appoints the ChiefMinist.er and his Ministers. UsuaUy, all theMinisters must be members of the Legislatureofthe State but sometimes even a non· membermay be appointed a Minister. In that case, hecannot retain his office for more than sixmonths without being a member of theLegislature of the State. The Council ofMinisters is collectively responsible to theLegislative Assembly of the State.STATE LEGISLATUREIn every State, the Legislature consists of theGovernor and (a) in case of Bihar,Maharashtra, Karnataka, V.P. and Jammu &Kashmir two Houses, namely, LegislativeCouncil and Legislative Assembly and (b) inother States one House, viz. , LegislativeAssembly.Legi'slative Assembly: It is a directly electedbody on the basis of adult franchise. The totalnumber of members of the Assembly shall in nocase be more than 500 or less than 60. Itsnormal life is fiv(. years. A candidate for electionto the Legislative Assembly ofa State should be(i) a citizen of India; (li) not less than 25 yearsof age; and (ill) not holding an office of profitunder the Government.Legislative Council: This is a permanentbody. One·third of its members l'etire everysecond year. Its total members should notexceed one·third of the members of StateLegislative Assembly. Its minimum strength is40. Only U.p.., Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnatakaand Jammu & Kashmir have LegislativeCouncils.

DISTRIBUTION OF LEGISLATIVE POWERS BETWEEN THE UNION AND THE STATESThe Constitution of India makes a division oflegislative powers between the Union and theStates under Seventh Schedule. The UnionParliament has powers to make laws for thewhole or any part of the territory of India, whilethe Legislature of a State can make laws for theState concerned. Also, like the Government ofIndia Act, 1935, there is three· fold distributionof powers between the Union and the States:(1) Union List: It includes 99 subjects ovel'which the Union Parliament has exclusivepower of Legislation such as Defence,Foreign Affairs, Banking, Currency, etc.(2) State List: It comprises 61 items overwhich the State Legislatures haveexclusive powers of Legislation, e.g.,

Health, Agriculture, etc.(3) Concurrent List: It comprises 52 itemsin which the Union and the StateLegislatures both can make laws, e.g.,criminal law and procedure, marriages,economic planning, education, etc.(4) Residuary Powers: According to Art.248 of the Constitution, the residuarypowers are vested in the UnionLegislature, Le., the Parliament have theexclusive right to make any law withregard to any matter not specified in theConcurrent or State List.Conflict of Jurisdiction: In case of theoverlapping of a matter as between the lists,predominance has been given to the UnionLegislature. Thus, in the case of repugnancybetween a law of the State and a valid Unionlaw, the latter will prevail and the law made bythe State to the extent of repugnancy shall hevoid. If, however, the legislation relates to aconcurrent subject, the State legislation mayprevail, notwithstanding any repugnancy, ifthe State law had been reserved for thePresident and received his assent.ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNION AND THE STATESThe Union Government have the power to givedirections to the Slate Governments as regardsexercise of their executive r"wers in respect ofthe following matters:(A) Normal Time Directions(1) To ensure compliance with Union lawsand existing laws which apply in thatState. [Art. 257J(2) To ensure that the exercise of executivepowers of State do not interfere withthe executive powers of the Union.[Art. 257(I)J(3) To ensuremaintenanceconstructionof the meansandofcommunication of national or militaryimportance by the state. [Art. 257(2)](4) To ensure ,protection of railways withinthe State. [Art. 257(3)J(5) To ensure drawing and execution ofschemes specified in the dirt:ctions to beessential for the welfare of the ScheduledTribes in the State. [Art. 339(2)J(6) To ensure the provisions of adequatefacilities for instruction in the mothertongueat the primary stage of education

to children belonging to the linguisticminorities. [Art. 350-AJ(7) To ensure the_ development of Hindilanguage. [Art. 351](8) During Emergency(1) During a proclamation of Emergency,the Union Government is empowered togive directions to any State as to themanner in which the executive power ofthe State is to be exercised. [Art.353(a)](2) During a proclamation of failure ofconstitutional machinery in a State, thePresident may assume to himself all orany of the executive powers of the State.(Art.35G(I)(3) During the proclamation of FinancialEmergency, the executive authority ofthe Union extends to the giving ofdirections to any State:(i) to observe such canons of financial~ropriety as may be specified in thedirections;(li) to red uce t he salaries andallowances of all or any class ofpersons serving in connection withthe affairs of State or Unionincluding Judges of Supreme Courtand High Courts; and(iii) to require that all Money Bills andother financial Bills be reserved :Corconsideration by the Preside.ntwhen passed by the StateLegislature. [Art. 30(4)]Sanction for Ensuring Compliance with DirectivesArticle 35 of the Constitution provides thatin case of non-compliance of directives given toa State by the Union, it shall be lawful for thePresident to declare that a situation has arisenin which the Government of the State cannot becarried in accordance with the provisions of theConstitution. On such a declaration beingmade, the provisions of Art. 356 regardingfailure of constitutional machinery will comeinto operation and t he President will assume tohimself all or any of the executive powers andthereby have the violated directives carried out.FINANCIAL RELATIONS BETWEENTHE UNION AND THE STATESIdeally speaking, the best system of federalfinance would be one which effected a clear-cutdivision of sources of the revenue between theFederal and the State Governments so as tomake each of the parties financiallyindependent of each other. Indian Constitutionmake elaborate provisions regarding the

distribution of revenues between the Centre andthe States. The financial relations between theUnion and the States can be studied under thefollowing heads:(1) Duties levied by the Union but Collectedand Appropriated by the States: Stampduties and duties of excise on the medicaland toilet preparations are levied by theGovernment of India, but collected andappropriated by the States within whichsuch duties are leviable except in theUnion Territories where they are coll~ctedby the Union Government. [Art. 268](2) Taxes Levied and Collected by the Unionbut Assigned to the States within whichthey a,re Leviable: (i) Succession duty inrespect of property other than agricultureland; (ii) Estate duty in respect of propertyother than agricultural land; (ill) Terminaltaxes on goods or passengers carried byrailways, sea or air; (iv) Taxes on railwayfares and freights ; (v) Taxes ontransactions in stock exchanges; (vi) Taxeson sale and purchase of newspapers,including advertisements publishedtherein; (vii) Taxes on the sale andpurchase of goods other than newspapers,where such purchase takes place in thecow·se of inter-state trade or commerce.[Art. 269](3) Taxes Levied and collected by the Unionand distributed between the Union and theStates: Certain taxes are levied as well ascollected by the Union, but their proceedsare divided between the Union and theStates in a certain proportion in order toeffect an equitable distribution of thefinancial resources. There are:(a) taxes on income other than agriculturalincome; and(b) excise duties as are included in theUnion List, excepting medicinal and toiletprepara.tions.(4) Surcharge: The Parliament is, however,authorized to levy surcharge on the taxesmentioned at (2) above and on income-taxfor the purpose of the Union.(5) Grants-in-Aid: Parliament may makegrants-in-aid from the Consolidated Fundof India to such States as are in need ofassistance, particularly for the promotionof welfare of tribal areas, including specialgrant to Assam.(6) Loans: The Union Government may makeloan to any State or give guarantees with

respect to loans raised by any States.(7) Previous Sanction of the President: No Billor amendment can be introduc:ed or movedin either House of Parliament without" theprevious sanction of the President, if:(a) it imposes or varies any tax in whichthe States are interested; or(b) it varies the meaning of the expression"Agricultural Income" as defined in theIndian lncome-Tax Act; or(c) it affects the principles on which moneyare distributed to the States; or(d) it imposes a surcharge on the Statetaxes for the purpose of the Union.(8) According to Article 301, freedom oftrade,commerce and intercourse throughout theterritory of India is guaranteed, but theParliament has the power to imposerestrictions in public interest.(9) Although taxes on income, other thanagricultural income, are levied by theUnion, yet the State Legislatures can levytaxes on profession, trade, etc., providedthat the total amount of such taxes payablein respect of anyone person should notexceed Rs. 2500 per month.(10) Provision has been made for theconstitution of a Finance Commission torecommend to the President certainmeasures for the distribution of financialresources between the Union and theStates.

FINANCE COMMISSIONConstitution: Under Art. 280 of theConstitution, provision has been made for theConstitution of a Finance Commission within 2years of the commencement of the Gonstitutionand thereafter after expiration of every fifthyear. It consists of a chairman and four othermembers appointed by the President.Functions: It is the duty of the Commission tomake recommendations to the President as to:(i) the distribution between the Union andthe States, the net proceeds of taxes, whichare divisible between the Union and theStates;(ii) the principles, which should govern the241 UGC-JRF (Paper I}-31grant-in-aid of revenues to the States outof the Consolidated Funds of India;(iii) the measures needed to augment theConsolidated Fund of a State tosupplement the resources of thePanchayats in the State on the basis of the

recommendations made by the FinanceCommission of the State;(iv) the measures needed to augment theConsolidated Fund of a State tosupplement the resources ofMunicipalities in the State on the basis ofthe Finance Commission of the State; and(v) any other matter referred to theCommission by the President in theinterest of sound Finance.Report: The President shall cause the reportof the Financ;e Commission with an explanatorymemorandum as to the action taken thereon, tobe laid before each House of Parliament.UNION PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSIONConstitution: The Union Public ServiceCommission consists of a Chairman and ~ othermembers appointed by the President and theyhold office for a period of 6 years from the dateof their appointment.Functions': The following are the mainfunctions of the V.P.S.C.:(1) To conduct examinations for appointmentto the Services of the Union.(2) If requested by two or more States, toassist those States in framing andoperating the scheme of joint recruitmentfor services for which candidatespossessing special qualifications a rerequired.(3) To serve all or any of the needs of a Statewitb the approval of the President ifrequested by the Governor of a State.(4) To advise the Union Government on:(i) all matters relating to methods ofrecruitment to civil services and forcivil posts;(ti) the principles to be followed in makingappoin~ments to civil services and posts.and in making promotions and transfersfrom one service to another;(iii) suitability of candidates for suchappointments, promotions or transfers;(iv) all disciplinary matters affecting a personserving under the Government of India,including memorials or petitions relatingthereto; ,(v) any claim for the reimbursement ofexpenses incurred by a Governmentservant in defending legal proceedingsagainst him for acts done in the executionof his duties;(vi) any claim. for the award of pension forinjury sustained by a person while servingunder the Govt. of India in a civil capacity;

and(vii) on any matter which the President mayrefer to the Commission.ALL-INDIA SERVI CESUnder Art. 312 ofthe Constitution, if the RajyaSabha declared by resolution supported by notless than two-third of the members present andvoting, that it is necessary or expedient tocreate an All-India Service, common to theUnion and the States, Parliament may by lawcreate such a service and regulate therecruitment and conditions of service of personappoin.ted to any such service.The Indian Administrative Service andIndian Police Service, w hicb were in existenceat the commencement of Constitution, aredeemed to be All-India Services created by theParliament.The All-India Services Act was passed byParliament and detailed rules and regulationsunder the Act have since been promulgated.The recruitment to All-India Services, namely.LA.S., I.F.S ., I.P.8., etc., is made by theU.P.S.C. on the basis of a competitiveexamination supplemented by viva-voce test.The conditions of service of persons appointed tothose services have since been regulated by anact of Parliament.

ATTORNEY-GENERAL OF INDIAAppointmentThe Attorney-General af lodia is appointed bythe President under Article 76 of theConstitution. A person qualified to be ajudge ofthe Supreme Court is appointed to such a post.He is the highest legal adviser to the Gevt. ofIndia and is consulted in all important cases.He also appears in the Supreme Court on behalfof the Gevt. oeIndia to conduct important cases.Functions: The main functions of the AGI are:(i) to advise the Union Government in legalmatters;(ii) to perform such other legal duties, whichmay be assigned to him by the President;and(iii) to discharge such other functionsconferred on him by or under theConstitution or any other law for the timebeing in force.Terms of Office: He holds office during thepleasure of the President and receives suchremuneration as the President may determine.Rights: In pursuance of his duties, theAttorney-General has the right of audience inall courts in'the territory of India. He has also

a right to speak or take part in proceedings ineither House of Parliament or in the jointsession of two Houses or any Committee of theParliament. He cannot, however, vote.COMPTROLLER AND AUDITORGENERALFunctions: The comptroller and AuditorG~neral of India is appointed by the President.His main function are :(i) to bring account of the recipes andexpenditure of the Union Government(except Railways, Defence Services andother ministries, the accounts of which aremaintained by · the departmentalauthorities);(ii) to audit all expenditure from the revenuesof the Union and States; and(ill) to audit all trading manufacturing andProfit and Loss Accounts of stores andstocks, where the President may haverequired him to conduct such audit.Independence of Audit: The independence ofthe Comptroller and Auditor-General has beensought to be ensured by the following provisionsof the Constitution:(1) Though appointed by the President, theComptr oller and Auditor-General of Indiacan be removed from his office only after anaddress of each House of Parliament,supported by a majority of totalmembership of that House and not lessthan 213 of the members of the Housepresent and voting, has been presented tothe President on the grounds of (i) provedmisbehaviour and (ii) incapacity.(2) The salary and the conditions of service ofthe Comptroller and Auditor-General ofIndia cannot be varied to his disadvantageafter his appointment.(3) He is not eligible for further appointmentafter his retirement, so that he may haveno inducement to please the Executive ofthe Union or any State.(4) The salaries, etc., of the Comptroller andAuditor-General and his staff are chargedupon the Consolidated Fund of India andare thus non-votable.(5) The reports of the Comptroller and AuditorGeneralrelating to Accounts are submittedto the President who causes them to be laidbefore the ParliameneELECTION COMMISSIONComposition: It is a statutory body appointedunder Article 324 of the Constitution. Itconsists of a Chief Election Commissioner andtwo other Election Commissioners. The Chief

Election Commissioner is the Chairman of theCommission.Functions: The main functions of the ElectionCommission are:(i) to superintend, direct and control thepreparation of electoral rolls for theelections;(ii) to conduct all elections and by-elections tothe Parliament and State Legislaturesand elections to the offices of President andVice-President;(iii) to advise the President! Governorsregarding the disqualification of Members243of Parliament or Members of StateLegislatures; and(iv) to examine the return of expenses filed bythe candidates nominated to variouselections, disqualify the defaultingcandidates and their election agents andconsider the representation of such ofthem as apply for the removal of theirdisqualification.LANGUAGEThe official language of the Union is Hindi inDevnagari script and international form ofIndian numerals is used for official purposes.For a period of fifteen years from thecommencement of the Constitution, Englishwas to continue for official purposes of theUnion. If at the end of 15 years, Hindi was notable to replace English, Parliament couldprovide for the use of English for specificpurposes. The Constitution also lays down thatthe legislature of a State may, by law, adopt anyone or more of the languages for use in theState, but Hindi is to be used for all officialpurposes of the Uni9n. The need for use ofEnglish in the proceedings of the SupremeCourt, High Courts, etc., and in bills andenactments has been recognized.The Official Language Act of 1967 hasprovIded for the use of English indefinitely. Ithas been provided that the Centre will carry onthe correspondence with non-Hindi-speakingStates in English and witlJ, the Hindi-speakingStates in Hindi.REGIONAL LANGUAGESAccording to the Eighth Schedule of the IndianConstitution, the following 18 languages havebeen recognized as regional languages:(i) Assamese; (ii) Bengali; (iii) Gujarati; (iv)Hindi; (v) Kannada; (vi) Kashmiri; (vii)Malayalam; (viii) Marathi; (ix) Oriya; (x)Punjabi; (xi) Sanskrit; (xii) Sindhi; (xiii) Tamil;

(xiv) Telugu; (xv) Urdu; (xvi) Gorkhali; (xvii)Manipuri; and (xviii) Konkani.The last three languages were intro:luced in theConstitution (71stAmendment) Bill, 1992.ZONAL COUNCILSZonal CQuncils have been est\blished by theStates Reorganisation Act, 1956 to advise onmatters of common interest to ea~h of the fivezone.s into which the territories of India. has.been divided· Northern, Southern, Eastern,Western and Central. These Zonal Councils donot owe their origin to the Constilution but toan Act of Parliament, having been introducedby the States Reorganisation Act, with a view tosecuring co-operation and co-ordination asbetween the Slates, t he Union Territories andthe Union, particularly in respect of economicand social development. If properly workedthese Councils would thus foster the "federalsentiment" by re sisting the separatisttendencies oflinguism and provincialism. Thezones covered by these councils are as under:(i) The Central Zone, comprising the Statesof Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,Uttaranchal and Chhatlisgarh.(ii) The Northern Zone, comprising t heStates of Haryana. Himachal Pradesh,Punjab, Rajasthan, Jammu & Kashmirand the Union Territories of Delhi andChandigarh.(ill) The Eastern Zone, comprising the Statesof Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Sikkimand Jharkhancl.(iv) The Western Zone, .comprising the Statesof Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa and theUnion Territories of .Dadra & NagarHaveli, Daman and Diu.(v) The Southern Zone, comprising the Statesof Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, TamilNadu, Kerala, and the Union Territory ofPondicherry .Besides these, there is the North EasternCouncil set up in 1971, to deal with the commonproblems of Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur,Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh andMizoram.Constitution: Each Zonal Council consists ofthe Chief Minister and two other Ministers ofeach of the States in the Zone and theAdministrator in the case of a Union Territory.There is also provision for holding jointmeetings of two or more Zonal Councils. TheUnion Home Minister has been nominated asthe common Chairman of all the ZonalCouncils.

Functions: The main functions of ZOnes)Councils are:(a) to inquire into and advise upon disputes,which may arise among the States;(b) to investigate and discuss subjects, in whichsome or all the States or Union and one ormore States have common interest; and(c) to make recommendations upon any suchsubj ect and, in particu lar,recommendations for better co-ordination ofpolicy and action with respect to thatsubject.Role: The Zonal Councils play multiplicity ofroles in order to achieve(i) an emotional integration of the people;(ii) arresting the growth of acute stateconsciousness in the form of regionalism,linguism, etc.;(Ui) enabling the Centre and the States ineconomic and social matters for evolvingthe uniform policies;(iv) co-operating with each other in speedy andsuccessful execution of developmentalplans; and(v) securing some kind of political equilibriumbetween different regions of the country.Importance: The importance of the ZonaiCouncils lies in the fact, they help to further co·ordination and integration through extracconstitutional advisory organization, withoutundermining the autonomy of States, therebyfostering the "federal sentiment" by resistingthe separatist tendencies of linguism andprovincialism.AMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTIONMethod of AmendmentIndian Constitution provides three methods ofamending the Constitution:(1) Amendment by Special Majority: UnderArticle 368 of the Constitution, the generalprovision for the amendment of theConstitution can be initiated out by theintroduction of a Bill in either House ofParliament. If the Bill is passed by amajority of total membership of the Houseand by a majority of not less than twothirdsof the members present and voting ineach House and thereafter assented to bythe President, the Constitution standsamended.(2) Amendments requiring Special Mfljorityand Ratification by States: Changes in theConstitution with regard to the followingmatters can be made by the Parliamentafter the Bill has been passed by both the

Houses of Parliament by a majority of totalmembership of each House and by a twothirdsmajority of the members present andvoting in each House and having beenratified by not less than one-half of theStates and assented to by the President:(i) the manner of election of the President;(ii) extent of executive powers of the Unionand the States;(iii) provisions relating to the Supreme Courtand High Courts;(iv) distributing of legislative powersbetween Union and the States;(v) representation of States in Parliament;and(vi) provisions for the amendment of theConstitution.(3) Amendment by Simple Majority: A Bill inrespect of any of the following subjects istreated as an ordinary· Bill, that is, it ispassed by a simple majority of memberspresent and voting:(i) admission or establishment of new States,formation of new States, and alteration ofareas, boundaries or names of existingStates (Art. 4);(ii) creation or abolition of Legislative Councilin the States (Art. 169);(iii) administration and control of ScheduledAreas (para 7 of the Fifth Schedule); and(iv) administration of Tribal Areas in theStates of Assam, Meghalaya. Tripura andMizoram (para 21 of the Sixth Schedule).Though normal legislative procedure holdsgood so far as this class of amendments isconcerned, certain conditions. however, doattach to the bills referred to in (i) and (ii) above,such as recommendation of the President forintroduction of such Bills in Parliament andadoption of necessary resolution by concernedState Legislative Assembly, respectively.NATIONAL FLAGThe National Flag of India consists of threehorizontal bands - saffron, white and darkgreen with the Asoka Wheel (having 24 spokes)in dark blue colour in the centre of the whiteband; all strips being equ~l in width. It ~ isrectangular in shape, the ratio of the length tobreadth being 3:2. The emblem of the flag is anexact reproduction of the Dharma Chaki'a onthe capitol of Asoka's pillar at Sarnath.Symbolic Representation: According toDr. S. Radhakrishnan, the saffron colourrepresents the spirit of renunciation, the white

stands for truth and peace, and green signifiesgrowth.NATIONAL EMBLEMThe emblem of the Government of India is areproduction of the Asaka's Pillar at Sarnath. Itshows three standing lions at a base having aDharma Chakra in the centre, a bull on theright and a horse to the left. The words"Satyameva Jayate" , taken from MundakaUpanishad, meaning ''Truth Alone Triumphs",are inscribed in Devnagari at the bottom.74TH CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTPANCHAYATI RAJ (1992)It was also passed by Parliament in Dec.1992 in order to activate Municipalities and toconfer them statutory status. It provides for(i) constitution of three types ofmunicipalities.(ii) Reservation of seats in every municipalityfor the Scheduled Castes, the ScheduledTribes, Women and backward classes;(iii) Devolution of powers and responsibilitiesupon the municipalities with respect topreparation of plan for economicdevelopment, levy of taxes and duties, andreview of finances of the municipalities;and(iv) Conducting election to the local bodies byan independent State Election Commission.NATIONAL LITERACY MISSION (NLM)It was launched in 1988. It aims at attainingfunctional literacy for 100 million persons inthe age-group of 15-35 (including age-group 9·14 .were Non·Formal education is not in operation)in a time·bound manner. The most importantdevelopment has taken place Wlder NLM is thenear ascending of campaign made in adulteducation programme in the country.MINORITIES COMMISSIONStatus: It was set up as a statutoryCommission for Minorities in 1992.Composition: It consists of a Chairman andsix other members.Functions: Its main functions are(1) evaluation of the working of varioussafeguards for the minorities provided inthe Constitution;(ii) making recommendations for the effectiveimplementation of safeguards for theprotection of the interests of minorities bythe Central Government or StateGovernments;(iii) reviewing of implementation of policiespursued by the Un ion and StateGovernments;

(iv) looking into specific complaints regardingdeprivation of rights and safeguards;(v) making surveys and research;(vi) suggesting appropriate and legal welfaremeasures in respect of any minorityrequiring special protection;(vii) making periodic or special reports to theCentral Government on any matterpertaining to t he minorities and inparticular difficulties confronted by them;and(viii) making recommendations regarding anyother matter referred to it by the CentralGovernment.Habeas Corpus: Habeas Corpus is a writprovided in the Constitution. It gives facilitiesto the prisoners for obtaining speedy trial orrelease on bail. Ombudsman: Ombudsman, a Swedish Jprd,stands for "an officer appointed by thelegislature to handle complaints againstadministrative and judicial action". Althoughappointed by the legislature, t he office ofOmbudsman is a constitutional post and theincumbent is politically independent of thelegislature. Created for the redressal of citizen'sgrievances, the institution of·Qmbudsman istypically Scandinavian. Writ of Mandamus: Mandamus is an orderfrom a superior court to a lower court ortribunal or public authority to perform an act.which falls within its duty. It is issued to securethe performance of public duties and to enforceprivate rights withheld by the publicauthorities. This writ cannot be claimed as amatter of right. I t is the discretionary power ofa court to issue such writs.

UGC Governance V QUESTIONS1. India is a:A. Secular Slate B. Bilingual SlateC. CommuniBt State D. CapitalistState2. What is the literal meaning of secularism?A. Freedom to worship any GodB. Death ofreligionC. Separation of religion from the stateD. None of theseS. The Tenth Schedule to the Constitution ofIndia relates to:A. Panchayati Raj InstitutionsB. Anti-defectionActC. List of languages recognised by theConstitution

D. Procedure for amendment to theConstitution4. The real powers in the CentralGovernment are enjoyed, according to theConstitution of India by the:A. President of IndiaB. Vice-President of IndiaC. Prime Minister ofIndiaD. CouncllofMinisters5. The Council of Ministers is responsible tothe:A. President B. Lok SabhaC. Vice-President D. Supreme Court6. The Prime Minister is:A. nominated by the PresidentB. elected by the Chief Ministers of StatesC. is the leader of the majority party ofLokSabhaD. is not elected; it is a hereditary post7. The quorum of the Parliament is fixed at:A one-tenth of the membership of theHouseB. one-third of the membership of theHouseC. one-half of the membership of theHouseD. four-fifths of the membership' of theHouse8. Why are the Fundamental Rightsconsidered fundamental?A. Necessary for the successful working ofdemocratic institutionB. Basic to the welfare, dignity andhappiness of the individ ualC. Constitution is based on theseD. All of theseE. Only A and B9. The judges of the Supreme Court areappointed by the:A. Prime Minister ofIndiaB. Speaker of the Lok SabhaC. President of IndiaD. Ministry of Law & Justice10. The President's Rule is imposed in a Stateor in a Union Territory when the:A. Governor of a State or the ChiefCommissioner or a Lt Governor advisesthe President to do so because theGovernment in that StatefI'erritorycannot be carried on in accordance withthe provisions of the ConstitutionB. Chief Minister of a State requests tothis effectC. Chief Justice of the State High Courtrecommends through the Governor

D. President knows bestE. Elections are being held there11. The Directive Principles:A. aim at establishing welfare state ofGandhian conceptionB. aim at giving ideals to be incorporatedat a later stageC. aim at giving support to theFundamental RightsD. A and B only12. Agriculture, including research andeducation, falls in:A. State List B. Union ListC. ConcurrentList D. None of the above13. Which of the following are the ideals setforth in the Preamble?A. Social, economic and political JusticeB. Equality of status and of opportunityC. Liberty of thought, expression, belief,faith and worshipD. All of these14. Fundamental Rights of the citizens are:A. non-justiciableB. justiciableC. justiciable if the highest court fee ls itshould beD. Some rights are justiciable while othersare not15. In India the executive is responsibledirectly to the:A. Legislature B. PresidentC. Judiciary D. People16. Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizensare contained 10 .......... of the 'IndianConstitution'.A. Part IC. Part IIIB. Part IID. Part IV17. Of which fundamental right is a foreignerin India deprived of?A. To seek justice in courtB. To seek security of lifeC. To criticise policies of governmentD. To. vote at the time of'Parliamentaryelection18. Freedom of the Press as such:A. has been guaranteed by theConstitutionB. bas not been expressly guaranteed bythe ConstitutionC. has been given only to selectedinstitutionsD. None of the above19. The Rajya Sabha is:

A. dissolved once in two yearsB. dissolved after every four yearsC. adjourned every six monthsD. not subject to dissolution20. Administrative Law means:A. law passed by the UnionB. law or rules made by the executiveC. laws relating to administration of nonGovernmentalinstitutionsD. all the above21. The Legislative Council of a State is a:A. temporary bodyB. permanent bodyC. semi-permanent bodyD. chamber of the nominatt:d members22. The Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha sit ....jointly when:A tl<ey likeB. there is a disagreement between thetwo (Houses).C. the President. summons bot.h theHousesD. they must meet when two years havelapsed aft.er the last meetingE. they must meet every 5 years23. Ministers in the Union Cabinet areappointed by the:A. Prime MinisterB. PresidentC. President of India on the advice of thePrime MinisterD. Prime Minister on the advice of theChief Justice of the Supreme Court ofIndia24. Who administers the Union Territories?A. The President through theAdministrators appointed by himB. The Prime Minister of IndiaC. The Law Minister, Government ofIneliaD. The Attorney-General of India25. Which of the following is not the federalfeature of the Indian Constitution?A. There is distribution of Powers inaccordance with 2 listsB. Written and rigid constitutionC. Independent JudiciaryD. All of these26. Directive Principles of State Policy aim at:A. ensuring individual libertyB. ensuring and strengt.hening thecountry's independenceC. protecting the depressed classesD. providing social and economic base forgem:.ine democracy in the country

27. The Council of Ministers. headed by thePrime Minister is responsible to:A. Prime Minister B. PresidentC. Parliament D. Speaker28_ Usually a Gram Panchayat is notresponsible for:A. construction of village roads and tanksB. sanitation, maternity and child welfareC. financing of aKPiculturistsD. agricultural production24929. Which one of the following provides constitutionalguarantee of personal freedom?A. Quo Warranto B. MandamusC. Certiorari D. Habeas Corpus30. What does the Panchayati Raj Systemsignify?A single· tier structure of localGovernmentB. Double-tier system of self GovernmentC. Three-tier structure of local Govt. atthe village, block and district levelD. None of these31. Out of the following, in which lesson, ageneal rule is explained first and then,knowledge is accumulated on the basis ofthat rule?A. Deductive lessonB. Inductive lessonC. Developing lessonD. Knowledge lesson32. For knowledge lessonsA. Glover's Scheme is usedB. Herbart's five-stage systePl is usedC. Garry's scheme is usedD. none of these33. The project education method of teachingis associated withA. Rousseau B. FrobelC. Dewey D. Armstrong34. "This methodology trains the child tosearch for facts, rules and principles by hisown efforts, organise the set of knowledgegained and delineate general rules. n Theaforementioned statement is about thefollowing metho,dology of teachingA. Montessori B. KindergartenC. Heuristic D. Play·way35. In the project education technique, thework load on the teacher isA. very highB. comparatively lowC. lowD. nil36. In Garry's Plan

A. work is importantB. play is importantC. learning is importantD. all these three have equal importance37. Under the Wennetka PlanA. t he diversity of inte rests of thestudents is recognisedB. the diversities of abilities are acceptedC. the diversities of needs are acceptedD. all of these are recognised3B. The Dalton Scheme of education is usefulfor which ones of the following?A. For infantsB. For little childrenC. For older childrenD. For all of these39. Why do you not support the five· stagemethod of Herbart?A. In this, there is no scope for theindividual diversity of studentsB. Under this, it is difficult to makecoordination between various subjectsC. Under this, generalisa tion is notrequired to be done while teachingsubjects like language, history,geography etc.D. all ofthese40. In the school, provisions must be made forfree and natural expressions of a child."Who give this sta tement?A. T. Remont B. RyeburnC. Montessori D. Lyndon41. According to Dewry. education is aA. Social needB. Personal needC. Psychological needD. theoretical need42. In the context of education, some views ofGandhiji have been appended below.Which one of them is incorrect?A. In education, experimentation, workand research must be given due placesB. Education must be self·dependentC. Literacy is educationD. Education must be such as to developall the powers and inherent qualitiesof children43. Who is known as the father of educationalpsychology?A. PestologyC. HerbartB. DevyD. Spencer44. "There should be no difference between thewords and deeds of a teacher." who gave

this statement?A. Mcckennan B. J ohn LockeC. Rousseau D. Aristotle45. Who gave the principle of "pupil activity?"A. Rousseau B. HandezrsonC. Comenius D. Binet46. Personalised System of educationA. does not inculcate a feeling ofsocialisation in studentsB. does not inculcate a leeling ofcompetition in studentsC. leads to wastage of time and energyD. all of these are true47. The educational system of today promotes"educated unemployment". The reason isthatA. education gives theoretical knowledgeonlyB. professional education is not a part ofeducationC. the objective of education is not vividD. all of these48. The teacher ought to know about theproblems prevalent in the field ofeducation. The reason i~ thatA only a teacher can do something aboutsolving themB. he can tell about the same to anotherteacherC. teachers can tell the governmentabout itD. with this knowledge, the teacher canhave information about education49. In the wake of serious shortages ofresources and rising population of ournation, you have the following views aboutt he programmes for improving thestandards of education (under the aegis ofnational policy of education).A They are impracticalB. They are courageous and laudableeffortsC. They are new forms of traditionalprogrammesD. They increase the workload ofteachers50. In your view, arrangement for "educationon' environment" in the schoolA is : 'nportant for creating anawareness among students about theenvironmentB. is likely to put more burden onstudentsC. is a mode of e nte rtainment forstudents

D. is like giving work to teachers51. In the school. "education on environment"can be imparted byA. lecturesB. articlesC. sportsD. adopting it ourselves52. The major objective of education isA. reforming the societyB. making ~~ude nts disciplineC. developinJ inherent abilitiesfpowers ofstudentsD. making students followers of teachers53. Adult education should be under theauthority of the followingA. The gover~mentB. Non·governmentorganisationsC. Edur.:ated personsD. All ofthese54. Education not only conserves the cultureof a nation, but also itA. makes the latter richB. defines the latterC. makes the latter spiritualD. makes the latter mass-oriented andpopular55. Indian Institute of Advanced studies islocated inA. Shimla B. SolanC. Dharmshala D. Chandigarh56. All India Institute of Medical Sciences(AIIMS) is located inA. Lucknow B. DelhiC. Mumbai D. Chennai57. NASA is the name of space agency of __A. Netherlands B. BritainC. America D. India58. National Defence Academy (NDA) issituated at251A. Kharadwasla (Pune)B. DehradunC. AllahabadD. Chennai59. Air Force Administrative College 15situated inA. Hyderabad B. CoimbatoreC. Bidar D. Agrn60. How many Indian Institutes of Technology(IIT) are there in India?A. Eight B. FourC. Six D. Three61. Indian Institute of Science (lISe) is locatedmA. Chennai B. Kolkata

C. Bangalore D. Mumbai62. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARe)is situated atA. HyderabadB. BangaloreC. DelhiD. Trombay (Mumbai)63. Indian School of Mines is situated atA. Patna (Bihar) .B. Dhanbad (Jharkhand)C. Kolka ta CW. Bengal)O. Guwahati (Assam)64. How many Indian Institu tes ofManagement (lIM) are there in India?A. Six B. SevenC. Five D. Eight65. Indian Institute of Foreign Trade issituated inA. Lucknow B. DehradunC. New Delhi D. Mumbai66. Birla Institute of Technology is situated atA. Ranchi B. J aipurC. Kota . D. Hardwar67. What is the full form of MCA?A. Ministry of Commerce & AgricultureB. Master of Computer ApplicationC. Member Chartered AccountantD. Master of Commerce & Arts68. Institute of Nuclear Medicine and AlliedSciences is situated inA. Mumbai B. ChennaiC. Delhi D. Kolkata69. National Institute of Immunology issituated inA. Delhi B. HyderabadC. Goa D. Koehi70. Central Forensic Science Laboratory ISsituated inA. Chandigarh B. PatnaC. Patiala D. Ludhiana71. Immediate feedback is an essentialcharacteristic of:A. team teachingB. teaching machinesC. the Dalton PlanD. the project method72. The most accurate statement aboutteaching machines is that:A. B F Skinner began the movement fortheir useB. they were designed as an economymeasure to replace teachersC. they are not as efficient as teachers inreinforcing responsesD. they can be used for all learning

programmes73. A set of test papers from a class of 29students has been arranged in order fromthe highest to the lowest scores. The markon the ftfteenth paper is known as the:A. median B. meanC. mcxle O. norm74. In a class 01 ten pupils the grades in aspelling test were: 97-97-97-92-92-85· 76-73-65-60. The mode ofthose scores is:A. 92B. 97C. 97 minus 60 divided by 2D. the sum of the scores divided by 1075. Of the following objectives of anelementary music programme, the one oflowest priority is:A. to expose children to ' a variety ofmusical compositionsB. to prepare children for wise use ofleisure timeC. to develop a group of performers for theholiday assembliesD. to provide children with emotionaloutlets76. A culturally disadvantaged child is bestserved by the school system that:A. places himlher in a class with otherculturally disadvantaged childrenB. gives himlher an annual intelligencetestC. trains teachers to understand hislherimpoverished home backgroundD. assesses his/her strengths and needsand provide for an individualizedlearning plan77. Recreational reading should be:A reserved for the school library periodB. assigned as homeworkC. a responsibility of the home, not theschoolD. an integral part of the language artscurriculum78. Of the following intelligence tests, the onewhich is individually administered is the:A. WISeB. Pintner-Cunningham PrimaryC. Army AlphaD. Kuhlman-Anderson79. With regard to readiness to read, all of'these statements·are true except that:A some psychologists believe that a childis not ready to begin reading until helshe has achieved a mental age of aboutsix years

B. a strong desire to read is adetermining factorC. a reading readiness programme maybegin for some children IIIkindergartenD. physical maturation is a crucial factor80. All of the following tend to erode localcontrol of education in favour of nationalcontrol, except the:A National Seie_nee FoundationB. National Institute of Menta! HealthC. College Entrance Examination BoardD. National Defence Education Act81. When Jeewan receives his failing testmark, he tells the teacher, "You don't likeme." This is an example of:A identification B. transferenceC. egocentrism D. projection82. With respect to the development of skills,all of the following are correct except that:A. pupils of the same mental age shouldlearn at the same rateB. group instruction facilitates thelearning processC. individual instruction is oftenrequiredD. workbooks can be an invaluablelearning aid83_ If you were reading a series of articlesabout the teaching of reading, you wouldexpect to be reading an article by:A Paul McKee B. Albert HarrisC. Arthur Gates D. Frank Reissman84. A student fails a test for which he did notstudy. By a,scribing his failure to the factthat the teacher does not like him he isutilizing:A convers.ion B. sympathismC. rationalization D. compensation85. Of the following learning theories, the onethat embodies the idea that learning takesplace through insight is known as:A. GestaltB. stimulus-responseC. connectionistD. pragmatic86. The pair of terms incorrectly associated is:A. IQ-relationship between MA and CAB. validity-measure of consistency IntestingC. inkblot-projective testingD. median-the middle score87. Of the following, the author of a widelyused intelligence test is:A David Wechsler

B. B F SkinnerC. William CruikshankD. Bruno Bettelheim88. The project method of teaching is bestassociated with the philosophy of:A. .lohn Dewey B. Max RaffertyC. Robert Hutchins D. B F Skinner89_ Overlea rning tend& to strengthen anindividual's:A. powers of retentionB. enduranceC. feeling of boredomD. motivation90. "School is life, not a preparation for life."This statement summarizes oneimportant aspect of the educationalphilosopbyof:A John Dewey B. RobertHutchinsC. Mortimer Adler D. SI Hayakawa91. A frequency distribution is best defined asthe:A number of scores above the medianscoreB. number of pupils scoring above themedian scoreC. number of test items answeredcorrectly by a majority of the classD. number of pupils who received eachscore on a test92. Mai.nstreaming is a term associated with:A career educationB. education for the handicappedC. interage class groupingsD. environmental education93. Of great importance in determining theamount of transference that occurs inlearning is the:A. IQ of the learnerB. knowledge of the teacherC. use of appropriate materialsD. presence of identical elements94. Of the following, the educatortwho is notan advocate of radical educational reformIS:A Postman B. lllichC. Bester D. Row!95. With regard to standardized testing,which of the following statements iscorrect?A the testing of intelligence began inGermanyB. the Wechsler Intelligence Scale forChildren (WISe) is a group testC. the Rorschach test uses inkblotsD. the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

is easy to interpret.96. Most students in medieval universitieslearned by:A. laboratory experimentationB. reading the BibleC. listening to lecturesO. studying in libraries97. The term least restrictive environmentrefers to the education of the:A. handicappedB. giftedC. early childhood youngstersO. retarded98. All of the following are correctly pairedexcept:A. Froebel- progressivismB. Dewey- pragmatismC. Skinner-GestaltD. Herbart-apperception99. Heterogeneous grouping best serves theaims of a democratic society because:A parents prefer itB. pupils prefer itC. it minimizes class distinctionsD. it is the best environment for learning100. All of the following are advantages ofteaching machines except:A. the control of cheatingB. the tracking of errorsC. the insura;'ce of attentionD. their universal use for different kindsof programmes101. Which among the following is not aFundamental Right now?A Right to equalityB. Right to propertyC. Right to Constitutional remediesD. None of these102. The most powerful Upper Ohamber in the \world isA. American SenateB. British House of LordsC. Rajya Sabha of the Indian RepublicD. None of the above103. Who is legally competent under the IndianConstitution to declare war or concludepeace?A. The PresidentB. The Prime MinisterC. The Council of MinistersD. The Parliament254104. Holding of elections for the villagePanchayat is decided byA The Collector

B. The Election CommissionC. The Centr'a1 GovernmentD. The State Government105. The time of gap between two sessions ofParliament is not more thanA. 9 months B. 1 monthC. 3 months D. 6 months106. The President ofIndia isA. The head of the StateB. The head of the GovernmentC. The head of the State as well asGovernmentD. All of these107. In the context of Panchayati Raj, whichone of the following is true about GramSabha?A This is the topmost tier of thePanchayati RajB. It consists of all the voters residing inthe jurisdiction of a Village PanchayatC. It is the excutive body consisting ofselected representative from VillagePanchayatO. It consists of aU the adult males of theVillage Panchayat108. The joint sittings of the Union Parliamentmay be summoned forA. Special address of the PresidentB. Annual address of the PresidentC. President's occasional messages ofnational significanceD. Resolution of the. dead lock betweenthe two Houses on a non-money bill109. Which one of the following High Courtshas the Territorial Jurisdiction overAndaman and Nicobar islandsA. Andhra Pradesh B. CalcuttaC. Madras D. Orissa110. As per Indian Protocol, who among thefollowing ranks highest in the order ofprecedence?A. Deputy Prime MinisterB. Former PresidentC. Governor of a State within his StateD. SpeakerofLokShaba111. The Lok Sabha secretariat comes underthe control ofA. Ministry of Home AffairsB. Speaker of the Lok SabhaC. Ministry ofParliament.ary-AffairsD. Prime Minister112. Who appoints the comptroller andAuditor-Generaloflnwa?A The U.P.S.C.B. The President

C. The Prime MinisterD. The Parliament113. In case of absence of President and VicePresident,which of the follow ing acts asthe president of country.A Prime MinisterB. SpeakerofLokSabhaC. Chief Justice of IndiaO. Leaderofopposition114. A bill becomes a law whenA. Both Houses ofPal'liament approve itby requisite majorityB. The Council ofM.inisters approves itC. The President gives his assentD. The Supreme Court upholds itsconstitutional validity115. Who examines the report of theComptroller and Auditor-General of Indiaafter it is laid before Parliament?A. Lok Sabha SpeakerB. Estimates CommitteeC. Public Accounts CommitteeD. None of the above116. Consider the following statementsregarding the Governor of a state in India:(i) To be appointed as Governor, oneshould have completed the age of 45years(u) The Governor holds the office duringthe pleasure of the President(iii) After completing five years in office.the Governor cannot continue to holdthe office even when his successor hasnot entered upon his office(iv) The executive power of the state isvested in the GovernorWhich of the above statements arecorrect?117. Which of the following subjects does notbelong to the Union List?A. Atomic EnergyB. War and PeaceC. Post office Savings BankD. Public Health and SanitationUS. The Chairman and the members of StatePublic Service Commission are appointedby theA. PresidentB. GovernorC. Chairman of upseD. Prime Minister119. In which of the following states was thePanchayati Raj first introduced?A. Rajasthan S. GujaratC. Uttar Pradesh D. Bihar

120. How many members of the Anglo-Indiancommunity can be nominated to the LokSabha by the President?A.2 B.5C. 10 D. 12121. President can be removed on charges ofviolating the Constitution byA. No-confidence motionB. ImpeachmentC. Electoral College of LegislativeAssembliesD. Prime Minister122. The function of the Panchayat Samiti is toA. Deal with rural industrialisationB. Deal with administration of justice atthe Panchayat levelC. Implement community developmentproject schemesD. Deal with financial matters of thePanchayat123. Which Writ is issued by a High Court orthe Supreme Court to compel an authorityto perform a function that it was notperforming?A. Writ of certiorariB. Writ of Habeas CorpusC. Writ of MandamusD. Writ of Quo Warranto124. Which one of the following sets of specialpowers has been conferred on Rajya Sabhaby the Constitution?A. To change the existing territory of astate and to change the name of a stateB. To pass a resolution empowering theparliament to make laws in the StateList and creation of one or more AllIndiaservicesC. To amend the election procedure of thePresident and to determine thepension of the President after hisretirementD. To determine the functions of theElection Commission and to determinethe number of Election Commissioners125. In the Rajya Sabha, the States have beenprovidedA. Equal representationB. Representation on the basis ofpoupulationC. Representation on the basis ofpopulation and si:teD. Representation on the basis of size126. The salaries of the Judges of the SupremeCourt are charged on the consolidatedfund of rndia because

A. they may get salaries regularly everymonthB. their salaries may be free fromlegislative voteC. there may not be any cut in theirsalariesD. their financial position may be secureto enable them to dispense impartialjustice127. 'Judicial Review' is the power of the highercourt to declare unconstitutional any1. Law passed by legislature2. Judgement of the lower court3. Order of the executiveChoose the answer from the followingchoicesA. 1 and 2 only B. 3 onlyC. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3128. Which of the following standingcommittees of Parliament has no MP fromRajya Sabha?A. Public Accounts CommitteeB. Estimates Committee 131. How many types of emergency can beC. Committee on Public Undertakings declared by the President of India?D. Committee on Government A. 2 B. 3AsSurances C. 4 D. 5129. The Comptroller and Auditor-General of 132. Who is the custodian of fundamentalIndia acts as the chief accountant and rights of people?auditor for the A. Supreme Court B. PresidentA. Union Government C. Prime Minister D. State AssemblyB. State Governments 133. Education is a subject in the:C. Union and State Governments A. Union list B. State listD. Neither Union nor State Governments 180. A member of the Union Public Service C. Concurrent list D. None of the listsCommission holds office for a period of 134. Who can amend the Constitution?A. Five Years A. President B. ParliamentB. Seven years C. Prime Minister D. Union CabinetC. Six years or sixty five years of age 135. The retirement age of a Supreme Courtwhichever is more Judge is:D. Six years or until he attains the age of A. 55 years B. 58 yearss ixty five whichever is earlier C. 62 years D. 65 years

ANSWERS1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10A C B C B C A E C A11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20D A D B A C D B D B21 22 23 24 25 26 'l:I 28 29 30B B C A D D C C D C31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 411A B C C A D D C D C41 42 43 44 .., 46 47 48 49 50A C C A D D B A B A51 52 53 54 65 56 57 68 59 60

D C B A A B C A B A61 62 63 54 65 66 In 68 69 70C D B A C A B C A A71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80B A A B C D D A D B81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90D A D C A B A A A A91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100D B D C C C A C C D101 102 103 104 105 lOG 107 108 109 110B A A D D A B D B C111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120C B C C C D D B A A121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130B C C B B D C B C D131 . 132 133 134 135B A C B D

IGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIAIndia has one of the largest 'Higher EducationSystem' in the wo.ld. Main players in thehigher education system in the country are:University Grants Commission (UGC) isresponsible for coordination, determination andmaintenance of standards, release of grants.Professional Councils are responsible forrecognition of courses, promotion of professionalinstitutions and providing grants toundergraduate programmes and variousawards. The statutory professional councils are:All Inclia Council for Technical Education(AIeTE), Distance Education Council (DEC),Indian Council for Agriculture Research(lCAR), Bar Council of [odis (BCI), NationalCouncil for Teacher Education (NCTE)Rehabilitation Council of India (ReI), MedicalCouncil of India (MCr), Pharmacy Cotmcil ofIndia (Pcn, In!!!an Nursing Council o NC),Dentist Council of India (DCl), Central Councilof Homeopathy (CCH), Central Council ofIndian Medicine (CCIM)Central Government is responsible for majorpolicy relating to higher education in thecountry. It provide grants to the uae andestablishes central universities in the country.The Central Government is also responsible fordeclaration of Educational Institutions as'Deemed to be University' on therecommendation of the UGC. Presently thereare sixteen (16) Central Universities in thecountry. In pursuance of the Mizoram Accord,another Central University in the State .ofMizoram is planned. There are 37 Institutionswhich have been declared as Deemed to beUniversities by the Govt. of [nelia as per Section

of the UGe Act, 1956.State Governments are responsi ble forestablishment of State Univer s ities andcolleges, and provide plan grants for theirdevelo,PpIent and non-plan grants for theirmaintenance.The coordination and cooperation betweenthe Union and the States is brought about inthe field of education through t.he CentralAdvisory Board of Education (CABE).Special Constitutional responsibility of theCentral Government: Education is on the'Concurrent list' subject to Entry 66 in theUnion List of the Constitution. Thip givesexdusive Legislative Power to the CentralGovt. for co-ordination and determination ofstandards in Institutions of higher education orresearch and scientific and technicalinstitutions.ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION FRAMEWORKDEGREE STRUCTUREThere are three principle levels of qualificationswithin the higher education system in thecountry. These are:Bachelor' Undergraduate levelMaster's f Post-graduate levelDoctoral f Pre-doctoral levelDiploma courses are also available at theundergraduate and postgraduate level. At theundergraduate level, it varies between one tothree years in length, postgraduate diplomasare normally awarded after one year's study.Bachelor's degree in arts, commerce andsciences is three years of education (after 12years of school education). In some places thereare honours and special courses available.These are not necessarily longer in duration butindicate greater depth of study. Bachelor degreein professional field of study in agriculture,dentistry, engineering, pharmacy, technologyand veterinary medicine generaUy take fouryears, while arch.itectw'e and medicine. it takesfive and five and a half years respectively.There are other bachelor degrees in education,journalism and librarian-ship that are seconddegrees. Bachelor's degree in law can either betaken as an integrated degree lasting five yearsor three-year course as a second degree.Master's degree is normally of two-year Iduration. It could be coursework based withoutt hesis or research a lone. Admission top08tgradua~ programmes in engineering andtechnology is done on the basis of GraduateAptitude Test in Engineering or CombinedMedical Test respectively.

A pre-doctoral programme - Master ofPhilosophy (M.Phil ) is taken after c;ompletionof the Master's Degree. This can either becompletely research based or can includecourse work as well Ph.D. is awarded two yearafter the M.Phil. or three years after theMaster's degree. Students are expected to writea substantial thesis based on original research,generally takes longer.

NEW INITIATIVES, VOCATIONALIZATION ATTHE FlRSfDEGREE LEVELIn conformity with the National Policy onEducation, 1986, a tiCheme to provide careerorientation to education at the first degree levelwas l aunch~d in 1994-95. Under the scheme. auniversity I college could introduce one to threevocational courses in 35 identified subjects.Autonomous Colleges: 138 collegea havebeen functioning as autonomous colleges ineight states in the country.National Eligibility Test (NET) is beingconducted by the UGC since 1989 for eligibilityfor lect ureship. Around 50000 students appearfor the test every year. Pass percentage isaround 5%. Eight State Level Tests have beenaccredited 8S par with NET.System of Governance of Hig herEducation Institutions: The Universitiesare of various kinds: with a single faculty, ormulti-faculties; teaching or affiliating, orteaching cum aff.tliating, single campus ormultiple campus. Most of the Universities areaffiliating universities. which prescribe to theaffiliat.ed colleges the course of study, holdexaminations and award degrees, whileundergraduate and to some extent post, thecolleges affiliated to them impart graduateinstruction. Many of the university alongwith their affiliated colleges have grownrapidly to the extent of becominguamanageable. Therefore, as per NationalPolicy on Eaucation, 1986, a scheme ofautonomous colleges was promoted. In theautonomous colleges, whereas the degreecontinues to be awarded by the University, thename of the college is also included. Thecolleges develop and propose new courses ofstudy to the university for approval. They arealso fully responsible for con duct ofexamination. There are at present 126autonomous colleges in the country.Focus of Ninth Plan: Thrust areas are:measures for quality improvement andmodernization of syllabi. renewal of

infrastructure, extra-budgetary resourcemobilization and greater attention to issues ingovernance. Issues of access and relevancewould receive attention. Conferment of graterautonomy to deserving colleges andprofessional upgradation of teachers throughAcademic Staff Colleges would be givenpriority. Emphasis is being placed onconsolidation and optimal utilization of theexisting infrastructure through institutjonalnetworking. restructuring expansion. so as toonly meet the demand of the unserved areaswith a focus on women and under privilegedseCtiOIUl. The Open University system, whichhas been growing in popularity and size. isstriving to diversify courses and offerings andgain wider acceptability by upgrading itsquality. It would focus more sharply on theeducational needs of women and rural society,as well as professional training of in-serviceemployees.

CENTRAL UNIVERSITIES* President of India is the Visitorofall CentralUniversities. * PresidentNisitor nominates some membersto the Executive Committee/Board ofManagementlCourtiSelection Committees ofthe University as per the pl'ovisions made inthe relevant University Act. * Ministry provides secretariat service forappointment of Vice-ChancellorfExecutlveCommittee NomineeslCourtNomineeslSelectJonCommittee Nominees etc. by the President.Indira Gandhi National Open University(IGNOU)Established in 1985 for introduction andpromotion of Open University and distanceeducation system. Major objectives includewidening of access to higher education. IGNOUprogrammes telecast on Doordarshan Networksix days a week. Its jurisdiction is through outthe oountry.lt can set up Study Centres outsidethe country .·This was allowed vide amendmentof the IGNOU Act in 1997.Distance Education Council (DEC) underIGNOU has the responsibility for coordinationand maintenance of standards in open anddistance education system in the country.University Of Hyderabad, Established in1974 for post-graduate teaching and research,20 Km from the City of Hyderabad on the OldHyderabad - Bombay road. It has a Citycampus· 'The Golden Threshold' - the residenceofthe late Sarojini Naidu. The University hasEight Schools of Studies and a Centre forDistance Education offering post·graduate

diploma in five disciplines.University or Delhi, Established inFebruary 1922 as a unitary and residentialuniversity. It has 14 faculties, 82 teach.ingdepartments and 78 colleges spread overnational Capital Territory of Delhi.A new State University - [ndraprashthaVishwavidhlaya bas come up in Delhi as anaffiliating University.Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya HindiVisbwavidyalaya, Wardha MahatmaGandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi VishwavidyalayaAct (at Wardha) was passed by the Parliamentin December, 1996. Univ~I' .. i.LY came intoexistence with effect from 29th December 1997.It has international cbaracter. Four schoolsproposed under this University. For the timebeing the University is operating from itstemporary office at Delhi.Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, LucknowEstablished 8S a State University in 1994 atLucknow, it was notified as a CentralUniversity on 10th January 1996. It aims toprovide instructional and research facilities innew and frontier areas of learning. Has threeschools and three centres. (School of AmbedkarStudies, School for Information Science andTechnology and School fo :, Environmentalstudies and Centre for Rural Technology,Centre for Vocational Studies and Centre forHuman Rights.)Pondicherry UniversityEstablished in 1985 8S a teaching-cum affiliatinguniversity. It has jurisdiction overthe Union Territory of Pondicherry andAndaman and Nicobar Islands. It also has aCommunity College. Affiliated institutions ofwhich 13 are located in Pondicherry, 3 inKaraikal, 2 in Mahe. 1 in Yanam and 3 inAndaman & Nicobar Islands.Visva Bharati, SantiniketanIt is an unitary teaching and residentialUniversity. Founded by Guru RabindranathTagore. Incorporated as a Central Universityby t.he Visva Bharati Act, 1951 . Itsjurisdictionis restricted to the area known as Santiniketanin the District of Birbhum, West Bengal. Itimparts education from the Primary Schoollevel to Post-Graduate and Doctorate levels. Ithas 12 institutes - 8 at Santiniketan, 3 atSriniketan and 1 at Kolkata.Rural Segment of the University(Sriniketan) created CAREER (Centre forAdvanced Rural Education, Extenuation andResearch) and CSV (Centre for Science in

Villages).For creating facilities in the housingtechnology Nirman Bhawan (Building Centre)was established under the sponsorship ofHUDCO.Millia lslamia, Jamia Nagar, New DelhiFunctioned 8S a Deemed University since 1962.Acquired ytatus of a Central University inDecember, 1988 by an Act. of ParliamentImparts education from Nursery stage to p~st:graduate & Doctorate levels. It has sixFaculties and Eight Centres Rnd Five Schools.AJ, Kidwai Mass Communication ResearchCentre (AJKMCRC) providefJ training at Post·graduate level in Mass Communication,producing educational material on differenteducational aspects/subjects for the UGC,INSAT Programme.Aligarb Muslim University, AligarhEstablished in 1920 8S a fully residentialCentral University. It maintains fourHospitals, six Colleges (including Medical,Dental and Engineering Colleges), twoPolytechnics and eight Schools. Offers sixdiploma courses exClusively for women. 18562students (including school strength) were inrolls.Banaras Hindu University, VaranasiCame into existence in 1916 as a teaching andresidential University. It consists of threeInstitutions· Institute of Medical Sciences,Institute of Technology and Institute ofAgricultural Sciences. It has faculties with 121academic departments and 4 inter·disciplinaryschools. It maintains a constituent MahilaMahavidyalaya and three School levelinstitutions. lOOO·Bedded Modern AyurvedicMedicine Hospital.Jawahar La! Nehru University, New DelhiIt came into existence in 1969. It is primarilyconcerned with Post·graduate Education andResearch. It has 7 schools consisting of 24Centres of Studies and a separate Centre forBio·Technology.Maulana Azad National Urdu UniversityThe University Act was passed by theParliament in 1997 and it came into existenceon 9th January, 1998. Its Administrative Officehas been set up at Hyderabad. It has RegionalOfficers at Delhi, Patna and Bangalore. lt'saimis to promote and develop Urdu language and toimpart vocational and technical education inUrdu medium through conventional anddistance education system.ASSAM UNIVERSITY, Dorgakona, Assam

Established as a teaching·cum·affiliatingUniversity on 21.1.1994. Though the act waspassed in 1989. It has Jurisdiction over thedistricts ofCachar, Karimganj, Karhi, anglongand Hailakandi in the State of Assam.Nagaland University, KohimaEstablished as a teaching-cum· affiliatingUniversity on 6.9.1994. Though the act waspassed in 1989. Its Headquarters is atLumami, Nagaland. It. has jurisdiction overthe whole of the State of Nagaland. It has 39colleges affiliated. It has campuses in Kohima,Lumami and Medsiphema (School ofAgricultural Sciences and Rural Development·SASRD), 25 Departments and 4 Schools ofStudies.Tezpur University, Nappam, AssamA non·affiliating unitary Central Universityset up in 1994 under an Act of Parliament,Tezpur University Act, 1993. It's aims is tooffer employment-oriented and inter·disciplinary courses, mostly at post-graduatelevel. It has 11 Departments under 4 schools ofstudies and 6 centres of Studies.North-Eastern Hill University, ShillongEstablished in 1973 at Shillong by an Act ofParliament. North Eastern Hill UniversityAct, 1973. It has a Campus at Aizwal and acentre in Tura. Its jurisdiction is over theStates of Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh andMizoram. Its Headquarters at Shillong. Post·graduate Departments and four Centres ofStudies under its six schools of studies and anunder-graduate college. It has 58 Undergraduate Colleges and 8 professional coursecolleges and North-Eastern Regional InstituteolScienee and Technology (NERJST) affiliared.It has a Regional Sophisticated Instrumentation Selitre (RSIC).

UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION (UGC)Objective: The government establishedUniversity Grants Commission (UGC) by anAct of Parliament in 1956. It discharges theConstitutional mandate of coordination"determination, and maintenance of standardsof teaching, examination and research in the 'field of University and Higher Education. UOCserves 8S a vita l link between the Union andState Governments and the institutions ofhigher learning. It monitors developments inthe field of collegiate and university education;disburses grants to the univers ities andcolleges: advises Cent.ral and StateGovernments on the measures necessary forthe improvement of university ed ucation; and

fram es regulations such as those on theminimum standards of instruction.CompositionCommission comprises of the Chairperson,Vice-Chairperson and ten other membersappointed by the Central Government. 'TheChairperson is selected from among personswho are not officers of the Central Governmentor any State Government. Of the ten members,two are from amongst the officers of the CentralGovernment to represent it. Not less than four.selected from among persons who are, at thetime they are selected, shall be a teacher in theUniversities. Others are selected from amongeminent educationists, academics and expertsin various fields.Chairperson is appointed for a term of 5years or until the age of 65 years, whichever isearlier. Vice·Chairperson is appointed for aterm of 3 years or until the age of 65 yesrs,whichever is earlier. The other members areappointed for a term of 3 years. TheChairperson. Vice· Chairperson and memberscan be appointed for a maximum of two terms.FundingUGC has no funds ofits own. It receives bothPlan and Non·Plan grants from the CentralGovernment to carry out the responsibilitiesassigned to it by law. It allocates and disbursesfull maintenance and development grants to allCentral Universities, Colleges affiliated toDelhi and Banaras Hindu Universities andsome of the institutions accorded the sta tus of'Deemed to be Universities'. State Universlties,Colleges and other institutions of highereducation, receive support only from the Plangrant for development schemes. Besides, itprovides financial assistance to Universitiesand co lle ges under various schemeslprogrammes for promoting relevance, qualityand excellence as also promoting the role ofsocial change by the Universities.Regional Offices· Si." Regional OfficesName of Regional Office StatesSouthem Regional Office: Andhra Pradesh,Kerala, Karnataka, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu.NorthemRegional Office: Jammu & Kashmir,Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana. UttarPradesh.Central Regional Office: Madhya Pradesh,Rajasthan.Eastern Regional Office :.West Bengal, Biha!',Orissa, Sikkim.North Eastern Regio/wl Office: Assam,Meghalaya, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh,

Tripura, Nagaland.Western Regional Office : Goa, Gujarat,Maharashtra.Inter University Centres (lUes)Under Section 12 (ccc) of the UGC Act, theCommission has established the follOwing Inter- University Centres to provide commonfacilities, se rvi ce and programmes toUniversities since heavy investment ininfrastructure and inputs have made it beyondthe reach of individual .Universities to obtainthese facilities:·Nuclear Science Centre. New Delhi:Accelerator oriented researchruc for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune:State-of·the·art instrumentation for researchin astronomyIUC for DAE facilities, Indore: Use of facilitiesof Department of Atomic EnergyInformation ond Library Network(INFLIBNET), Ahmedabad: Networking oflibraries through electronic medisConsortium for Educational Communication(CEe), New Delhi : To dissemi nateCountrywide programme through television216National Assessment & Accreditation Council(NACC), Bangalore: To assess and accreditpublic & Private institutions of higher learningNational FacilitiesUGC has also set up the following Centres asNational facilities in selected Universities:WesternRegional Instrumentation Centre,Bombay: Design and development of indigenousequipment and training to staff ininstrumentation.Regional Instrumentation Centre, IndianInstitute of Science, Bangalore: Design anddevelopment of indigenous equipment andtraining to staff in instrumentation.Chennai : Research and dissemination ofknowledge and oorganization of trainingprogramme in crystal growth.M.S.T. Radar Centre SriVenkateswaraTirupati: Studies in atmospheric Dynamics toenable teachers to use MSTfRadar facility.Eastern Centre for Radio Astr'ophysics,Calcutta University: Research in AstrophysicsJapal - Rangapur observatory, OsmaniaUniversity. Hyderabad: Science ResearchObservatoryCentre for Science Education &Communication, New Delhi: Popularization ofScienceINDIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM

Institution Types & CredentialsTypes of higher education institutions:UniversityInstitute of TechnologyCollegeOpen UniversitySchool leaving adult higher education Credentials:Higher Secondary School CertificateSecondary School CertificateDiplomaBachelor's DegreePostgraduate DiplomaMaster's DegreeMaster of PhilosophyPost-Master DegreeDoctorateDoctor of LawsDoctor of LiteratureDoctor of Science

Structure of education systemPre-higher education:Duration of compulsory education:Age of entry: 6Age of exit: 14Structure of school system:PrimaryType of school providing this education:Lower Primary School (Standards I To V)Length of program in years: 5Age level from : 6 to 11MiddleType of school providing this education:Middle School (Standards V1 To Vllt)Length of program in years: 3Age level from: 11 to 14SecondaryType of school providing this education:Secondary School (Standards IX To X)Length of program in years: 2Age level from: 14 to 16Certificate/diploma awarded: SecondarySchool CertificateSenior SecondaryType of school providing this education: HigherSecondary School (Standards Xl To XlI)Length of program in years: 2Age level from: 16 to 18Certificate/diploma awarded: HigherSecondary School CertificateVocational SecondaryType of school providing this education:Secondary schoolsLength of program in years: 3Age level from: 16 to 18

Certificate/diploma awarded: HigherSecondary School Certificate

School education:School education in India is a two-tier system,the first ten years covering general educationfollowed by two years of senior secondaryeducation. Primary education is divided intotwo stages: the first five years constitute theprlmary stage (Standards I-V) and the nextthree years, the upper primary stage or middleschool (Standards VI-VIII). Secondaryeducation usually lasts between two and fouryears. After two years, pupils who havecompleted ten years of education (Standard X)take the Secondary School Certificate. Pupilsthen enter higher secondary schools or JuniorColleges and complete a further two years ofed ucation (Standards XI and XTI). Coursesfocus on university preparation. Publicexaminations are held at the end of Standard IXeither by individual states or by Central Boardsand lead to the award of the Higher SecondarySchool Certificate (also called All india SeniorSchool Certificate or Indian School Certificateor Pre-University Course).Vocational educationis offered in two years at Higher and TechnicalSchools and lead to the Certificate of VocationalEducation (CVE).

Higher education:Higher ed ucation is provided by:(1) Universities -including agriculturaluniversities and medical universities· dividedinto Central Universities, funded directly bythe Ministry of Human ResourcesDevelopment, and State Universities, set upand funded by various states. (2) "Deemed to beuniversities", single-faculty, multi subjectsinstitutions which enjoy the same academicstatus and privileges of a university; and (3)Institutions of Nationa l Importa nce ,university-level institutions funded by thecentral government. These include the IndianInstitutes of Technology. Most universitiesbelong to the affiliating and teaching type inwhich departments impart instruction at thepostgraduate level and undertake research.Agricultural universities stress research andextension work. Finally, there are technologicaluniversities and ten open universities. Thereare also research institutions, administered bythe Indian Council of Social Science Research,and research laboratories, as well as more thantO,OOO colleges. most of which are afftliated to

universities. Unive rsities are governed bystatutory bodies such as the Academic Council.the Senate/Court and the Executive CounciUSyndicate. Funding for State universitieslargely comes from the State governments andthe University Grants Commission. Highereducation falls mainly under its jurisdiction.The Association of Indian Universities (AIU)represents univer si ties and has theresponsibility for all matters within the highered ucation sector other than funding .Professional institutions are coordinated bydifferent bodies. The All-India Council forTechnical Education (AICTE), established in1987, is responsible for the coordination oftechnica l and manage ment Educa ti oninstitutions. Bodies such as State Councils ofHigher Education were established r ece ntly.Non-university level:On completion of Standard X, students may optfor (1) Further secondary school studies leadingto the Higher Secondary School Certificate ; (2)Craftsman or apprenticeship courses offered inIndustrial Training Institutes through theCraftman Training Scheme andApprenticeship Scheme and leading to TradeCertificates or (3) Entering a Polytechnic wherethey are offered one to three-year diplomacourses in all subjects except Medicine. Thereare over 1200 Polytechnics in l!ldia. Althoughplanned to train technicians, an increasingnumber now offer oour8es leading to degrees andeven post-graduate diplomas and certificates.Access to cou rses for the Higher NationalDiploma (HND) requires Standard XII.University level studies:First stage: Bachelor:First degree generally require three years' fulltimestudy leading to Bachelor of Arts, Scienceand Commerce degrees. Entrance to &nHonours course may require a higher passmark in the higher secondary or pre· universityexaminations. An Honours degree does notgenerally involve longer study hut indicatesgreater specialization. In professional subjects:courses last for four to five and a half years.the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) can either betaken as an integrated flrst degree course (fiveyears) or as a two to three-year course taken asa second degree.Second stage: Master's Degree:A Master's Degree in Arts, Science andCommerce generally requires two years ofstudy after a first degree. Most. are cow·seworkbasedwithout a thesis. The Indian Institutes of

Technology offer three semester studiesleading to ME, MSc (Engg) and MTech degrees.Master's courses in Engineering andTechnology normally require two years' studyafter a first professional degree. Candidatesmust qualify through the Graduate AptitudeTest in Engineering Colleges. I n Medicine andSurgery, the MaFlter's degree takes two yearsafter MBBSfBDS. The Master of Technology isawarded after a study period of threesemesters. Students must complete a researchproject which usually takes one semester. TheMaster of Computer Applications (MCA) isawarded after three years' study beyond theBachelor's Degree.Third stage: Master of Philosophy, PhD:One and a half-year MPhil programmes areopen to those who have completed their secondstage postgraduate degree. It is a preparatoryprogramme for ~octoral level studies. Someuniversities admit MBBSIBE degree holders toPhD courses. The PhD programme involvestwo years' study beyond tt;le MPhil or aminimum of three years' stutly beyond theMaster's degree and the submission of a thesis,as well as an oral examination.Fourth stage: DSc. Dlitt:The Doctor of Science (DSc) and the Doctor ofLiterature (Dlitt) degrees are awarded by someuniversities two to three years after the PhDfor original contributions.Teacher education: Training of preprimaryand primary/basic schoolteachersTeachers for lower primary classes (StandardsI to V) are trained in Teacher TrainingInstitutes (also called Junior Basic TrainingInstitutes or Primary Teacher Colleges)attached to State departments of education. Thecourse usually lasts for two years and leads toa Diploma or· a Teacher Training Certiflcate.Upper primary school teachers are trained intwo years and the course leads to a Diploma.They must have passed the Higher SecondarySchool-Leaving Certificate.Training of secondary school teachersTeachers at lower secondary level (StandardsIX and X) are graduates who havE' completed aone-year Bachelor of education at a collegeaffiliated to a university. Teache-rs at the higher secondary level (Standards XI and XU) arepostgraduates who have usually completed aMaster's degree followed by a one-year Bachelorin Education. Four Regional Colleges ofEducation offer a combined fOUT-year integrated

programme leading to a Bachelor's degree.Training of higher education teachersTeachers at colleges of education must hold anM.Ed and a PhD. Studies for these areundertaken at a number of universities.Non-traditional studies:Distahce higher educationSince its inception in 1962 at the University ofDelhi, distance education has grownconsiderably. There are now some sixtyInstituteslDirectorates of distance educationattached to conventional universities and tenOpen Universities, including Indira GandhiNational Open University· with over 150regional centers throughout India. Distanceeducation programmes cover about onehundred DegreelDiploma courses. Manyconventional universities also offercorrespondence courses, which are sometimessupplemented by contact classes.Lifelong higher educationUniversities and colleges offer adult andcontinuing education with assistance from theuac. Programmes include PopulationEucation, Legal Literacy, Science Encation andTechnology Transfer. There are also eveningco lleges which provide courses atundergraduate level and, in some areas,postgraduate courses are also offered.Other forms of non-formal educationNon-university level post-secondaryeducation consists of one-year Certificatecourses and two- to three-year Diplomacourses in various technical and commercialfields. They are conducted by industrialtraining institutes and polytechnicsadministered through the state departmentsoftechnical education.

NATIONAL BODIESAdministration & co-ordination: Responsibleauthorities:Ministry of Human ResourcesDevelopment, Science and TechnologyHead: Arjun SinghShastri Bhavan New Delhi 110001Association of Indian UniversitiesAIU House, 16 Kotla Marg,New Delhi 110002University Grants CorrunissionBahadur Shah Zafar Marg,New Delhi 110002Role of governing body: Coordinates thework of the universities; establishesequivalences of degrees; acts as a bureau of

information; conducts research on universitydevelopment.VOCATIONAL COURSES COVEREDUNDER APPRENTICES ACT 1961Agriculture1. Poultry Production2. Fisheries/Fish Processing3. Dairying4. Sericulture5. Apiculture6. Floriculture7. Plant Protection8. Agricultural Ctiemicals9. Inland Fisheries10. Plantation Crops and Management11. Seed Production Technology12. Swine Production 13. Vegetable Seed Production14. Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Industry15. Sheep and Goat Husbandry16. Repair and Maintenance of Power DrivenFarm Machinery17. Veterinary Pharmacist-cum-ArtificialInsemination Assistant18. Agro Based Food Industry (Animal based)19. Agro Based Food Industry (Crop based)20. Agro Based Food Industry (Feed based) WHAT ARE COMPUTERS? 

Computers have been around since the Chinese Abacus. They are here to stay. There is a certain feel and flow to the logic that directs their activities.Electronically, all computers work about the same. Computers vary widely in size and use. However all computers are similar in what the hardware does. So-called microcomputers (like your desktop Personal Computer (PC)) are designed for personal use, relatively low price, and modest data processing tasks. Minicomputers are moderate sized (a small refrigerator size) and perform more complex tasks with larger amounts of data. Minicomputers might be used in a small engineering office or a local bank branch to send transaction data to a head office computer. Mainframe computers are large, expensive and process billions of characters of data rapidly and fill entire rooms. Finally, supercomputers are built to minimize distance between circuit boards and operate at very high speed for complex uses such as designing airplanes, animating complex movie sequences graphically or solving complex engineering formulas having billions of steps mathematically. Supercomputers are built for raw speed. Supercomputers are the main servers in the Internet System.Some terms apply to all computers. INPUT is how data gets into a computer. The keyboard and mouse are familiar INPUT devices. OUTPUT references how data is provided from the computer. A Monitor or printer are good examples of OUTPUT devices. PRIMARY STORAGE or MEMORY is the computer’s immediate data storage area - usually this is in small integrated circuit chips which hold data ONLY while power is supplied. This PRIMARY STORAGE area is thus temporary. More permanent SECONDARY STORAGE is used when computer power is off or when data overflows

primary storage. This is usually floppy or hard disk drives but can include paper tapes, punch cards, or even non-volatile magnetic bubble memories.A computer system includes computer hardware, software and people. A computer is a device capable of solving problems or manipulating data by accepting data, performing prescribed operations on the data, and displaying the results in the desired form. The computer is a useful tool for data (or Information) Input, storage, processing and output. HISTORY -HOW, WHERE, WHEN DID IT ALL START? The first computational device was the abacus. This has been in continuous use for thousands of years. During the 1600's the Pascal adding machine was developed. This was a mechanical device that laid the groundwork for today's odometers and gas meters. The 1800's saw many machines developed that were controlled by punch cards - weaving looms. The theoretical basis for electronic circuitry was developed in the mid 1800's.In 1947, just after the first electronic computer was built, the transistor was invented, enabling the birth of vastly less expensive, more reliable computers. Even with transistors, computers were still too complex and costly for widespread use until the advent of the integrated circuit (IC) in 1961 made truly inexpensive computers possible at last.From this point forth there were many firsts as computers became less mechanical, smaller, faster and cheaper. In 1971, IC technology progressed to a point where a complete central processing unit - the heart of the computer - could be integrated on a single piece off silicon, giving birth to the microprocessor. The microprocessor led to the personal computer. The Personal Computer is distinguished by its size, cost, and applications for small business and the home. The first one appeared in January 1975 and was the Altair 8800 kit. Only hobbyists bought these. Then the Radio Shack TRS 80 and Apple computers hit the market as the first pre-assembled microcomputers.Market growth remained sluggish until two business students - Dan Bricklin and Dan Fylstra - developed a program to run on Apple computers to handle the tedious recalculations in their school assignments. This program was called VisiCalc and is the forerunner to the spreadsheet program Lotus 123. With VisiCalc as a useful tool, Apple sales took off. Apple became the standard because all programs were written for Apple. Today in the US, Apple still dominates the school market.In 1981 IBM introduced its PC. IBM’s legacy still dominates the industry today. The PC was unable to run Apple software. Unlike Apple or other IBM products, the IBM PC had an open architecture. This means the technical details of how it operated were published with the product's introduction. This permitted hundreds of companies to write software (programs) for the IBM PC and a variety of hardware accessories. Adding IBM's sterling reputation, the open architecture did enable rapid market penetration. The microcomputer was no longer a toy, it was a business tool.The open architecture also allowed for the generation of a host of lower cost compatible computers. IBM had traded quick initial market entry for eventual erosion of market share. In both instances, the consumers' benefit. In the early 90s Computers were applied variously in the fields of Science, Technology and Space exploration.Initially, PCs revolutionized how businesses are run, but today, computers deepest impact are felt in the merging of Communications and Information. The emergence of the World Wide Web and the explosion of Internet usage is having far-reaching effects on all aspects of society.Success and progress in all spheres of life, is now driven by Information and Technology. The future is bright, but it is up to every user of the technology to see that it is used to positive effect.

History of Computers: 1. First Generation (1939-1954) - vacuum tube• 1937 - John V. Atanasoff designed the first digital electronic computer • 1939 - Atanasoff and Clifford Berry demonstrate in Nov. the ABC prototype • 1941 - Konrad Zuse in Germany developed in secret the Z3 • 1943 - In Britain, the Colossus was designed in secret at Bletchley Park to decode German messages • 1944 - Howard Aiken developed the Harvard Mark I mechanical computer for the Navy • 1945 - John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert built ENIAC at U of PA for the U.S. Army • 1946 - Mauchly and Eckert start Electronic Control Co., received grant from National Bureau of Standards to build a ENIAC-type computer with magnetic tape input/output, renamed UNIVAC in 1947 but run out of money, formed in Dec. 1947 the new company Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation (EMCC). • 1948 - Howard Aiken developed the Harvard Mark III electronic computer with 5000 tubes • 1948 - U of Manchester in Britain developed the SSEM Baby electronic computer with CRT memory • 1949 - Mauchly and Eckert in March successfully tested the BINAC stored-program computer for Northrop Aircraft, with mercury delay line memory and a primitive magentic tape drive; Remington Rand bought EMCC Feb. 1950 and provided funds to finish UNIVAC • 1950- Commander William C. Norris led Engineering Research Associates to develop the Atlas, based on the secret code-breaking computers used by the Navy in WWII; the Atlas was 38 feet long, 20 feet wide, and used 2700 vacuum tubes • 1951 - S. A. Lebedev developed the MESM computer in Russia • 1951 - Remington Rand successfully tested UNIVAC March 30, 1951, and announced to the public its sale to the Census Bureau June 14, 1951, the first commercial computer to feature a magnetic tape storage system, the eight UNISERVO tape drives that stood separate from the CPU and control console on the other side of a garage-size room. Each tape drive was six feet high and three feet wide, used 1/2-inch metal tape of nickel-plated bronze 1200 feet long, recorded data on eight channels at 100 inches per second with a transfer rate of 7,200 characters per second. The complete UNIVAC system weighed 29,000 pounds, included 5200 vacuum tubes, and an offline typewriter-printer UNIPRINTER with an attached metal tape drive. Later, a punched card-to-tape machine was added to read IBM 80-column and Remington Rand 90-column cards. • 1952 - Remington Rand bought the ERA in Dec. 1951 and combined the UNIVAC product line in 1952: the ERA 1101 computer became the UNIVAC 1101. The UNIVAC I was used in November to calculate the presidential election returns and successfully predict the winner, although it was not trusted by the TV networks who refused to use the prediction. • 1954 - The sage aircraft-warning system was the largest vacuum tube computer system ever built. It began in 1954 at MIT's Lincoln Lab with funding from the Air Force. The first of 23 Direction Centers went online in Nov. 1956, and the last in 1962. Each Center had two 55,000-tube computers built by IBM, MIT, AND Bell Labs. The 275-ton computers known as "Clyde" were based on Jay Forrester's Whirlwind I and had magnetic core memory, magnetic drum and magnetic tape storage. The Centers were connected by an early network, and pioneered development of the modem and graphics display. 2.Second Generation Computers (1954 -1959) - transistor• 1950 - National Bureau of Standards (NBS) introduced its Standards Eastern

Automatic Computer (SEAC) with 10,000 newly developed germanium diodes in its logic circuits, and the first magnetic disk drive designed by Jacob Rabinow • 1953 – Watson Junior led IBM to introduce the model 604 computer, its first with transistors, that became the basis of the model 608 of 1957, the first solid-state computer for the commercial market. Transistors were expensive at first, cost $8 vs. $.75 for a vacuum tube. But Watson was impressed with the new transistor radios and gave them to his engineers to study. IBM also developed the 650 Magnetic Drum Calculator, the first by IBM to use magnetic drum memory rather punched cards, and began shipment of the 701 scientific "Defense Calculator" that was the first of the Model 700 line that dominated main frame computers for the next decade • 1955 - IBM introduced the 702 business computer; Watson on the cover of Time magazine March 28 • 1956 - Bendix G-15A small business computer sold for only $45,000, designed by Harry Huskey of NBS • 1959 - General Electric Corporation delivered its Electronic Recording Machine Accounting (ERMA) computing system to the Bank of America in California; based on a design by SRI, the ERMA system employed Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) as the means to capture data from the checks and introduced automation in banking that continued with ATM machines in 1974 3. Third Generation Computers (1959 -1971) - IC• 1959 - Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments patented the first integrated circuit in Feb. 1959; Kilby had made his first germanium IC in Oct. 1958; Robert Noyce at Fairchild used planar process to make connections of components within a silicon IC in early 1959; the first commercial product using IC was the hearing aid in Dec. 1963; General Instrument made LSI chip (100+ components) for Hammond organs 1968 • 1964 - IBM produced SABRE, the first airline reservation tracking system for American Airlines; IBM announced the System/360 all-purpose computer, using 8-bit character word length (a "byte") that was pioneered in the 7030 of April 1961 that grew out of the AF contract of Oct. 1958 following Sputnik to develop transistor computers for BMEWS • 1968 - DEC introduced the first "mini-computer", the PDP-8, named after the mini-skirt; DEC was founded in 1957 by Kenneth H. Olsen who came for the SAGE project at MIT and began sales of the PDP-1 in 1960 • 1969 - Development began on ARPAnet, funded by the DOD • 1971 - Intel produced large scale integrated (LSI) circuits that were used in the digital delay line, the first digital audio device 4. Fourth Generation (1971-1991) - microprocessor• 1971 - Gilbert Hyatt at Micro Computer Co. patented the microprocessor; Ted Hoff at Intel in February introduced the 4-bit 4004, a VSLI of 2300 components, for the Japanese company Busicom to create a single chip for a calculator; IBM introduced the first 8-inch "memory disk", as it was called then, or the "floppy disk" later; Hoffmann-La Roche patented the passive LCD display for calculators and watches; in November Intel announced the first microcomputer, the MCS-4; Nolan Bushnell designed the first commercial arcade video game "Computer Space" • 1972 - Intel made the 8-bit 8008 and 8080 microprocessors; Gary Kildall wrote his Control Program/Microprocessor (CP/M) disk operating system to provide instructions for floppy disk drives to work with the 8080 processor. He offered it to Intel, but was turned down, so he sold it on his own, and soon CP/M was the standard operating system for 8-bit microcomputers; Bushnell created Atari and introduced the successful "Pong" game • 1973 - IBM developed the first true sealed hard disk drive, called the "Winchester" after the rifle company, using two 30 Mb platters; Robert Metcalfe at Xerox PARC created Ethernet as the basis for a local area network, and later founded 3COM • 1974 - Xerox developed the Alto workstation at PARC, with a monitor, a graphical user interface, a mouse, and an ethernet card for networking 

• 1975 - the Altair personal computer is sold in kit form, and influenced Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak • 1976 - Jobs and Wozniak developed the Apple personal computer; Alan Shugart introduced the 5.25-inch floppy disk • 1977 - Nintendo in Japan began to make computer games that stored the data on chips inside a game cartridge that sold for around $40 but only cost a few dollars to manufacture. It introduced its most popular game "Donkey Kong" in 1981, Super Mario Bros in 1985 • 1978 - Visicalc spreadsheet software was written by Daniel Bricklin and Bob Frankston • 1979 - Micropro released Wordstar that set the standard for word processing software • 1980 - IBM signed a contract with the Microsoft Co. of Bill Gates and Paul Allen and Steve Ballmer to supply an operating system for IBM's new PC model. Microsoft paid $25,000 to Seattle Computer for the rights to QDOS that became Microsoft DOS, and Microsoft began its climb to become the dominant computer company in the world. • 1984 - Apple Computer introduced the Macintosh personal computer January 24. • 1987 - Bill Atkinson of Apple Computers created a software program called HyperCard that was bundled free with all Macintosh computers. This program for the first time made hypertext popular and useable to a wide number of people. 5. Fifth Generation (1991 and Beyond)• 1991 - World-Wide Web (WWW) was developed by Tim Berners-Lee and released by CERN. • 1993 - The first Web browser called Mosaic was created by student Marc Andreesen and programmer Eric Bina at NCSA in the first 3 months of 1993. The beta version 0.5 of X Mosaic for UNIX was released Jan. 23 1993 and was instant success. The PC and Mac versions of Mosaic followed quickly in 1993. Mosaic was the first software to interpret a new IMG tag, and to display graphics along with text. Berners-Lee objected to the IMG tag, considered it frivolous, but image display became one of the most used features of the Web. The Web grew fast because the infrastructure was already in place: the Internet, desktop PC, home modems connected to online services such as AOL and Compuserve • 1994 - Netscape Navigator 1.0 was released Dec. 1994, and was given away free, soon gaining 75% of world browser market. • 1996 - Microsoft failed to recognized the importance of the Web, but finally released the much imporoved browser Explorer 3.0 in the summer. 

WHY DO WE USE COMPUTERS?This similar to asking why do we use cars? But too many people and organizations purchase and use Computers for the wrong reasons. Computers are practical tools to be used in helping you get results. Computers are needed where:1. There is a need for a more accurate and cost effective knowledge to assist decision making. Success and progress is now being determined by your access to information and how you use that information to get results. 2. It is impossible to get results due to either time constraint or sheer magnitude of work involved.3. It will reduce the mental and physical effort in tackling certain tasks.4.There is intense competition and there is a need for cost efficiency through the elimination and reduction of inefficient practices.5.There is a need to assist in enhancing Customer service.6.There is a need for correct forecasting of market trends to ensure business survival.COMPUTER APPLICATIONSDue to technological developments, Computers are now used in virtually all spheres of life. Here are a few of the application areas:

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (S&T)Computers are used in S&T to promote advances that could be useful to mankind, i.e. discovering better and more efficient ways of doing things. They are especially useful for humanly intractable calculations and simulation experiments. This is especially critical in situations where it would be too risky or expensive to directly carry out the required operation. For example, in Space exploration, underwater exploration, testing of new drugs, etc. Computers enable S&T professionals can carry out their practical procedures using faster, more accurate and safer methods.EDUCATIONComputers are useful for promoting learning experiences. From the toddler to the full grown adult, educational Computer tools are available. Computers are useful for learning about Computers and learning about other subjects, i.e. using Computer Assisted Learning software. Learning is usually interactive and can be reinforced over and over.For children, the advent of Multimedia, has made learning fun. They often don’t realize it when they’re playing that they are also learning. BANKING & FINANCEComputers are very useful for handling financial transactions, most especially the storage and processing of huge amounts of information kept by financial institutions. Computers enhances Customer service, through the provision of upto date and timely information for their Customers. Computers additionally assist with the monitoring of operational costs, to ensure cost effectiveness and profitability of operations.In some financial institutions, Computers are used to identify trends and provide timely information for present and future management decision making.RECREATIONOn your average PC, you can play a variety of games. You know what they say about Jack. With the games, you could be the sole player, play against the Computer or you and a friend could play against each other.SECURITYComputers are useful for storing information about crimes, criminals and suspects. This can be very useful in Crime detection and prevention. Such systems can be interfaced with photograph capturing and fingerprint systems. They can also be linked to mobile radio communication systems over a wide area to enable in the fast and efficient sharing of information on Criminal activities. Such systems would possess enquiry facility for historical and analytic purposes.There so many other areas where the impact of the Computer is being felt such as Medicine, Law, Sports, Entertainment, Media, Building, Construction, etc.In every situation the Computer performs different functions relating to Information storage, input, output and processing. It is no wonder that productive Computer based activity is referred to popularly as Information Technology. What are Computers? A computer system includes computer hardware, software and people.HARDWARE versus SOFTWAREWhat is the difference between computer hardware and software? HARDWAREIn simplest terms, hardware is the physical parts associated with a computer - the electronic, magnetic, and mechanical devices (monitor, keyboard, printer, micro chip boards, floppy drives, cables and physical pieces of a system. These INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES allow the operator to interact with the computer.SOFTWARESets of programs (stored sets of instructions) that govern the operation of the computer system and make the hardware perform. These programs (instructions) tell the hardware how to do a particular task such as word processing, games, database management, etc. Although these instructions are usually stored inside a piece of hardware (e.g., software instructions stored inside a

circuit chip or floppy drive) but they are nevertheless software. In a way, Software refers to the instructions that enable an otherwise dead machine to understand your inputs and transform them into desired outputs. Computer hardware by itself lacks personality; this is determined by the software. Word processing software turns the computer into a word processor, accounting software turns the computer into an accounting tool, etc.Lets discuss a bit about Software before we go back to Hardware. There are two major types of software: Operating system software and Applications software. Operating system software (like DOS, UNIX or Windows 95) performs very elemental housekeeping instructions (e.g., where is the monitor, how can I keep track of what data is on which track or sector of a floppy drive, whether more than user can work on the system at the same time e.g. UNIX.) The operating system that all IBM and compatible PC's use is called DOS (sounds like floss). DOS is software that allows the terminal, printer, computer and mass storage systems (floppy disks) to work together as a unit, and controls the execution of programs. It also allows you to do housekeeping chores regarding managing disks and files.Applications programs perform tasks on a higher level (e.g., word processing Spreadsheet, Games, Database Management, Accounting, Payroll programs are applications.) Generally an application software package uses the lower level operating system (DOS) to do routine tasks (e.g., your word processing application uses the lower level DOS operating system frequently to write and store data on a disk. And what is a Database?A database is a collection of information that is organized for ease of reference. For example, your address book is a database, just as an inventory of goods, a list of all churches in your state or your staff list.Before Electronic processing of information, databases had to be maintained on paper stored in file folders that were kept in filing cabinets. With Electronic DataBase Management Systems (DBMS), information stored electronically and be recalled instantly and accurately.

HARDWARECENTRAL PROCESSOR UNIT (CPU)Heart of the PC - it contains the microprocessor. The CPU is a set of miniaturized circuits that does all the "thinking". It controls the interpretation (arithmetic-logic unit) and execution (control unit) of instructions. The CPU in conjunction with Random Access Memory (RAM) comprise the computer's "brain". The CPU does the "thinking / calculating" while RAM contains the instructions or "memories". It is the CPU that largely determines the operating speed of the computer. The type of processor on your PC will determine the nature of functions it can carry out and the speed at which instructions are carried out. For example, while a 286 processor would struggle to load Windows 3.1, a 486 processor loads it easily. Additionally, a 286 processor is obviously incapable of running most new software. Pentium processor are now as fast as 200 MHz.Now the good stuff. Lets read on and want delve into great complexity. Now it’s time to delve deeper into the heart of the computer. The central processing unit or CPU is the "brains" of every computer. On the PC, the CPU is simply a tiny integrated circuit. It is the control center and contains two circuit elements to perform tasks plus several special locations or memory areas called registers which hold instructions. Registers, located within the CPU chip are temporary storage locations which hold instructions. Secondly, the arithmetic logic unit or ALU is the location within the CPU where basic math and logic operations take place (such as addition and subtraction.) Finally, the control unit is a portion of the CPU which directs all elements of the

computer. It does not add or subtract like the ALU, it only directs the activity. Despite this seeming complexity, a basic fact remains: all digital computers can only add and subtract two numbers: zero and one! Let’s back up a bit. For purposes of digital computer electronics, internally a computer can only respond to two things: on and off - just like a light switch. These electronic states of being might actually be a positive and negative voltage or a high and low voltage stored in a series of transistors etched in silicon on a chip, but to the computer the logic is on or off. Two conditions, that is all. Back in the human world we can represent these as one and zero (1 and 0). A special branch of mathematics deals with calculations of numbers represented by 1 and 0 which is called binary arithmetic. We rarely think of 0 as a number since we consider it NOTHING.) To computers ZERO is always a number!!! To a computer these binary numbers march together in a long string, one after another. Remember, the CPU has only two numbers to work with: 1 and 0. Human Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Computer Binary 0 1 WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A BIT AND A BYTE?The IBM PC and its clones generally use 8 bits (electrical pulses) to make up a byte (computer word.) A ninth "odd bit" is used for error checking (parity testing) to make sure the other eight bits are not accidentally erased or lost during storage or use by the computer.Bits are like alphabet characters and bytes are like the words made up from alphabet characters. Bits and Bytes are used to measure information by the computer.BITSmallest unit of information recognized by the computer. BIT is short for Binary Digit. A Binary Digit can be either a 0 or a 1. Several bits make up a byte.BYTEA group of 8 BITS. This grouping of adjacent binary digits (bits) is operated on by the computer as a unit. Computers use 1 BYTE to represent 1 character such as a letter of the alphabet, a number, a punctuation mark, a space, etc. A BYTE is also a unit of measure since it represents 1 character.For example, when the letter "A" is pressed, the keyboard actually sends the following to RAM: 10000001 - a set of 8 bits. RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)Think of a computer as a human brain. Your brain is a memory sponge. It contains a lifetime of memories that cause us to act or react based on inputs. Inputs come through our 5 senses. If you see and smell hot suya burning on the grill (inputs) you know how to react based on previous experiences. A set of miniaturized circuits which represents the working memory of the computer. This is where application programs (software) can be loaded from the outside and then executed. The larger the RAM the better. A typical single user computer system may contain approximately 8,000,000 bytes of RAM.(This is often abbreviated as 8MB RAM.)The computer's brain consists of the RAM and the CPU. The CPU and RAM work together as the computer's "brain". Each day when we start up the computer one of the first tasks will be to fill RAM with instructions to give it an ability to do work. This work may be in the creation of documents or tracking accounting data.You control which instructions will go into the computer's brain. You control the sets of experiences you will provide the computer. Once in RAM, the computer will evaluate inputs from many devices and react. The most typical input device is a keyboard. As you type commands, the computer evaluates them. Based on the set of instructions within its RAM, it will follow some action: print a document, calculate,

send information over a telephone line, etc.At some later point you may empty the computer's brain and install a different set of instructions, thus giving it a different ability.The RAM is emptied when the computer is turned off - thus it is often called "volatile" memory. WHAT YOU SEE ON YOUR  COMPUTER MONITOR IS ACTUALLY IN RAM ONLY - a temporary storage location. To make it permanent we "save" it or "write" it to a floppy disk or hard drive. These devices are non volatile storage - they do not require electricity.Each time the computer is turned off, all information within RAM is lost. RAM is called volatile memory because of the electricity requirement.READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)This is a special section of memory that contains instructions which are activated each time the computer is turned on. These instructions are set at the factory and cannot be changed - thus, they can only be "read", not written to. ROM instructions perform equipment checks and initialization of the computer prior to each use.

DISKSThink of disks as cassettes. You can record information on a cassette that can be replayed indefinitely and if desired, recorded over. Floppy and Hard Disks operate in a similar fashion. We record (Save) something we have created - like a document - onto the disk. Then, hours, days, or months later we can play back (Retrieve) the document into the computer to alter or print out.The magnetic disk used to store information works in a manner similar to a tape recorder - magnetic impressions are placed on the tape and can be later replayed. A magnetic computer disk works in the same fashion but spins in a circle like a music record rather than moving in a straight line like recording tape. Magnetic computer disks are available in two basic types: floppy and hard disks. Just like cassettes, the Floppy and Hard Disks do not require electricity to retain their information. Hard Disks and Floppy Disks are similar. However, Hard Drives have a larger capacity for file storage, are faster and are less likely to fail due to the protected environment from within which they operate. Floppy and Hard Disks are nonvolatile in nature because they will retain their information without the aid of electricity.A hard disk can hold considerably more information than a floppy disk - frequently billions and millions of computer words (or "bytes") while a floppy disk holds less than a million in many cases. However what the floppy disk loses in capacity in gains in the advantage of portability since it can easily be removed from the PC and stored which is not true of the hard disk. When you format a disk you ask the computer to inspect the magnetic surface of the disk for any errors, prepare it for use by future data and create an index "file allocation table (FAT)" which is like a card index for a large library of books. Formatting a disk is a little like taking a blank piece of paper and using a pencil and ruler to turn it into graph paper with both horizontal and vertical lines. What was blank before now has little cells or file drawers which can hold information. DISK DRIVEThe port in which a floppy disk is inserted. This device "reads data from a magnetic disk, and copies data into the computer's memory (RAM) so it can be used by the computer, and that "writes" data from the computer's memory onto a disk so it can be stored for later use. Each Disk Drive is labeled A,B,C, etc. because we often must tell the computer which drive has the disk with the information or where to send the information. A Disk Drive reads and writes on a 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch floppy disk.FLOPPY DISKSThe most commonly used mass storage device. Allows entering programs to RAM and saving data from RAM. Will hold data even after the computer is turned off. Data on

these disks is stored in concentric rings called tracks. The Disk surface is a thin piece of mylar and is coated with a magnetized material similar to audio or video tape.The read/write heads can magnetize and demagnetize the coated surface repeatedly. Therefore, the Disk can be used, erased, and reused indefinitely.Floppy disks are also available as double density and high density format. A standard floppy diskette is either 5D inches or 3A inches square. Obviously the high density of 3A" diskette contains more information than the 3A" double density diskette. A 5D" Double-sided, Double density disk holds approximately 360k worth of information (250 double spaced pages of text). The smaller 3.5 inch Double density disks which hold at least twice as much - 720k.Working with floppy diskettes. 

To insert a floppy diskette into your computer drive, first remove it from the paper or plastic slipcover if one protects it. The proper way to insert a floppy diskette in most drives is as follows.

For larger 5 - 1/4 inch floppies, turn the printed label side up and locate the TWO VERY TINY notches along one edge. Near the notches will be a jelly bean shaped hole about one inch long cut into the plastic surface of the diskette. This oblong hole is the read/write opening. Insert the diskette into the drive with the label side up and the two tiny notches FIRST into the drive opening then close the drive locking handle. Along one edge of the diskette you will also see a SINGLE square shaped hole which is the write protect notch. If this write protect notch is UNCOVERED you can BOTH read and write data to the diskette. If the write protect notch is covered with a piece of tape, then you can READ information from the diskette but you CANNOT write information to the diskette. This is a safeguard feature you may wish to use from time to time. Keep fragile diskettes away from smoke, hair, dirt and ESPECIALLY sources of magnetism such as motors, loudspeakers or even children's magnetic toys which may ERASE your data! For smaller 3 - 1/2 inch size diskettes, turn the label side up and locate the metal "shutter". Insert the diskette into the drive with the label up and the shutter FIRST into the drive. The write protect notch or opening is a small square hole with a SLIDING PLASTIC TAB which is slid CLOSED (cannot see an open hole) to enable BOTH reading and writing to the diskette. The sliding tab is placed OPEN (visible open hole) to enable reading but NOT writing.FIXED DISK DRIVEUsually named disk drive C. It is essentially a very large floppy disk. This Fixed Disk (commonly called a Hard Drive) is secured within the machine and cannot be seen or transported. The storage capacity is so large it is measured in megabytes (1M = 1K squared = 1,048,576 bytes). Fixed Disks are available from 5M on up. The main advantages are that it has enough space to meet most users' total storage needs, operates much faster than a floppy (5-10 times faster), and is less likely to fail since it "lives" within the protected computer.

INPUT DEVICESSince we have covered data storage lets move to data input.

(a) PRIMARY INPUT DEVICESTwo primary input devices are key to getting data into a PC. The keyboard and the mouse. (i) KEYBOARDInput device that lets you enter data into the computer. The layout is similar to the standard QWERTY typewriter keyboard. However, there are many extra special keys that are defined by the software you are running.

(ii) MOUSE Hand operated pointing and selection device which serves as alternate input to the keyboard. It is very useful for Graphical User Interface (GUI) Applications such as Windows, etc., which is rolled or moved across the desktop to position a cursor or pointer on the computer screen. The mouse also contains several buttons to help select items on data on the monitor screen. A mouse was initially an optional device, but it is becoming difficult to work without it, with the spread of Windows based systems.(b) SPECIALTY INPUT DEVICESLets move on to the specialty input devices like the scanner and the Digital camera. (i) SCANNERA scanner converts text and images to digital information. This text and images can be from a variety of sources such as magazines, photographs, articles, scientific diagrams, etc. The scanner creates a digital image from your photograph or drawing, for use in graphics, DeskTop Publishing or Presentation applications. There are different types of scanners like Hand scanner, flatbed scanner and the multifunction scanner/fax/printer/copier. The flatbed scanner provides a larger scanning area than the other scanners and is the usually more expensive.(ii) DIGITAL CAMERAThe Digital Camera produces the same result as a Scanner. Any pictures taken are transferred straight to the computer, i.e. in the form of a graphics image suitable for image editing or DeskTop Publishing applications. It eliminates the need for film.

OUTPUT DEVICESAnother introductory topic is that of output devices such as a monitor, printer or plotter. (i) PLOTTERA plotter is a device which uses a motor to move pens or drawing implements in tightly controlled horizontal and vertical motions on a piece of paper or film. The computer can control a plotter to combine on one piece of paper differing pen colors and text and pictures stored within the computer. Computer plotter can be purchased with flat table or flat bed configurations or in models which move the pen(s) back and forth with gears that also drive the paper movement at the same time. 

(ii) PRINTERThe printer is probably the most common and useful output device attached to your computer. There are many types of modern computer printer with differing speeds and capabilities. The most common printer is the Dotmatrix printer which provides characters made up from tiny dots of ink on paper. Line printers (usually with Mainframe computers or Minicomputers) print entire lines of text in one sweep then move to the next line and are thus very fast. Ink jet printers produce characters made from individual dots of ink sprayed onto the paper.The ink jet printer squirts individual dots of ink onto the paper to form letters or other characters. A high quality paper is necessary since the wet ink can smear if not carefully handled. Although with the most recent models, ordinary paper can also be used. The Colour print facility is also now standard with most inkjet printer.Finally, laser printers use a rapidly scanning laser to sensitize a polished drum with an entire page of information quickly and look and work roughly like an office copier. The first two printers are classified as impact printers since something strikes the paper while the later two are non impact printers. The laser and ink jet printers are becoming more popular due to rapid speed of printing and quiet mode of operation.

The laser printer is used for quickly producing one page of text at a time. In

operation, the laser scans a polished drum with an image which is then dusted with dark toner particles which stick to the exposed areas made sensitive by the laser. Paper is then placed in contact with the drum and the toner is transferred to the page and is finally fused with heat to "fix" or seal the toner particles to the page. Of the Microcomputer printers, the Laser is the most expensive in terms of purchase price, maintenance cost and consumable cost.Dot matrix printers are common and affordable alternatives for many small offices, home computer hobbyists or organizations with voluminous printing requirements (e.g. statements of accounts for banks). The Dot matrix is additionally designed for use with continuous flow paper, as well as typical single sheet paper. Dot matrix usually operates in varying modes of draft and letter quality. In draft mode, the printer speed is faster, with draft quality. Letter quality is slower with higher quality. Dot matrix printers produce letters via small pins which strike the ink ribbon and paper to produce print which can be jagged looking. Nine pin dot matrix printers produce somewhat rough looking letters while 24 pin dot matrix printers produce crisper, fully-formed letters. The Dot matrix printer strikes the paper through a ribbon to transfer ink to the printed page. Connecting a printer via a cable to the computer is always done through one of two plugs (or interfaces) on the back of the computer. One type of interface (computer plug) is serial, the other called parallel. The most commonly used interface for printers today is the parallel interface but serial interface printers do exist. What is the difference? Recall that there are eight bits (computer dots and dashes) to a byte (or computer word). The serial interface has each bit sent one at a time to the printer - like men in single file at the supermarket checkout counter. The parallel interface sends all eight bits at once - like eight men all entering eight supermarket counters at once. Each interface is different, the printer manufacturer will tell you which interface to use, i.e. serial or parallel. Frequently, modems or mouse devices use the serial interface leaving the printer to the parallel interface. (iii) MONITORSWe have talked about output to paper, next let's briefly discuss output to a monitor or screen. The monitor is a television like device that the computer uses to communicate with you. The monitor or video display works much like your television - some older home computers still use a TV. An old term for a monitor is the cathode ray tube or CRT. Monitors differ in the sharpness or resolution they can display. On the low end of the resolution spectrum is the monochrome (single color) monitor frequently available in either green or amber screens. Next is the color RGB monitor (RGB stands for Red, Green and Blue) which displays low resolution color dots to make up an image. Higher resolution is obtained with an EGA monitor (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) and still higher with a VGA (Video Graphics Array) Monitor and even higher with an SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) Monitor. Each monitor is matched to work with a circuit card located within the body of the computer. One way to upgrade a computer is to switch both the monitor and display/graphics circuit card to produce a sharper, more colorful image. The dots which make up all images on the monitor screen are called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the higher and sharper the image resolution. Typically the monitor displays 80 columns (characters) by 25 rows (lines) of information. The initial SVGA cards could only display 16 colours. And then 256 colours. Now some SVGA card can display millions of colours.INPUT & OUTPUT DEVICESCertain devices can act as both input and output devices to the computer. Typical devices mentioned earlier are the disks (floppy and hard).

(i) MODEMShort for Modulator/Demodulator. A device to send and receive computer output over telephone lines.

THE COMPUTER DEVICES & RELATIONSHIPSCASING & MOTHERBOARDWhere is your CPU kept? Don't look for RAM near your mouse. Most of the components are internal, and kept inside a casing. This casing model can be Tower, minitower or desktop. Inside the casing, there is a power supply unit that takes in the power supplied from the public power supply and steps it down to supply the computer's needs. Also inside the casing is the motherboard, which is a large printed circuit board that all expansion boards plug into. The motherboard contains the most essential parts of the computer such as the CPU, RAM, ROM, keyboard, speaker and power connections, and other assortment of important parts. The expansion boards contain special circuits for the monitor (monitor card), disk drives and mouse (multi Input/Output card) and other options such as modem and scanner.

SOME SHORT NOTES ON COMPUTER SCIENCE :1.         Hardware (disambiguation).Hardware is a general term that refers to the physical artifacts of a technology. It may also mean the physical components of acomputer system, in the form of computer hardware.Hardware historically meant the metal parts and fittings that were used to make wooden products stronger, more functional, longer lasting and easier to fabricate or assemble. In modern usage it includes equipment such as keys, locks, hinges, latches, corners,handles, wire, chains, plumbing supplies, tools, utensils, cutlery and machine parts, especially when they are made of metal. In theUnited States, this type of hardware has been traditionally sold in hardware stores, a term also used to a lesser extent in the UK.In a more colloquial sense, hardware can refer to major items of military equipment, such as tanks, aircraft or ships.In slang, the term refers to trophies and other physical representations of awards.Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware"Categories: Equipment

2.   System software

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

System software is any computer software which manages and controls computer hardware so that application software can perform a task. Operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X or Linux, are prominent examples of system software. System software contrasts with application software, which are programs that enable the end-user to perform specific, productive tasks, such as word processing or image manipulation.System software performs tasks like transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering text onto a display device. Specific kinds of system software include loading programs, Operating systems, device drivers, programming tools, compilers, assemblers, linkers, andutility software.

Software libraries that perform generic functions also tend to be regarded as system software, although the dividing line is fuzzy; while a C runtime library is generally agreed to be part of the system, an OpenGL or database library is less obviously so.If system software is stored on non-volatile memory such as integrated circuits, it is usually termed firmware.

3.   Computer software

Computer software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer system.The term includes application software such as word processors which perform productive tasks for users, system software such as operating systems, which interface with hardware to provide the necessary services for application software, and middleware which controls and co-ordinates distributed systems."Software" is sometimes used in a broader context to mean anything which is not hardware but which is used with hardware, such as film, tapes and records.

Relationship to computer hardware

Main article: Computer hardwareComputer software is so called to distinguish it from computer hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and devices required to store and execute (or run) the software. In computers, software is loaded into RAM and executed in the central processing unit. At the lowest level, software consists of a machine language specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions which change the state of the computer from its preceding state. Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is usually written inhigh-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code. Software may also be written in anassembly language, essentially, a mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language must be assembled into object code via an assembler.The term "software" was first used in this sense by John W. Tukey in 1958.[3] In computer science and software engineering,computer software is all computer programs. The theory that is the basis for most modern software was first proposed by Alan Turingin his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem.

4.   Keyboard (computing)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The 104-key PC US English QWERTY keyboard layout evolved from the standard typewriter keyboard with extra keys special to computing. The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard layout arranges keys so that frequently used keys are easiest to press. Advocates of this keyboard layout claim that it reduces muscle fatigue when typing common English.partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard.Physically, a keyboard is an arrangement of buttons, or keys. A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys; in most cases, each press of a key corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence; other keys do not

produce any symbol, but instead affect the operation of the computer or the keyboard itself. See input method editor.A majority of all keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters) that are appropriate for the operator's language. Other keys can produce actions when pressed, and other actions are available by the simultaneous pressing of more than one action key.

5.   Mouse (computing)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

.A contemporary computer mouse, with the most common standard features: two buttons and a scroll wheel.In computing, a mouse (plural mice, mouse devices, or mouses) is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensionalmotion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of a small case, held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons. It sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various system-dependent operations, or extra buttons or features can add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a Graphical User Interface.The name mouse, originated at the Stanford Research Institute, derives from the resemblance of early models (which had a cord attached to the rear part of the device, suggesting the idea of a tail) to the common mouse.[1]

The first marketed integrated mouse — shipped as a part of a computer and intended for personal computer navigation — came with the Xerox 8010 Star Information System in 1981.

6.   Input/output

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 I/O, I/O device, I/O interface, Read/write channel, and Transput all redirect here. For the use of the term input-output in economics, see Input-output model. For other uses of the term I/O, see I/O (disambiguation).In computing, input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information processing system (such as a computer), and the outside world – possibly a human, or another information processing system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to "perform I/O" is to perform an input or output operation. I/O devices are used by a person (or other system) to communicate with a computer. For instance,keyboards and mouses are considered input devices of a computer, while monitors and printers are considered output devices of a computer. Devices for communication between computers, such as modems and network cards, typically serve for both input and output.Note that the designation of a device as either input or output depends on the perspective. Mouses and keyboards take as input physical movement that the human user outputs and convert it into signals that a computer can understand. The output from these devices is input for the computer. Similarly, printers and monitors take as input signals that a computer outputs. They then convert these signals into representations that human users can see or read. (For a human user the process of reading or seeing these representations is receiving input.)

In computer architecture, the combination of the CPU and main memory (i.e. memory that the CPU can read and write to directly, with individual instructions) is considered the heart of a computer, and from that point of view any transfer of information from or to that combination, for example to or from a disk drive, is considered I/O. The CPU and its supporting circuitry provide memory-mapped I/Othat is used in low-level computer programming in the implementation of device drivers.Higher-level operating system and programming facilities employ separate, more abstract I/O concepts and primitives. For example, most operating systems provide application programs with the concept of files. The C and C++ programming languages, and operating systems in the Unix family, traditionally abstract files and devices as streams, which can be read or written, or sometimes both. The C standard library provides functions for manipulating streams for input and output.

7.   Central processing unit

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search"CPU" redirects here. For other uses, see CPU (disambiguation).Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor (actual size: 12×6.75 mm) in its packaging.A Central Processing Unit (CPU), or sometimes just called processor, is a description of a class of logic machines that can executecomputer programs. This broad definition can easily be applied to many early computers that existed long before the term "CPU" ever came into widespread usage. The term itself and its initialism have been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s(Weik 1961). The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation has remained much the same.Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, usually one-of-a-kind, computer. However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of mass-produced processors that are suited for one or many purposes. This standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured in very small spaces (on the order of millimeters). Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones to children's toys.

8.   Computer data storage

160 GB SDLT tape cartridge, an example of off-line storage. When used within a robotic tape library, it is classified as tertiary storage instead.Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components, devices, and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time. Computer data storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of information retention. It is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer model used since the 1940s.In contemporary usage, memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor storage known as random access memory (RAM) and sometimes other forms of fast but temporary storage. Similarly, storage today more commonly refers to mass

storage - optical discs, forms of magnetic storage like hard disks, and other types slower than RAM, but of a more permanent nature. Historically, memory andstorage were respectively called primary storage and secondary storage.The contemporary distinctions are helpful, because they are also fundamental to the architecture of computers in general. As well, they reflect an important and significant technical difference between memory and mass storage devices, which has been blurred by the historical usage of the term storage. Nevertheless, this article uses the traditional nomenclature. 9. PCU: computer memory unit - a unit for measuring computer memoryunit, unit of measurement - any division of quantity accepted as a standard of measurement or exchange; "the dollar is the United States unit of currency"; "a unit of wheat is a bushel"; "change per unit volume"byte - a sequence of 8 bits (enough to represent one character of alphanumeric data) processed as a single unit of informationsector - the minimum track length that can be assigned to store information; unless otherwise specified a sector of data consists of 512 bytesblock - (computer science) a sector or group of sectors that function as the smallest data unit permitted; "since blocks are often defined as a single sector, the terms `block' and `sector' are sometimes used interchangeably"allocation unit - a group of sectors on a magnetic disk that can be reserved for the use of a particular filepartition - (computer science) the part of a hard disk that is dedicated to a particular operating system or application and accessed as a single unitword - a word is a string of bits stored in computer memory; "large computers use words up to 64 bits long"KiB, kibibyte, kilobyte, kB, K - a unit of information equal to 1024 byteskilobyte, kB, K - a unit of information equal to 1000 byteskb, kbit, kilobit - a unit of information equal to 1000 bitskibibit, kibit - a unit of information equal to 1024 bitsmebibyte, MiB, megabyte, MB, M - a unit of information equal to 1024 kibibytes or 2^20 (1,048,576) bytesmegabyte, MB, M - a unit of information equal to 1000 kilobytes or 10^6 (1,000,000) bytesMb, Mbit, megabit - a unit of information equal to 1000 kilobits or 10^6 (1,000,000) bitsmebibit, Mibit - a unit of information equal to 1024 kibibits or 2^20 (1,048,576) bitsGiB, gibibyte, gigabyte, GB, G - a unit of information equal to 1024 mebibytes or 2^30 (1,073,741,824) bytesgigabyte, GB, G - a unit of information equal to 1000 megabytes or 10^9 (1,000,000,000) bytesGbit, gigabit, Gb - a unit of information equal to 1000 megabits or 10^9 (1,000,000,000) bitsgibibit, Gibit - a unit of information equal to 1024 mebibits or 2^30 (1,073,741,824) bitstebibyte, TiB, terabyte, TB - a unit of information equal to 1024 gibibytes or 2^40 (1,099,511,627,776) bytesterabyte, TB - a unit of information equal to 1000 gigabytes or 10^12 (1,000,000,000,000) bytes

10. User (computing)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Users in a computing context refers to one who uses a computer system. Users may need to identify themselves for the purposes of accounting, security, logging and resource management. In order to identify oneself, a user has an account (a user account) and ausername, and in most cases also a password (see below). Users employ the user interface to access systems.Users are also widely characterized as the class of people that uses a system without complete technical expertise required to fully understand the system. In most hacker-related contexts, they are also divided into lusers and power users. See also End-user (computer science).Screen names (also called a handle, nickname, or nick on some systems) refer to a public name that can be used to 'screen' ones true user name from the public eye. Services such as AOL allowed customers to have multiple screen names per user name, and IRCnicks are independent of one's system account username.For instance, one can be a user of (and have an account on) a computer system, a computer network and have an e-mail account, anIM account and use one or more nicks on IRC.