International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000

ABERDEEN University of opportunity

FORESTRY EDUCATION OPPORTUNITIES "he University of Aberdeen founded in 1495 has been awarding degrees in forest^ ,ince 191 4

5Sc (Forestry) Firmly founded on a scientific base, this degree emphasises resource and business management aspects relevant to both temperate and tropical forests. The honours degree normally requires four years of study but students with diplomas or equivalenl qualifications are usually admitted direct into the second year.

NplomaMSc The diploma courses (9-months) and MSc courses (12-months) are designed primarilj n Forest for practising foresters from the tropics and subtropics. Programmes are flexible anc Management, can be designed to meet individual needs, including the involvement of courses from igroforestry other land-use departments. Courses include Forest policy and organisation; Fores, ~r planning; Tropical forestry; Tree Improvement; Forest mensuration and inventory, irboriculture Rural development forestry and Agro-jorestry; Silvopastoralism; Silviculture; Fores

protection; Harvesting and Arboriculture.

Xesearch These are available at both Master and Doctoral level: a wide-ranging research 3egrees programme is available encompassing both temperate and tropical forestry issues

Pberdeen and the North-East of Scotland contain a concentration of research establishments in Land Use ind Environmental matters unique in Europe: in addition to the departments within the University there i: he Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, the Rowett Research hstitute and the Marine Research Laboratory; combining the interests of all these is the Aberdeen Centre br Land Use. The University is also the base of CEMP, the international Centre for Environmental VIanagement and Planning

Write for further details to

Dr W Huw Parry Department of Forestry University of Aberdeen 58 1 King Street Aberdeen AB24 5UA United Kingdom

Telephone 01224-272677 Fax 01224 272685 Telex 73458 UNIABN 9 e-mail w.h.parry@abdn.ac.uk

UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN

International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000 i

Contents

CONTENTS

PAPERS

Spatial characterisation of non-timber forest products markets in the humid forest zone of Cameroon M. RUIZ PEREZ, 0. NDOYE, A. EYEBE and A. PUNTODEWO

Comparison of growth of Pinus radiata over two rotations in the central North Island of New Zealand R.C. WOOLLONS

Properties of a novel three-layer MDF panel made with wood and sisal nonwoven mattresses P.R. GILLAH, M.A. IRLE and K. MAHER

The use and management of the common lands of the Aravalli, India A. KUMAR: L. BREN and I. FERGUSON

Forest reserve encroachment : a case study of the Tano-Ehuru forest reserve in Ghana C.E. OWUBAH , N.T. DONKOR and R.D. NSENKYIRE

Combating desertification: the Asian experience SEN WANG, RUI ZHENG and YOULIN YANG

The convention on biological diversity: an overview and lessons learnt from the Zimbabwean experience E.M. SHUMBA and D. MARONGWE

COMMENT

The world of teak plantations R. KEOGH

Forestry in New Zealand undermined A.G.D. WHYTE

Does Timberland represent a positive vison? 129, C. PERLEY

REVIEWS

J. MAYERS and S. BASS Policy that works for forests and people P. KANOWSKI

INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANISATION 138 A manual for the application of criteria and indicators P.A. WARDLE

A. FARJON and C.N. PAGE (eds.) Conifer conservation W.S. DVORAK

J. TIMBERLAKE, C. FAGG and R.D. BARNES 139 Field guide to the Acacias of Zimbabwe H.J. BEENTJE

S. BRUNS, S. MANTELL, C. TRAGARDH 140 and A.M. VIANA (eds.) Recent advances in biotechnology for tree conservation D. BOSHIER

NOTICES

K. AMMAN Bushmeat - Africa's conservation crisis

DAJA PRADNJA RESOSUDARMO Forestry donors to Indonesia on CIFOR's deforestation research

C. THOMAS Keystone millennium meeting

European Union Tro~ica l Forestry P a ~ e r ~ M. RICHARDS 'Internalising the externalities' of tropical forestry

The CFA's goal - To promote the well-being of the c~orld's torests and those who depend upon them

ii Znternutianal Forestry Review 2(2), 2000

D. BROWN Principles and practices of forest CO-management

P. HADEN Forestry issues in the Guiana Shield Region

D, BROWN, M. RICHARDS, K. SCHRECKENBERG, G. SHEPHERD and S. T ~ L E R Getting aid delivery right: host country, donor and international complementarity for greater aid effectiveness in the forest sector

J. DAVIES and M. RICHARDS The use of economics to assess stakeholder incentives in participatory management: a review

MISCELLANEA

United Nations Forum on Forests

141 FORTHCOMING INTERNATIONAL EVENTS

142 16TH COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY CONFERENCE

142 ASSOCIATION AFFAIRS

2000 Annual General Meeting The Queen's Award for Forestry 2000 Change of Editor

142 Lawrence Roche Memorial Fund Obituary: D G Cumming

TRANSLATIONS OF SUMMARIES

142 French

142 Spanish

The International Forestry Review is a peer-reviewed journal

International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000 71

PAPERS

Spatial characterisation of non-timber forest products markets in the humid forest zone of Cameroon

MANUEL RUlZ PEREZ~, OUSSEYNOU NDOYE ', ANTOINE EYEBE2 and ATlE PUNTODEW03

l Corresponding author; Dept. Ecology, Autonomous University of Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain and CIFOR, lndonesia manuel. ruiz@uam. es

Center for lnternational Forestry Research (CIFOR), b0. Box 2008 (Messa), Yaounde, Cameroon Center for lnternational Forestry Research (CIFOR), PO. Box 6596 JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia

SUMMARY

The paper analyses the structure of non-timber forest products (NTFP) markets in the humid forest zone (HFZ) of Cameroon from a spatial perspective. A characterisation of 25 markets based on a set of products, traders, and marketplace attributes was produced. The combination of the attributes size and self-sufficiency results in four main types of markets (national, provincial, local and frontier), whereas clustering based on all the attributes clearly distinguishes the northern and southern areas of the HFZ, and an urban-rural, core-periphery relationship within each area. This separation reflects different product specialisations and diversity, as well as market size. Dacryodes and Gnetum predominate in the northern markets, which tend to be larger, whereas Garcinia lucida, G. kola and Irvingia are relatively more abundant in the southern markets. In general, larger markets are more diversified and their traders are more specialised than the smaller ones. There are also differences in product storage time, distance from source of products, level of taxation, and transportation problems. The need to understand the multiple, non-linear interactions among these factors is stressed.

KEYWORDS: Cameroon, NTFP markets, spatial analysis.

INTRODUCTION

Non-timber forest products (NTFP) have played a dual role in forest dwellers' livelihoods, as subsistence products to meet daily and seasonal needs and to cover demand in years of poor harvest, and as commercial products that contribute to the household cash economy (Arnold 1995). NTFP market research has gained in popularity in recent years following recognition of the importance of their contribution to both local and national economies (Falconer 1990, Ruiz PCrez and Arnold 1996, Scoones, Melnyk and Pretty 1992, Townson 1995). This has been reinforced by the apparent coincidence of conservation and development objectives that they provide (Fearnside 1989, Myers 1988, Panayotou and Ashton 1992, Plotkin and Famolare 1992), which has resulted in the formulation of a 'conservation by commercial- isation' hypothesis (Clay 1992, Evans 1993, Stiles 1994) observed by a number of international initiatives (BCN, Cultural Survival, Conservation International, People and Plants, WWF).

All these activities have relied strongly on assessments of NTFP markets that have been carried out from one or more of the following perspectives:

Market description and quantification. This includes the general operation of the market, type and qualities of the products being traded, market channels from producers to

consumers, trade volume and value (see Falconer 1992, Lim, Vincent, and Woon 1994, Padoch 1988). Performance and conduct. Includes studies on different components of the cost structure (such as purchasing, transportation, storage, financial), profit margins, degree of competitiveness among traders, and efficiency in matching supply and demand (see Ammour, Ocampo and Robles 1994, Goletti and Badiane 1994, Ndoye, Ruiz PCrez and Eyebe 1997, Simmons, Gordon and Cropley 1994). Product and market development. Centres on assessment of potential demand, exploration of new products, improved technologies from production to processing, standards, grading and quality control, advertising (see Clay and Clement 1993, Coppen et al. 1995, de Silva and Atal 1995, Hyman 1996). International trade and regulations, particularly volume and value of trade, factors affecting it, main international trade channels, national and international regulations affecting the trade of NTFP (see Anderson 1993, Iqbal 1993,1995, LaFleur 1992, Lintu 1995, Manokaran 1990, Raintree and Francisco 1994, Townson 1992).

For the vast majority of markets their spatial relationships are essential components of their overall functioning. The

72 Ruiz PPrez, Ndoye, Eyebe and Puntodewo

analysis of these relationships is based on three basic models developed in the 19" and early 20th centuries by von Thiinen (zonal model along transportation axis), Weber (isocost surfaces based on different production factors) and Christaller (central place theory, based on a spatial hierarchy from villages to metropolis) (Healey and Ilbery 1990). Four main market features are particularly affected by their spatial characteristics: supply, demand, transportation costs and different types of relationships among market players that are normally termed 'linkages' in economic geography (Berry, Conkling and Ray 1976, Healey and Ilbery 1990).

Yet, although NTFP production and market studies normally discuss some spatial characteristics that influence the commercialisation of NTFP (like distance, transport infrastructure, forest distribution, population size), this is achieved in an ad hoc way and is very rarely formally incorporated in the analysis (see Dufournaud er al. 1995, Gunatilake 1994, Ntamag 1997, Wickramasinghe, Ruiz PBrez and Blockhus 1996 for some examples mainly related to distance). Therefore, most of the results from NTFP market analysis tend to be non-spatial, and their conclusions and recommendations often fail adequately to account for the spatial structure of markets, the factors characterising different types of markets, their links, and areas of influence. A proper understanding of the above features not only complements the above studies of forest products markets and their potential, but also allows for more targeted policy interventions, which are crucial in reconciling livelihood improvement and forest conservation.

In the present paper we develop a characterisation of NTFP markets from the humid forest zone (HFZ) of Cameroon with an explicit spatial component. The first section offers an overview of the importance of NTFP and their markets in the region. Section two presents the methodology of the study. Section three uses a network and market size analysis to categorise different markets. Section four conducts a cluster and ANOVA analysis to classify the markets and identify their differentiating variables. The last section combines the different analyses to provide a joint perspective for a spatial characterisation of NTFP markets in Carneroon, and discusses some of its implications.

THE HUMID FOREST ZONE O F CAMEROON AND NTFP MARKETS

The humid forest zone (HE) of Cameroon is part of the Central African Tropical Humid Forest that covers about 280 million ha, and constitutes the second largest humid forest in the world after the Amazon (FAO 1995, Talbott 1993). The Cameroonian forest is considered the most diverse of all Central African forests (Alpert 1993, Tchoungui er al. 1995) and this diversity has offered opportunities for the people to use a wide variety of resources both of plant and animal origin (Doucet and Koufani 1997, Koppert et al. 1993, Ngala 1997, Shiembo 1995).

However, the availability of these resources has been feduced owing m high deforestation rates resulting from a

combination of internal (population growth, agricultural development, new transport infrastructure) and external (economic crisis, devaluation of the Franc CFA (CommunautC Financikre Africaine), structural adjustment) factors (Ndoye and Kaimowitz 1998, Oyono 1997, Talbott 1993). The competition between traditional users and loggers, who tend to leave part of the forest damaged and unavailable for the extraction of NTFP, has also had a negative effect on NTFP harvesting (Nef 1997). Furthermore, there are trees that are valuable both for NTFP and timber thereby creating conflicts between traditional users and logging companies. The case of moabi (Baillonella toxisperma Pierre) is very revealing as described by several authors (Schneemann 1995, Verhagen and Enthoven 1993).

Given the cultural and ecological affinities of the Central- West African region, some of these resources like the wild mango (Irvingia spp.), African pear (Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H.J. Lam.), koko leaves (Gnetum spp.), kola nut (Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott et Endl. and Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott et Endl.), bitter kola (Garcinia kola Heckel), njansang (Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Pierre ex Heckel), and palm fruits (Elaeis guineensis Jack.) are frequently found and consumed in most countries (see Chabot 1997, Falconer 1992, Herzog, Gautier-Biguin and Miiller 1996, Lahm 1993, Okafor 1980, Shiembo, Newton and Leakey 1996). Biogeo- graphical, phenological and socioeconomic factors create the conditions for a complementarity in supply and demand of products, giving rise to a thriving regional market with spatially and temporally specialised exchanges (Ndoye and Ruiz PCrez 1999, Oyep and Kamanda 1996, Silou 1996). Certain forest commodities with relatively high value by volume and strong cultural significance (like Dactyodes edulis, Gnetum spp. and Irvingia spp.) enjoy a transcontinental market, being regularly traded between Central-West African countries and the major European cities with populations of this descent (Ladipo 1998, Mialoundama 1993, Tabuna 1999).

The NTFP markets in the HFZ of Cameroon revolve around the buyam-sellam (literally buyers-sellers) in their various categories. These tend to be women who may specialise in a few NTFP or may deal with a large variety of NTFP and agricultural commodities. They organise both the physical arrangement of the marketplace (through the 'market cheftaine' or traditional leader, normally a woman trader from the town where the market is located), as well as the informal financing (and sometimes market information) networks, called 'tontines' (a type of rotating credit; see Nzemen 1993) in francophone Cameroon. The buyam- sellam play an intermediary (linking supply with demand) role and, in most cases, also do sorting, grading, and some degree of processing (Fereday, Gordon and Oji 1997, Ndoye, Ruiz PCrez and Eyebe 1997).

The HFZ of Cameroon includes 60% of the total population of the country (Pokam 1997), and most of its medium and large cities have markets with some level of specialisation on NTFP. Frequency and regularity of these markets depends on the size of the town. They formally fall under the responsibility of the local authorities, but in

Characterisation of NTFP markets in Camemon 73

practice the traders manage them informally through rules and allocation of space mutually agreed by all traders. They have to pay a market entrance fee and, when they use a permanent storage-selling facility, a stall fee. A survey of a large number of markets in the HFZ of Cameroon estimated that the half year value of transactions (recording part of the seasonal variation of the market) amounted to at least US$1.75 million, of which around 6% is exported to neighbouring countries (Ndoye, Ruiz PCrez and Eyebe 1998). This trade, referred only to half year value in the Humid Forest Zone, is larger than the total yearly sales for the whole country of agricultural commodities like pineapple, watermelon or green beans, and smaller than the yearly country trade of avocado, mango or tomatoes (Temple 1999).

METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

In order to secure a wide coverage of the HFZ a total of 3 1 markets from the 5 provinces (Centre, South, East, Littoral and South-West) were selected based on criteria of significance, representativeness and accessibility. These markets were surveyed in two consecutive years, 1995 and 1996, each time during the period January-July. On average, the markets were visited twice during 1995 and three times during 1996. Due to logistic difficulties and a reduced number of interviews in some cases, comparative data for the two years were obtained for only 25 markets, and these were retained for the present analysis. However, since the questionnaires included information about the original place of purchase of the product, these 25 selling markets can be spatially related to 120 localities of origin, or buying places.

Two large cities, Douala and YaoundC. have more than one NTFP market in their metropolitan area. The market studied in Douala was the large market of New Bell, whereas in YaoundC the large urban market of Mfoundi and the suburban market of Mokolo were selected; they play different roles and their data have been maintained separately for the analysis.

The number of traders interviewed in the 25 markets was 253 in 1995 and 3 15 for 1996. They were selected randomly

and, after explaining the purpose of the study, a questionnaire was administered to those traders willing to cooperate. Those who, for various reasons (mainly suspicion of government officials or tax collectors), were not willing to cooperate were replaced using again a random sample approach. Data were checked during the interview against standardised values (such as prevalent prices and costs) and in the case of strong departures traders were asked to explain the reasons. The total number of traders operating in these markets (based on an estimate provided by each of the traders interviewed) was l101 (S.E. of the mean = 27. l), with the average number interviewed representing 26% of the traders operating in the markets studied.

The questionnaires included general information about the market and its operations (e.g. number of traders, size, frequency, taxes, years of operation), about the traders themselves (e.g. age, gender, family status, education level, ethnic origin), and detailed information for each of the products being sold (e.g. amount, buying price, different components of the cost structure, selling price, date and place where bought, type of supplier, transport arrangements, financing, storing, spoilage, processing, etc). In order to improve the projections, several recall questions related to quantity and price of previous months were included.

Each product was recorded separately for each trader in order to allow for product-based calculations. In this way, a total of 1568 valid records were obtained, and the following results are based on their combined analysis.

MARKET SIZE AND NETWORK

Nine products comprise the bulk of the NTFP trade in these 25 markets of the HFZ of Cameroon, accounting for more than 95% of the total NTFP trade (see Table I). This refers to products commonly traded in the marketplace. There are some products, such as the bark of Prurlus africana (Hook. f) Kalkman which is used in the treatment of prostate problems, that can be economically very important (see Cunningham and Mbenkum 1993), but are usually exported and traded through direct arrangements. Others, like rattan (Laccosperma

TABLE 1 The nine dominant NTFP in the markets of the humid forest zone of Cameroon

Product Uses Habitat

Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H.J. Lam. Garcinia kola Heckel (fruit) Garcinia kola Heckel (bark) Garcinia lucida Vesque (bark) Gnerum africanunl Welw. Gnerunl buchholzianurn Engl. Irvingia gabonensis (Aubrey-Lecomte ex 0. Rorke) Baill Irvingia wonlbolu (Vermoesen) Cola crcutninara (p Beauv.) Schott et Endl. Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott et Endl. Elueis grcineensis Jack. Ricinodendron heudelorii (Baill.) Pierre ex Heckel

food medicine, stimulant medicine. palm wine medicine, palm wine food )condiment 1 )medicine, stimulant 1 food, palm wine condiment

secondary forest, farms, fallow primary & secondary forest, farms primary & secondary forest, farms primary & secondary forest secondary forest, fallow primary & secondary forest, farms, fallow

secondary forest, farms, fallow

farm, fallow, secondary forest, primary & secondary forest, farm, fallow

Sources: based on survey results, Ntamag 1997, Vivien and Faure 1985, Wilkie and Buccowich 1998.

76 Ruiz Pe'rez, Ndoye, Eyebe and Puntodewo

S- - - - - - - - - .

A I

I Abang Minko / I I

I I I I

! I

/ FRONTIER I ! I I I I I

j + Zoatele / I A Kenzou l \ A Kve-Ossi l

;* \ X Saa 1 Bafia l

Edea Mokolo * l l * I * Ebolowa / I Ombessa

Sangmelima *

! l

I

I . . . Bertoua

T Abong bang' ,;

percent supplied from the same area

FIGURE 3 Scatterplot of size of market and degree of self-sufficiencj Large urban markets ; * Regional markets ; + Local markets ; A Frontier markets

TABLE 2 List of variables used in the characterisation of markets

Variable

Dacryodes edulis Garcinia kola fruit Garcinia kola bark Garcinia lucida Gnetum spp. lrvingia spp. Cola spp. Eleais guineensis Ricinodendron heudelorii Total value Total quantity Total net margins Number of traders Distance Storing days Costs at origin Transportation costs Costs at destination Taxes Sex ratio Household status Education level Level of spoilage Product processing Seasonal transport problems Participation in tontines Market knowledge Finmcing

Description

value, volume, net profits of Dacnodes value, volume, net profits of Garciniu kola fruit value, volume. net profits of Garcirlia kola bark value, volume, net profits of Garcinin lucida value, volume, net profits of Gnetum spp. leaves value, volume, net profits of Irvirtgia spp. value, volume, net profits of Cola acumirma and C. rtitida value, volume, net profits of Oil Palm nuts value, volume, net profits of Ricinodendrort heudelotir total value of NTFP sold in the market total volume of NTFP sold in the market total net margins obtained from selling NTFP in the market number of traders operating in the market average distance from selling market to the market where the product was bought average number of days for products stored transaction costs at origin per unit of product transportation costs per unit of product transaction costs at destination per unit of product taxes paid per trader % of female traders % traders as household head % traders with medium to high education (versus illiterate or low education) % of traders that have suffered spoilage of their products % traders doing some processing (sorting, grading, cleaning) % traders with seasonal transportation problems % traders participating in tontines 9% traders knowing prices and functioning of local and nearby markets % traders needing financing for their purchases

Characterisation of NTFP markets in Cameroon 77

CLASSIFICATION OF NTFP MARKETS

The information contained in the questionnaires was used to prepare a matrix describing the markets based on a combined set of attributes. These included features of the traders, the products and the markets themselves (see Table 2).

In order to classify the markets a cluster analysis was conducted. Cluster analysis is a multidimensional analysis technique that groups cases based on their commonalities for a set of attributes. The steps to conduct a cluster analysis include the preparation of a matrix of cases described by a common set of variables, the calculation of a matrix of similarity by pairs of cases (using correlation, Euclidean distance or other similarity index) and the grouping of cases following a set of mathematical rules (algorithm).

In our study the markets were characterised using the average value for each of the variables recorded in the questionnaire. Data for the value, volume, and net profit of each of the products were entered as the percentage market share that agiven product represents in the total being sold in that market. This step was undertaken in order to represent the product specialisation of each market and to avoid a trivial classification based only on absolute market size, although information about market size was also included in the variables total value, volume, net margins and number of traders. The data were z-standardised for each of the variables. The cluster analysis was based on a Pearson correlation coefficient as similarity matrix and UPGMA (Unweighted Pair Group with Mathematical Average) as grouping algorithm, commonly used in cluster analysis and producing robust classifications (Everitt 1993, Sneath and Sokal 1973).

The North and South markets

The cluster analysis separates two groups of markets based on the combined attributes. The projection of these two

North -. W

South

0 Northern markets A Southern markets

FIGURE 4.1 Spatial projection of the two ntain cluster groups of markets

groups onto the map of the HFZ (Figure 4.1) clearly indicates a spatial split along a NE-SW line passing below the YaoundC-Douala axis, with the exception of Limbe. For the sake of simplification we shall refer to them as the North and South groups.

An ANOVA test comparing the values of the variables for each of the two groups identifies the variables with statistically significant mean differences (Table 3). This is used to find out which variables are responsible for the split between the North and South group of markets identified by the cluster analysis. In order to analyse the product differentiation and its spatial distribution we calculated an index of product diversification for each of the markets based on the Shannon-Weaver entropy formula (Shannon and Weaver 1963). In the present case the index would rank between 0 for a market that only deals with one product an1 3.17 for a market with exactly the same contribution to the total value of NTFP by each of the nine products. This product diversity index was also compared using the ANOVA test.

As is shown, the two groups of markets have a strong spatial specialisation on different types of products. Thus, Dacryodes and Gnetum dominate in the northern markets, which tend to be larger, whereas Garcinia lucida, Garcinia kola, Irvingia and palm nut are relatively more abundant in the southern markets, which tend to be smaller. This product differentiation directly reflects the abundance and quality of forests in each of the areas. In the northern half of the HFZ of Cameroon there is less primary or little disturbed forest (see Sayer, Varcourt and Collins 1992, Thenkabail 1995), and more products that are mainly planted, as in the case of Dacryodes, or that are common and easily harvested in secondary forests or fallow lands like the climber Gneturn. Conversely, Irvingia, Garcinia kola and especially Garcinia lucida come from less disturbed forests (Ntamag 1997), more abundant in the southern part of the HFZ of Cameroon. This differentiation also has acultural base, as for Gneturn that can

North

South A

l

Guinea ' ,'

North urban South con 0 Notth rural A South periphery

FIGURE 4.2 Spatial projection of the six cluster subgroups

78 Ruiz P&rez, Ndoye, Eyebe and Puntodewo

TABLE 3 ANOVA of the North and South groups of markets

Variable North group (mean) South group (mean) F value Probability

Dacryodes value Dacryodes quantity Garcinia kola margin Garcinia lucida quantity Gnetum value Gnetum quantity Gnetum margin Iwingia value Iwingia quantity lrvingia margin Palm nut quantity Total value (million CFA) Total quantity Number of traders Distance Storing days Taxes Transport problems Product diversity

Note: only variables with probability 5 0.05 are included in the table .

be found in the southern part but is frequently ignored by the local population, being used there mainly by outsiders or migrants from other regions (Nef 1997).

Product differentiation affects storage time, with more perishable products such as Gnetunt and Dacryodes that are commonly traded in the North group of markets having a faster turnover than products like the kernel of Irvingin spp. that, properly treated, can be stored for more than one year.

The differences in average distance from the source of supply to the selling place are the combined result of the more perishable products (common in the North) being transported a smaller distance, and spatial factors related to concentration of population and towns/villages. The noticeably higher concentration ofpopulation and settlements in the northern than in the southern part results also in shorter travel distances.

In spite of the above spatial characteristics, and the fact that the South has a generally poorer infrastructure than the North, more than half of the traders interviewed indicated they have seasonal transportation problems in the North. In the South this was mentioned by fewer than one-third of the traders interviewed. This difference, however, does not necessarily imply that the transportation system is better in the South than in the North. Rather, it indicates difficulties in hiring transportation by traders, who almost always rely on paying for the service of vans or small trucks to meet their needs. From the explanations given by traders, supplemented by our own experience, this seems to be related to a more specialised transportation system in the North, with a significant part devoted exclusively to transporting people. The generally larger size of business in the North tends to require special chartered arrangements to transport the products, resulting in more competition between transporting

people and different agricultural and forest products. The result is transport bottlenecks in the peak season for some NTFP. The southern part, less populated and with poorer infrastructure, has a less specialised transportation system, where people and goods are frequently carried in the same vehicle. In addition, the size of trade is smaller and there is less competition between different types of commodities. It is therefore easier to find suitable transport for the NTFP being traded in this area, and the responses of traders reflected this situation.

The taxes paid per trader are also significantly higher in the South than in the North despite the fact that the latter is considerably richer than the South. This is a result of the taxation system, rather than a geographical differentiation in taxation policies in Cameroon. In fact, taxes are normally collected per day of entry in the marketplace and, since the products in the South tend to have slower turnover, they are ultimately taxed more heavily than the products in the North. This is because they stay in the market longer and traders need to attend more regularly to try to sell their products. A comparison of the taxes being paid with average turnover days of the products shows the opposite distribution, with higher taxes per day for the product staying in the market in the North (average of 43.2 CFA per day) as compared with the taxes in the South (average of 25.2 CFA per day), although the difference is not statistically significant owing to high variability within each group.

Product diversity

The ANOVA test shows that the North group of markets has higher product diversity than the South. This difference in product diversity could be due to spatial differences of forest

Characterisation of NTFP markets in Cameroon 79

quality and coverage, but it could also reflect the structural difference in size of the markets, which is significantly greater in the North group than in the South. Larger markets would be expected to have a wider range of products, the larger number of traders allowing for some intra-market specialisation. To test this, we have used two non-linear regression models (see Figures 5.1 and 5.2). Product diversity as dependent variable and number of traders (as an indication of the size of the market) can be related through an exponential model of the type

Diversity = e(a/size + b)

(a = -17.42 and b = 0.49) showing a good fit (R2 = 0.640, F = 40.91, p < 0.001). The regression has been tested for sensitivity to outliers. We considered four outliers, two on each extreme of the curve, and regressions were run removing the two extremes and one by one from high to low values. The model is moderately sensitive to outliers, maintaining its shape and high R2 and significance values (albeit with a gradual decrease) when we remove the two extremes and one, two and three outliers, and changing shape and losing statistical significance when we remove four. Based on this model, larger markets appear to offer a more diversified supply than smaller ones, again supporting the predictions of central place theories.

Urban - rural and core - periphery divisions

0 100 2W

number 01 traders

FIGURE 5.1 Non-linear regression of product diversity on market size

001 . , , , , , , , , , , 0 100 200

number of traders

FIGURE 5.2 Non-linear regression of trader specialisation on market size

The degree of trader specialisation can be measured as the ratio between the number of products that a given trader sells and the total number of products being sold in that market. This ratio shows an inverse relationship of the type

Specialisation ratio = alsize + b

(a = 5.48 and b = 0.21) also with a good fit (RZ = 0.738, F = 64.74, p<0.001). This model has also been tested for sensitivity to outliers. It shows a more robust response, nbt changing shape and maintaining high R2 and significance (again with a gradual decrease) when removing up to three outliers, and the same shape but on the limit of statistical significance when removing the four outliers. The model shows that as the size of the market grows, traders tend to become more specialised with regard to their reference market, dealing with a smaller subset of the total number of products being sold in the market.

Thus, the higher degree of product diversity in the North group of markets seems to be adequately explained by their generally larger size (which favours demand segmentation, trader specialisation and diversity of supply) rather than by the availability of forest resources in the surrounding areas. This availability in the case of large markets can be partially offset by travelling further to access a larger range of products.

Each of the two main groups of markets identified in the cluster analysis can be divided into three other subgroups. The projection of these subgroups onto the map of the HFZ of Cameroon appears in Figure 4.2. In the North group there is a clear distinction between the large urban markets of the YaoundC-Edea-Douala axis and the rest, dominated by the regionally important markets of the Centre province (Bafia, Saa, Ombessa, Obala) and Buea, in the vicinity of Douala. The ANOVA test (Table 4) indicates that, for the split between the two main subgroups in the North markets, two products, Dacyodes (relatively more important in the large urban markets) and Gnetum (relatively more important in the rest), are significantly different. This does not mean that Gnetum is not sold in the large urban markets, but rather that its weight in them is overshadowed by the much greater importance of Dacryodes, a typical urban product considered a delicacy.

Likewise, the large urban group has higher total taxes, although again, due to different product storage periods, this difference is not significant when comparing the taxes paid per day in the market. The cost at the origin also shows a significant difference between the two groups, indicating that in large urban markets traders face higher handling costs at the source where products are collected. Finally, there is also a significant difference in level of knowledge about the market, being substantially lower in the larger urban markets than in the rest.

The clustering of markets in the South separates a group of markets which is closer to the centre and generally larger

80 Ruiz Phez, Ndoye, Eyebe and Puntodewo

TABLE 4 ANOVA of the two main subgroups in the North markets

Variable

Dacryodes quantity Gnetum value Gnetum quantity Gnetum margins Taxes Cost origin Market knowledge

Large urban

markets (mean)

49.0 0.4

24.0 1.1

181.9 235.6 38.7

Other markets (mean)

F value

80.48 1 9.074

31.870 1 1.033 10.095 6.956 6.015

Probability

0.000 0.020 0.001 0.013 0.016 0.034 0.044

around the regionally important Ebolowa-Mbalmayo- Abang Minko axis (we shall call them core) from the more peripheral markets of the South and the East, plus Limbe. Kenzou, a distant, small market in the East group specialised in the trade of Cola spp. with the Central African Republic, clearly appears as an outlier. The comparison between the two main subgroups of the South (Table 5) indicates a predominance of Garcinia lucida and Cola spp. in the core markets compared with Irvingia spp. and Ricinodendron in the peripheral markets. The core group has a statistically significant higher product diversity than the periphery group, which is consistent with the above discussion on product diversity. The core group also has larger markets, with more traders being household heads and having a better knowledge of the market than the group at the periphery.

neighbouring markets selling NTFP, but no detailed knowledge of them; and 3 = knowledge of local market and neighbouring markets' prices, with regular visits to them). For each of the 25 markets, we calculated the average market knowledge of the traders interviewed, and used this average to analyse spatial differences.

Market knowledge shows significant differences between groups in both comparisons, and seems to behave in opposite ways. In the two main subgroups of the North cluster, traders from the large urban markets generally have less knowledge than those from the smaller ones about the surrounding areas. In contrast, in the South cluster the larger core markets have more knowledge than the smaller, peripheral ones. We have explored the behaviour of this variable using multiple regression models. Following the current understanding of market functioning, several independent variables have been tested, including market size (number of traders and value of sales), average distance from where the products were obtained, level of education, gender composition of the traders and their age, as well as their household status. Table 6 shows the results of the model of best fit. Given the heteroscedasticity of the data with regard to market size, a weighted least square regression (weighted by total value sold in each market) has been used. A sizeldistance ratio interaction variable has been included in the model to account for non-linear interactions between these two variables.

TABLE 6 Regression model for the degree of marker knowledge

N = 25 R?= 0.525 Adjusted R? = 0.430 F = 5.534 p = 0.004

TABLE 5 ANOVA of core versus periphery markets in the South group of markets

Variable B Beta t Probability coefficient standardised

B) Variable Core Periphery F value Probability

(mean) (mean)

Garcinia lucida 52.5 0.5 28.885 0.000 quantity Intingia spp. 17.1 49.7 8.021 0.016 quantity Cola value 18.4 1.13 18.322 0.001 Cola margins 19.6 1.6 19.838 0.001 Ricinodendron 6.3 34.6 4.983 0.047 value Total quantity 769.3 138.4 19.616 0.001 Household status 25.5 4.9 12.588 0.005 Market knowledge 58.2 29.4 5.591 0.038 Product diversity 1.20 0.62 12.532 0.005

Market knowledge

Knowledge of the market by traders, consistently regarded as one of the key elements to improve market functioning and its potential development, was measured using a four-class ordinal scale (0 = lack of knowledge of local prices and traders; l= detailed knowledge of local prices and traders; 2

knowledge of local market, plus identification of

Log number of -52.309 -0.870 -3.392 0.003 traders Log distance -3 1.693 -0.499 -2.080 0.05 1 Education level 0.429 0.333 1.433 0.167 Sizeldistance ratio 2.804 0.793 3.198 0.005

E-05 Constant 209.014 4.506 0.000

From Table 6, it can be seen that size of the market and distance the products are transported have a negative influence on the level of knowledge, whereas the level of education has a positive, though smaller, impact. The size1 distance interaction variable also has a positive effect. This model helps to understand the apparently contradictory behaviour between the North and South markets with regard to the degree of market knowledge. Thus, although the urban markets in the North group are larger than the surrounding markets of the same region, this is compensated by the greater distance needed to transport the product. This situation is actually the reverse in the South group of markets, whereas the smaller, peripheral markets at the same time rely on more

82 Rulz Pifrez, Ndoye, Eyebe and Puntodewo

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84 Intemational Forestry Review 2(2), 2000

Comparison of growth of Pinus radiata over two rotations in the central North Island of New Zealand

R. C. WOOLLONS

School of Forestry, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand r. woollons@fore.canterbury.ac.nz

SUMMARY

A series of 33 replacement plots, first established in 1933, is available to assess the growth of Pinus radiata over two rotations in forests around Tokoroa, in the Central North Island of New Zealand. The New Zealand forestry sector is now required to produce evidence of sustainability; accordingly data on their growth assume a special significance. The second set of plots was re-established on exactly the same sites as the first in the early 1970's. Analyses of mean top height growth irrefutably demonstrate that height growth is ahead for the second rotation; at site index age 20 by over three metres. The basal area data are difficult to analyse, but it is very probable that basal area growth is higher in the second rotation. Growth of the second crop trees has not been enhanced by fertilisers, herbicides or better establishment practices, and superior genetic stock is not a contributing factor. These results are not used to claim soil amelioration; instead the faster growth in the second rotation may be attributed to more favourable climatic conditions.

Keywords: productivity, rotation yields, Pinus radiata.

INTRODUCTION REPLACEMENT PLOT DATA

Epic and extensive accounts of the first Pinus radiata plantings around Tokoroa, central North Island by Perpetual Forests Ltd. and at Kaingaroa by the New Zealand Forest Service (NZFS) have been given by Jones (1928), Healy (1982), Roche (1990) and Boyd (1992). At an early forest owners meeting it was agreed it would be advantageous to install a series of permanent sample plots in the plantations, but with severe financial restraints prevailing only Perpetual Forests were able to carry this through (J. E. Henry, formerly N. Z. Forest Products Ltd., pers. cornm.; Perpetual Forests were bought by N. Z. Forest Products in 1936). Between 1933 and 1936 seventy plots were established throughout their holdings. The plots were large (0.1 to 0.4 ha.) with wide surrounds, and many had their location accurately fixed through a standard survey benchmark using a theodolite. The Second World War disrupted periodic measurement even though some staff showed singular dedication by collecting data during 1943-1945, working in their own time and without any remuneration (J. E. Henry). Later, utilisation of these early data helped Clutter and Allison (1974) to construct what was for the time a sophisticated growth and yield simulator. Beginning in 1959 but mainly over the years 1968-1973, thirty-three plots, by then approaching 45-50 years, were clearfelled and carefully replanted on exactly the same sites as before. The majority of these second crop replacement plots (here so called) are currently approaching 30 years of age so that comparisons of growth and yield over two rotations are feasible.

The replacement plot data and analyses of the measurements are described and summarised, and the results discussed.

The plots lie in forests around Tokoroa that were established initially on young, weakly weathered volcanic soils which, although a little marginal for nitrogen and possibly magnesium, otherwise have adequate nutrient supplies (Will 1985) and certainly have sufficient soil moisture (Will and Stone 1967). Annual rainfall is currently around 1300- 1600 mm and the growth of the forests is good, with mean annual increments between 22 and 28 m' ha-' y-l (Woollens, unpublished CHH data).

The 1926 plantings were at a spacing of 8 X 8 feet (1680 stems ha-') but after observations of 'extremely rapid growth' this was changed in 1927 to 9 X 9 feet (1330 stems ha - l )

(Jones 1928, Healy 1982 ). By the time twenty-nine of the replacement plots were installed and at ages'of between 6 and 9 years, loss of trees and deviations from the nominated planting spacings had resulted in an average stocking of 1350, ranging from 1072-2273 stems ha-'. Four more plots were not installed and measured until 1457- 1960, by then 23 to 27 years old; these had stockings between 266 and 595 stems ha-'. I

Each replacement (second crop) plot was replanted at the same initial stocking as its corresponding first rotation counterpart, but because of seedling deaths and copious regeneration this spacing was very difficult to maintain. Removal of the regeneration was attempted in many plots on 2 or 3 occasions, but with mounting concerns that weed growth would be removed as well the practice was not pursued (in general, the first crop was not released from competing vegetation). The second crop was beaten up when required, as when the bark beetle Hylastes ater (Milligan 1978) caused somedeaths. At age 5 the replacement plots had

86 Woollons

The respective data were modelled to produce two projection equations that predict mean top height (H, in metres) at later ages (T), given the actual height (H,) at an early age (T,). No single functional form was found that adequately modelled both rotations. Ultimately, the Schumacher equation (Clutter 1963) was adopted for the first rotation, while a Hossfeld model (Woollons et al. 1990) was used for the second. The models are:

First rotation

Second rotation

Entering the average (for both rotations) initial height value of 7 metres at age 6 and projecting this to site index age 20 through (1) and (2) gives estimated site indices of 29.0 and 32.8 m. A more stringent analysis is obtained by examining each plot-pair. For each rotation, site index was estimated either by direct measurement (35 96 of the data) or predicted through equations ( I ) and (2). For the latter, the big majority of plots were extrapolated less than +_ 2 years.

The respective indices were then analysed by a paired t- test. The hypothesis of no difference in site index by rotation is rejected (p< 0.0001). Estimated average indices are:

First rotation 29. l m Second rotation 32.6 m

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

AGE ON YEARS

FIGURE 4 Development of net basal area (mZ ha") for the first rotation

Basal area per ha

Figure 4 shows the net basal area development for the first rotation; the fall in basal area around age 20 is due to the sharp loss of suppressed trees caused by Sirex infestation.

These complex growth paths make comparison with the second crop very difficult. Use of top-element basal area was considered, for example, basal area of the 200 largest diameter stems ha-', but this has a differential effect on the two crops, the second having a generally higher stocking, and thus lower top-element basal area (Woollons and Whyte 1990). Finally, gross basal area per ha was adopted. Gross is defined as all trees in a plot as from planting: if any tree dies, its basal area at the time of death is carried forward for all subsequent measures.

A yield model:

where GgrcBs = gross basal area, m2 ha-] T = stand age Rotdu, is a dummy variable, = 1 for the second rotation, = 0 otherwise

gave a satisfactory fit of the data, as assessed by residual plots. Figure 5 shows the estimated average yields for the two rotations.

A more stringent analysis involved building projection equations for each rotation.

SECOND ROTATION , - ',

,/ ' FIRST ROTATION

AGE IN YEARS

FIGURE 5 Development of gross basal area (m2 ha-') for both rotations

Growth of Pinus radiata over 2 rotations 87

First rotation G gr,,,s = e x p ( l o g ( G , ) ( T , ~ T ) ~ ~ ~ ~ + (4.086 + 0.026s)

(1 -(T,/T)O Y7y)) (4)

Second rotation G g,,Bs = exp(log(G,)((T, -3.1)/(T - 3.1 ))o.405 +

5.655(1 - ((T, -3.l)/(T - 3.1))O."')) (5) where G , = initial gross basal area, m? ha-l and in (4) S = site index, m

Models (4) and (5) were then utilised to estimate gross basal area at ages 20 and 30 for each plot and rotation. (For a majority of the plots the degree of extrapolation was less than 2 years). These figures were in turn each used in a paired t- test, testing for differences between the two rotations. The effect was significant (p < 0.03 and 0.02 respectively) with higher basal areas present for the second crop, at both ages. The gross basal area ha-l averages indicate gains of 3.5 to 4 %, but interpretation is difficult in view of the complex mortality patterns present.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Concerns that successive pine crops may adversely affect soils and site productivity in New Zealand have been expressed for many years. As early as 19 14 Cockayne tried to dispel fears of '..Pinus radiata (as) a great soil-exhauster' and produced photographic evidence that grass and other plants were thriving on a site which earlier had carried a radiata stand for 35 years. Whyte (1973) found some evidenceof productivity loss on infertileMoutere gravel soils but concluded the losses were largely transient. Some speculative material has emerged (see, for example, citations in Will and Ballard 1976, Janssen 1992), however Dyck and Skinner (1990) gave an objective review. Major second rotation productivity losses have been claimed for Pinus radiata at Mount Gambier, South Australia (Keeves 1966, Bednall 1968), but these were later attributed to consequences of slash burning on infertile podsolised sands (Squire et al. 1985, Nambiar in Evans 1997), while Morris and Miller (1994) queried whether in fact the data were comprehensive enough to infer site productivity change.

For other species, studies of growth over successive rotations have recently been reported by, among others, Eriksson and Johansson (1993, Picea abies in Sweden) and Evans (1996, Pinus patula in Swaziland). Such studies require measurement and remeasurement of trees on sites representative of different rotations. A distinction has been drawn between so-called 'matched' and 'same-site' plots (Squire et al. 1985, Morris and Miller 1994). 'Matched' implies a pair of plots, one each established at two locations, considered equivalent by edaphic criteria. The respective locations however, will have supported a different number of rotations of trees of the same species. Both plots are measured over the same period. In contrast, same-site plots are established and later re-established on the same location, but are measured consecutively. Squire et al. (1979) outline

the merits and defects of the two types of plots. Matched plots are liable to suffer from not accurately equating similar soil types while same-site plots may be confounded by climatic changes, but, overall, same-site plots are considered preferable (Keeves 1966, Evans 1996). The difficulties of matching like soils implies that a large number of matched plots are prudent; Evans (1996) for example, utilised 92 pairs. Squire et. al. (1985) had the ideal situation of both types of plots being available.

The majority of published rotation studies have utilised matched plots; Keeves (1966) had a same-site series but few in number. The 33 Tokoroa replacement plots thus provide valuable measurements. Despite some problems in re- establishment and the periodic presence of pathogens (Evans (1 999) details problems in maintaining replacement plots), in terms of plot numbers, together with the frequency and duration of the measurements over two rotations, the data are very rare.

The analyses of the mean top height data show clearly the taller trees of the same age in the second rotation. Of the 33 pairs, thirty-one of the plots showed an increase in height at age 20. This result is most unlikely to be affected by either Sirex or Dothistroma attack. Rawlings and Wilson ( 1 95 1) confirmed that for Sirex 'trees killed were in an overwhelming majority of cases . .. suppressed trees', while Woollons and Hayward (1984) demonstrated that dominant trees were unaffected by Dothistroma. at least at early ages. This outcome is emphatically not interpreted as evidence of site quality improvement perhaps indicative of soil amelioration. It is not impossible, but there are no soil data available to justify any such conclusion. Moreover, this writer entirely agrees with the views of J. Grace, cited by Richardson et al. (1999) that site index is no real measure of productivity and 'there is no quantitative link between site index and sustainability'. In the same Tokoroa forests, Woollons and Will (1975) demonstrated a 8- 10 % increase in volume production can be obtained by application of nitrogenous fertilisers yet no increase in height was observed in several well-replicated experiments.

The basal area data are a near intractable set of measures to analyse satisfactorily. It is almost certain that basal area per ha is progressively higher in the second rotation but its magnitude is hard to estimate without some risk of confounding with the influence of Sirex and Dothistronla as well as the effects of different stockings. The use of gross basal area neatly converts the respective basal area yields to a comparable functional form but with more mortality occurring in the first rotation overall it is not clear whether this is an entirely unbiassed comparison.

There is no question of the second-crop plots having received better re-establishment or tending practice; no herbicides were utilised nor any fertilisers applied. Conceivably, better genetic stock might be a contributing factor, but after investigation as to the origin of the respective seed sources this is not considered likely. Seedlings of the original plantings came mainly from a nursery near Putaruru. Jones ( 1927) makes very clear the seed sources were within New Zealand, '... largely from mature stands in the

88 Woollons

neighbourhood where sawmills are operating. Cones are gathered in sacks ... are brought by the Company's motor lorries to Putaruru ...'. The stands that Jones refers to were from around Matamata and some selection criteria were applied (J. E. Henry) so it is reasonable to assign a genetic rating between GF1 to GF7 for this stock. (sensu Carson et al. 1999) ('GF' ratings are used in New Zealand to quantify genetically improved Pinus radiata; the higher the rating then better growth, form and wood characteristics are expected). The second-crop seedlings came mainly from N. Z. Forest Products Ltd. nursery at Athol, near Tokoroa, with the rest from Rangiora in the South Island. The last plots were re-established in 1973, so the highest rating possible is GF7, the so-called 'climbing-select'. Carson et al. (1999) show that comparisons between GF1 and GF7 indicate very similar growth rates.

One likely reason for enhanced growth is more favourable climatic conditions occurring during the second rotation. Sturman and Tapper (1996) show that the average New Zealand temperature over 1925- 1965 was around 12 degrees C. whereas between 1965-1990 it had risen to 12.6' C. Moreover, Figure 6 shows the annual rainfall at Kaingaroa Village (less than 50 km away) over much of the same period; the trend is clearly not stationary. The average rainfall for the period 1925-1965 was around 1450 mm per annum, whereas from 1965 onwards the average has been approximately 1550 mm. Logical relationships between Pirtus radiata growth and climate are well documented: see, for example, Jackson and Gifford (1974), Woollons et al. (1998) and Snowdon et al. (1999).

RAIN 2400 -

2200

2000

1800-

1600

14001

l200 1

1OOO

YEAR

FIGURE 6 Annual rainfall (mm) at Kaingaroa between 1914 and 1997

Richardson et al. (1999) explained that the New Zealand forestry sector is committed to sustainable forest management, and further, being a signatory to the 'Santiago Declaration' requires New Zealand to report with respect to sustainability based on seven criteria. Forest productivity is

one indicator of sustainability, so the data and results summarised here assume a special importance. This writer cannot agree with Richardson et al. that 'Forest productivity is easily measured ...' but concurs with their next statement that '.. the large amounts of productivity data already on databases are of questionable value in relation todetermining sustainability' . Accurate assessment of productivity of Pinus radiata over several rotations is a big task. It is possible, but the history of the data discussed here strongly suggests that considerable devotion and care is required as well as a degree of luck.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For historical aspects of this paper I am grateful to Tony Grayburn, Jack Henry, Peter McKelvey and Lindsay Poole, while I am obliged to Piers Maclaren, Roger Sands, and Peter Snowdon for informative technical discussions. Andrew Haywood and Peter Houston helped prepare the basic datasets while Brigid Robson pointed out their environmental significance. The paper was written while Visiting Scientist to The Division of Forest Research, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra, in October 1999; use of their library facilities is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

BEDNALL, B. H. 1968 The problem of lower volumes associated with second rotations in Pinus radiata plantations in South Australia. South Australian Woods and Forest Department Bulletin. No. 17. 12 pp.

BOYD, J . 1992 Pumice nndpines. New Zealand Forest Corporation Limited in association with GP Publications Limited.

CARSON, S. D., GARCIA, 0 . and HAYES, J. D. l999 Realised gain and prediction of yield with genetically improved Pinus radium in New Zealand. For: Sci. 45: 186-200.

CLUTTER, J. L. 1963 Compatible growth and yield models for loblolly pine. For. Sci. 9: 354-371.

CLUTTER, J. L. and ALLISON, B. J . 1974 A growth and yield simulator for radiata pine in New Zealand. In: FRIES, J . (ed.) Growth models for tree and stand simulation. Proceedings lUFRO Working Party S4.01-4 meetings, 1973. Department of Forest Yield Resources, Royal College of Forestry, Stockholm. Research Note 30. 379 pp.

COCKAYNE, A. H. 1914. Pinus radiaru plantations -effect on soil fertility. N. Z. Jnl Agric. 8: 409-410.

DYCK, W. J. and SKINNER, M. F. l990 Potential for productivity decline in New Zealand radiata pine forests. In:. KESSEL, S. P, LACATE, D. S., WEFTMAN G. F. and POWERS, C.F. Sustained productivity of forest soils. Proceedings of the 7th North American Forest Soils Conference, University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forest Publication, Vancouver, B.C. 525 PP.

ERIKSSON, H. and JOHANSSON, U. 1993 Yields of Norway spruce (Piceu abies (L.) Karst.) in two consecutive rotations in southwestern Sweden. Plant and Suit 1Sk 239-247.

EVANS, J. 1990 Long-term productivity of forest plantations - status in 1990. In: Proc. 14th IUFRO World Congress Montreal, Canada, 1990: 165- 1 80.

Growth of Pinus radiata over 2 rotations 89

EVANS, 1. 1996 The sustainability of wood production from plantations: evidence over three successive rotations in the Usutu forest, Swaziland. Commonw. For: Rev. 75: 234-239.

EVANS, J, l999 Sustainability of forest plantations: a review of evidence and future prospects. Internat. For: Rev. 1: 153-1 62.

GILMOUR, J. W. 1967 Distribution and significance of the needle blight of pines caused by Dothistroma pini in New Zealand. Plant Disease Reporter 51: 727-730.

HEALY, B. 1982 A hundred million trees: the story of N. Z. Products Limited. Hodder and Stoughton, Auckland. 219 pp.

JACKSON, D. S. and GIFFORD, H. H. 1974 Environmental variables influencing the growth of radiata pine. I. Periodic volume increment. N.Z. J. For: Sci. 4: 3-26.

JANSSEN, H. 1992 A place for pines. Terra Nova, June: 45-46. JONES. 0. 1927 An afforestation Company's operations in New

Zealand. Emp. For: Rev. 7: 64-75. KEEVES, A. 1966 Some evidence for the loss of productivity with

successive rotations of Pinus radiata in south east of South Australia. Aust. For: 30: 5 1-63,

MACLAREN, J. P. 1996 Environmental effects of planted forests in New Zealand. Forest Research Institute Bulletin No. 198. 180 PP.

MILLIGAN, R. H. 1978 Forest and timber insects in New Zealand. Forest Research Institute Pamphlet No. 29. 8 pp.

MORRIS, L. A. and MILLER, R. E. 1994 Evidence for long-term productivity change as provided by field trials. In: DYCK, W. J., COLE, D. W, and COMERFIELD, N.B. Impacts of forest hawesting on long-term siteproductiviry, Chapman and Hall, London. 304 PP.

RAWLINGS, G. B. 1948 Recent observations on the Sirex noctilio population in Pinus radiata stands in New Zealand. N. Z. Jnl For: 5: 411-421.

RAWLINGS, G. B. and WILSON, N. M. 1951 Sirex noctilio as a beneficial and destructive insect to Pinus radiata in New Zealand. N. Z. Jnl For: 8: 20-29.

RICHARDSON, B., SKINNER, M. F. and WEST, G. 1999 The role of forest productivity in defining the sustainability of plantation forests in New Zealand. For: Ecol. Manage. 122: 125-1 37.

ROCHE, M. l990 History of forestry. New Zealand Forestry Corporation Limited in association with GP Books. 466 pp.

SNOWDON, P., JOVANOVIC, T. and BOOTH, T. H. l999 Incorporation of indices of annual climatic variation into growth models for Pinus radiata. For: Ecol. Manage. 117: 187-1 97.

SQUIRE, R. O., FLINN, D. W, and FARRELL, P. W. 1979 Productivity of first and second rotation stands of radiata pine on sandy soils. 1. Site factors affecting early growth. Aust. For: 42: 226-235.

SQUIRE, R. O., FARRELL, P.W., FLINN, D. W. and AEBERLI. B. C. 1985 Productivity of first and second rotation stands of radiata pine on sandy soils. 11. Height and volume growth at five years. Aust. For. 48: 127-137.

STURMAN, A. and TAPPER, N. 1996 The weather and climate of Australia and New Zealand. Oxford University Press. 476 pp.

WHYTE, A. G. D. 1973 Productivity of first and second crops of Pinus radiata on the Moutere gravels soils of Nelson (New Zealand). N. Z Jnl For: 18: 87-103.

WILL, G. M. and STONE, E. L. 1967. Pumice soils as a medium for tree growth. 1. Moisture storage capacity. N. Z. Jnl For: 12: 189-199.

WILL, G. M. and BALLARD, R. 197'6 Radiata pine-soil degrader or improver? N.Z.. Jnl For: 21: 248-252.

WILL, G. M. 1985 Nutrient deficiencies and fertiliser use in New Zealand exotic forests. FRI Bulletin No. 97, Forest Research Institute, New Zealand Forest Service, Rotorua, New Zealand.

WOOLLONS, R. C. and WILL, G. M. 1975 Increasing growth in high production radiata stands by nitrogen fertilisers. N.Z. Jnl For. 20: 243-253.

WOOLLONS, R. C. and HAYWARD, W. J. 1984 Growth losses in Pinus radiata stands unsprayed for Dorhistromapini. N. Z. J. For: Sci. 14: 14-22.

WOOLLONS, R. C. and WHYTE, A. G. D. 1989 Analysis of growth and yield from three Kaingaroa thinning experiments. N. Z. Jnl For: 34: 12-15.

WOOLLONS, R. C., WHYTE, A. G. D. and LIU XU. 1990 The Hossfeld function: an alternative sigmoid function for depicting growth and yield. Jap. Jnl For 15: 25-35.

WOOLLONS, R. C., SANDS, R. and SNOWDON, P. 1998. Influence of climate on top height and diameter development in Pinus radiata forests in the Hawke's Bay region of New Zealand. Commonw. For: Rev. 77: 267-271.

90 International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000

Properties of a novel three-layer MDF panel made with wood and sisal nonwoven mattresses

PETER R. GILLAH, MARK A. IRLE and KEVlN MAHER Forest Products Research Centre, Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College, High Wycombe, Bucks HP1 I 2JZ, U. K. fprc@buckscol.ac. uk

SUMMARY

A series of novel three-layer medium density fibreboard (MDF) panels, with densities of 550, 650 and 750 kg m-', was produced under laboratory conditions by applying a nonwoven mattress to each side of a core layer made of wood fibres. The nonwoven mattress is a network of interlocked fibres made using a needleloom machine from a mixture of wood and sisal fibres. The dimensional and strength properties of the three-layer MDF panels were evaluated and compared to those of standard MDF panels produced under similar conditions. The modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), internal bond strength (IB) and surface soundness values of the three-layer MDF panels were found to be higher than those of the standard MDF panels. The thickness swelling, water absorption, irreversible thickness swelling and linear and thickness stability characteristics of the three-layer MDF panel were much improved over the standard MDF panel. Furthermore, the three-layer MDF panel had a strength retention value higher than that of standard MDF.

Keywords: nonwoven mattresses, sisal fibres, three-layer MDF, wood fibres.

INTRODUCTION

Medium density fibreboard (MDF) is a panel material made from lignocellulosic fibres, in most cases wood fibres, held together witha synthetic resin. The panels are normally made via the dry process, which involves drying the resinated fibres and then compressing them together at high temperatures and pressures. The panel is mainly used in the furniture industry. MDF panels are dimensionally unstable in the presence of moisture, with prolonged exposure leading to a reduction in strength properties such as modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE) and internal bond strength (IB). Furthermore, the bending strength, stiffness and long-term load carrying ability of MDF panels are generally inferior to those of sawn timber or plywood. The lower stiffness and high linear expansion of MDF panels have limited their respective uses in shelving and flooring applications (Mayner 1980, Schniewind 1989).

Several production techniques can be used to improve properties, especially the bending strength of MDF. According to Suchsland and Woodson (1990), bending strength tends to be higher in panels where the density is not evenly distributed, i.e. high surface density and lower core density. The density profile has a significant influence on most panel properties and can be altered by press parameters such as temperature, pressure and time (Platin and Schnitzler 1974). A rapid press closure rate or high press temperature tends to produce panels with high surface and low core densities, resulting in increased MOR and MOE values due to the correlation between the bending properties and the face density of the panels (Suchsland et al. 1978). Panels with

such density profiles have been found to be suitable for structural applications (Xu et al. 1996). The bending properties of most wood based panels can also be improved by reinforcing the surface layers of the panels with natural fibres (Barbu and Trogen 1996, Trogen and Wegener 1997).

Improving the bending strength of MDF panels through densification of the surface layers could, however, affect the panels' dimensional stability, especially the extent of thickness swelling in response to water. It appears that the high density surface regions make a disproporti~nate contribution to the overall water absorption and thickness swelling of MDF panels (Xu and Winistorfer 1995a,b, Winistorfer and Xu 1996). This is due to the greater amount of wood material per unit volume available for water uptake. It is, therefore, important to stabilise the high density surface layers of the MDF panel in order to improve its dimensional stability.

If the dimensional changes in the plane of MDF panels could be improved, then this would minimise problems when MDF is used as an industrial core stock, in flooring or for structural purposes (Suchsland 1978, Suchsland and Woodson 1990). Reinforcing wood fibres with agricultural plant fibres could also help to improve the linear stability of MDF panels (Zhang et al. 1996).

This paper investigates the possibility of improving both the bending properties and dimensional stability of MDF panels by incorporating a thiti nonwoven mattress in each of the product surface layers. Details are given of the manu- facture and properties of a novel three-layer MDF panel. The

92 Gillah. Irk and Maher

an environment of 65 ~t 2% relative humidity and 20 * 2°C. The panels were then cut into appropriate specimen sizes for the various EN standard tests: static bending (EN 310); internal bond (IB) strength (EN 319); water soak test to determine thickness swelling (TS), water absorption (WAB) and irreversible damage caused to the samples at different soak periods of 2,24 and 168 h (EN 3 17); linear and thickness stability tests from 35% to 85% relative humidity (EN 318); surface soundness (EN 311). The samples used for water soak test were conditioned (20°C, 65% relative humidity) to constant masses and used to determine the strength retention (EN 319).

Means and coefficients of variation (CoV) values were calculated for all the experimental data describing the various panel properties for each set of replicate specimens. Variation within each data set about the mean value is displayed as an error bar on the appropriate histogram. The mean values corresponding to the different panel types were compared at 0.05 confidence level using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 3 presents typical density profiles for the novel three- layer and standard MDF panels of the same target density (750 kg m-'). Due to the differences in forming of the two panel types, the density profiles might be expected to be different. This is because the surface layers of the three-layer MDF being nonwoven mattresses were structurally different and they had a lower moisture content (9.5%) than the wood fibre mattresses forming the core layer (11% moisture content). The lower moisture content was caused by the needle-punch forming method step. The lower surface moisture content is likely to reduce the rate of heat transfer into the core of the board (Kelly 1977, Boehme 1992). The different heating rate and the influence this has on the thickness of the mattress would affect the consolidation of the fibres and, therefore, alter the density profile. However, examination of the average density profiles for the two panel types (Figure 3) reveals no real differences. Table 2 shows the average peak densities of the top and the bottom layers of the two panel types and their overall core densities. The slight differences between the panels are not statistically significant. Consequently, any variation in the mechanical and physical properties of the panels cannot be attributed to these small differences in density profile, but rather upon surface layer reinforcement by the nonwoven mattresses. The reinforcement of the surface layers by the nonwoven mattresses originates from the increased interlocking of fibres in the mattresses. These allow sufficient stress transfer to the fibres and ultimately leads to fibre fracture, giving higher bending properties (Krzysik et al. 1990).

Table 3 summarises the static bending properties of the panels. As might be expected, three-layer panel density is positively correlated to the bending properties. Each increase in density gave a statistically significant increase in MOR and MOE. A number of researchers (Stevens and

Woodson 1977, Suchsland et al. 1978, Bonfield 1996) have reported similar trends for MDF panels. The low coefficient of variation (CoV) values for the three-layer MDF panels show that the bending properties were consistent within a panel type.

TABLE 2 Averagepeak and core densities of three-layer and standard MDF panels

Panel Nomina Average peak density, Average tY Pe Target kg m-' core

density density kg m-7 top bottom m.3

Three-layer 750 959 (2)" 972 (4) 636 (5) MDF

Standard 750 947 (5) 965 (6) 61 2 (10) MDF

Note: a. Values in parentheses are coefficients of variation (%).

1 0 4 10

0 2 4 6 8

Panel thickness (mm)

m r e e - l a y e r MDF - - . . . . SMDF

FIGURE 3 Density profile of the three-layer MDF and standard MDF panels

TABLE 3 Mean static bending properties of the three-layer and standard MDFpanels at a panel moisture content of 7%

Panel Nominal tY Pe density

kg m-'

Three-layer 750 MDF

650 550

Standard 750 MDF

Actual MORa MOEa density (Nmm-') (Nmw2) kg m-?

774 (6)@ 47 (7) 4021 (6)

Notes: a. Mean MOR and MOE values of three-layer MDF panels at 750 kg m-' density are significantly different from those of standard MDF panels at the same density (One-way Anova, otO.05).

b. Values in parentheses are ccrefticients of vaciatioo (5%).

3-layer MDF with wood and sisal mattresses 93

At a nominal panel density of 750 kg m-?, the three-layer MDF panel is significantly stronger and stiffer than the standard MDF. This could be due to the reinforcing effect at the surface layers imparted by the nonwoven mattresses (Krzysik et al. 1990, Grigoriou 1998). Nonwoven mattresses should be stronger because of the high length to diameter ratio of the sisal and the increased interlocking of sisal and wood fibres in the mattress. The interlocking of fibres should provide mechanical strength in addition to that derived from the adhesive.

Results of the internal bond strength tests for the different panels are presented in Table 4. Generally, the internal bond strength (IB) of the three-layer MDF panels decreased with decreasing panel density. This trend is typical for MDF panels (Schulte and Friihwald 1996). The three-layer MDF panels that had the same density as the standard MDF panels had significantly higher IB values. Since both panel types contained the same core material (wood fibre) and had the same core densities (Table 2), one might expect these panels to exhibit the same IB strength, but this was not the case. It is difficult to see how the presence of nonwoven mattresses could have influenced IB strength because specimen failure always occured in the core layer. However, the presence of the nonwoven mattresses may have affected the conditions inside the panel mattress during hot pressing. First, the moisture content of the nonwoven mattress was lower than the equivalent surface layer of the standard MDF. This will affect heat transfer from surface to core (Maloney 1993). This should result in a smaller difference between surface and core layer density, that is core density should be higher. Although higher core densities were observed, they are not significantly higher than those of the standard MDF. Similarly, the structure of the nonwoven mattress may affect the steam flow paths and this too would affect the transfer of heat from surface to core.

The conditions in a mattress during hot pressing are very complex, with many variables inter-dependent. It is possible that the inclusion of the nonwoven mattress had a net beneficial effect on adhesive curing and fibre consolidation mechanisms, i.e. the pressing step was optimised in some way. Without careful measurement of mattress conditions it is impossible to state why IB strength improved so dramatically.

TABLE 4 Mean internal bond strength (IB) values of the three- layer and standard MDFpanels

Nominal density Internal bond Panel type kg m-? strength"

(Nmm-2)

Three-layer MDF 750 0.61 (4) h

650 0.50 (3) 550 0.44 (5)

Standard MDF 750 0.53 (12)

Notes: a. The mean IB values of three-layer MDF panels at 750 kg m-3 density were significantly different from those of standard MDF panels at the same density (One-way Anova, K = 0.05).

b. Values in parentheses are coefficients of variation (70).

Table 5 summarises the results of thickness swelling (TS) and water absorption (WAB) for the three-layer and standard MDFpanels. The low CoV values demonstrate a low level of variation within each batch of like panels. The immersion period for a thickness swelling is often 24 hours. At the end of this period the thickness swelling of the three-layer panels was found to decrease with increasing panel density, with the TS of the 550 kg m-"panels being significantly higher than that of the 750 kg m-"panels. However, by the end of the full 168 h immersion period, panel thickness swell was found to increase with density. These trends are thought to be caused by the permeability of the samples. The high density samples are less permeable to water than the low density products, as shown by the WAB values, and this could cause the time effect observed here. At all water soak periods (2,24 and 168 h), the WAB of the three-layer MDF panels decreased with increasing panel density. A similar relationship was observed by Youngquist et a1 (1992). Although the high density samples contain more wood material, they absorb less water because they are more compact.

The higher ultimate thickness swelling of the high density panels is likely to be caused by the higher percentageof wood fibre per unit volume and the greater internal stresses established in the product during press (Winistorfer and Xu 1996).

TABLE 5 Thickness swelling and water absorption of the three-layer and standard MDF panels

MDF Panel type Nominal Th~ckness swell~ng Water absorpt~on dens~ty (%'c)

kgm' 2 h 24 h 168 h 2 h 24 h 168 h

Standard MDF 750 6 (10) 14 (12) 29 (10) 15(12) 32(10) . 5 9 ( 6 )

Note: a. Values in parentheses are coefficients of variation

3-layer MDF with wood and sisal mattresses 95

Table 7 shows the internal bond (IB) strength values of three-layer and standard MDF panels before and after the water soak test. The IB strength values following completion of the 168 h immersion period were determined after reconditioning the samples at 65 * 5% relative humidity and 20 * 2°C to constant weight to determine the change in IB strength. As would be expected, all the values for internal bond strength after the water soak test were lower than the relative values measured for the unsoaked samples. This must be due to the swelling of the fibres during the water soaking causing severe local stresses on the fibres and the glue lines. Partial failure due to these stresses can cause permanent strength losses (Suchsland and Woodson 1990).

TABLE 7 Strength retentiott of three-layer and standard MDF panels at 750 kg m--' densit):

Panel type IB before IB after Strength water soak water soak retention (Nmm (Nmm2) (%)

Three-layer MDF 0.61 (4)s' 0.47 (10) 79

Standard MDF 0.53 (12) 0.36 (13) 67

Note: a. Values in parentheses are coefficients of variation (%).

Comparison of the panels showed the three-layer MDF to retain more strength (79%) than the standard MDF panels (67%). This is possibly a result of the protection provided by nonwoven mattresses applied on the panel surfaces which enhanced the bonding strength per unit area, therefore minimising the harmful effect of internal stress generation. Nonwoven mattresses are characterised by a high intensity of interlocking fibres which increases the fibre-to-fibre contacts. As suggested above, when pressed to panels, they provide bonding strength additional to that of the resin and present a less permeable surface to water than the comparable standard MDF. Consequently, there are reductions in water uptake and thickness swelling. The core wood fibre layer is partly protected by this surface layer. Since the amount of water uptake will be relatively diminished from surface to core, there will be a lower degradation effect on the bond strength. However, it should be noted that both the three- layer and standard MDF panels are susceptible to water uptake through the panel edges. Furthermore, as discussed previously, the use of nonwoven mattress on the surfaces might have had a net beneficial effect on curing of adhesive and the fibre consolidation mechanisms, which enhanced the IB strength.

Surface soundness values of the three-layer and standard MDFpanels are shown in Table 8. The surface soundness of each panel type was greater than the observed IB. It is the densification of the panel surface that causes the panel surface soundness to exceed the observed IB. This is due to a strong correlation existing between surface strength of the panel and surface density (Seetharam et al. 1976). The surface of the three-layer MDF formed by a nonwoven

mattress is significantly stronger than that of the standard MDF panel. The predominance of the three-layer MDF in surface soundness over standard MDF is close to 56%. Table 8 also compares the ratio of surface soundness to internal bond strength for the three-layer and standard MDF panel. Since the ratios of surface tocoredensity are similar, the ratio of SS:IB was also expected to be the same, but this was not the case. Three-layer MDF panel had higher SS:IB ratio (2.6: 1) than the standard MDFpanel(1.9: 1). Since the surface layers are made of nonwoven mattresses of sisal and wood fibre mixture, the high SS:IB ratio is an indication of the remarkable strength of these mattresses. It is likely that the presence of sisal fibre, which is stronger and stiffer with a higher slenderness ratio than wood fibre (Gillah and Irle 1998), increased the strength of the nonwoven mattress via fibre interlocking. Consequently, the bridging of gaps between the fibres and the bonding strength per unit area of fibres forming the mattress might have been improved. This increased the integrity and cohesiveness of the fibres forming the nonwoven mattress, providing more resistance to pull out during the surface soundness test.

TABLE 8 The internal bortd and surface soundness ofthree- layer and standard MDF panels at 750 kg m-' d e n s i ~

Panel type Internal Surface Surface to SS: IB bond (]B) soundness core ratio (Nmm-2) (SS) density

(Nmm2) ratio

Three-layer MDF 0.61 ( 4 ) V 1 . 5 8 (4) 1.5: 1 2.63: 1 Standard MDF 0.53 (12) 1.01 (6) 1.5:i 1.91:1

Note: a. Values in parentheses are coefficients of variation (%).

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results of this study, the following conclusions can be drawn.

The bending strength and stiffness of the three-layer MDF panels generally increased with increasing density. At the same density of 750 kg m-', the three-layer MDF panel was stronger and stiffer than the standard MDF panels. The internal bond (IB) strength of the three-layer MDF panels was higher than that of the standard MDFpanels by about 13%. The TS and WAB for the three-layer MDF panel have been found to decrease with increasing panel density except after long term exposure (168 h) when the TS increased with increasing panel density. Generally, the three-layer MDFpanels were dimensionally more stable, in terms of TS and WAB, than the standard MDF panels. Furthermore, the irreversible damage to the three-layer MDFpanels was much less than that to the standard MDF panels. The three-layer MDF panels had better linear and thickness stability compared to standard MDF panels.

96 Gillah, Irle and Maher

- Three-layer M D F panels retained more of their initial strength than standard MDF after the water soak test.

- Incorporating nonwoven mattresses into the surface of the three-layer MDFpanel improved the surface strength as it resulted in higher surface soundness than the standard M D F panel.

- Nonwoven mattresses could be incorporated in M D F s o that the physical and mechanical properties of these products are enhanced.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Messrs John Bullen and Kevin Bright from Dynochem UK Ltd in Duxford, Cambridgeshire, UK for their kindness and assistance in producing the panels. The authors would also like to thank Messrs Andy Walker and Brian MathewS from FPRC, Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College for their excellent technical support. P.R. Gillah is also grateful to Sokoine University of Agriculture and NORAD for their financial support.

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BOEHME, C. 1992 Significance of density profile for MDF. Hols als Roh-und Werkstoff 5O(l): 18-24.

BONFIELD, P. 1996 Wood based composite products. In: Timber in construction: challenges for the future. Proceedings of a joint BRWRADA Technology Ltd. seminar, 18th September, 1996.

Bs 1142: 1989 British standard specifications for fibre building boards. British Standard Institution.

EN 3 1 l : 1992 Particleboards - Surface soundness of particleboards, test method. European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels.

EN 310: 1993 Standard method for determination of bending properties. European Committe for Standardisation, Brussels.

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International Foresty Review 2(2), 2000 97

The use and management of common lands of the Aravalli, lndia

AJAl KUMAR LEON BREN l and IAN FERGUSON '

Department of Forestry, Institute of Land and Food Resources, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, Victoria 3052, Australia

Indian Forest Setvice, Government of lndia

SUMMARY

This paper analyses the relative dependence of different categories of household on village common lands in the Aravalli Hills of Haryana State, India for their needs of fuelwood and fodder, as well as their perception of the 'Village Forest Committees' which form the institutional basis for practising Joint Forest Mangement. The reasons for differences in the use of resurces among big, small and marginal farmers and the landless are discussed. All groups in villages were found to be dependent on common land to some extent and favoured the regulated use of village commons despitedifferences in relative dependence. The ambiguities in institutional arrangements for common lands management are described and discussed.

Keywords: village common lands, joint forest management, village forest committee.

INTRODUCTION

The Aravalli hill ecosystem has always been considered crucial to the economic and environmental well-being of north India as it forms a natural barrier in protecting the alluvial plains of Ganges and Yamuna from the Great Indian Desert. A substantial portion of these hills falls in the category of 'Common Property Resources' of the villages and goes a long way in meeting the fuelwood, fodder and non- timber produce requirement of the village communities. Degradation of these common lands creates a scarcity of fuelwood, fodder and also poses a major threat to the Aravalli ecosystem. Realising their significance, the Government of Haryana launched the project entitled 'Rehabilitation of Common Lands in the Aravalli Hills' (henceforth Aravalli Project) in 1990 with financial support from the European Union. The project covered 293 villages bordering Aravalli hills in five districts, viz. Faridabad, Rewari, Gurgaon, Mahendergarh and Bhiwani, of Haryana state. The total project outlay over eight years (1990- 1998) was 28.8 million ECUs, of which 23.2 million ECUs were provided by the European Union and 5.6 million ECUs by the government of Haryana. The project has been able to rehabilitate 38,050 ha of common land over the project period. The project was formulated within the framework of 'Joint Forest Management' (JFM). Although the concept of JFM was initiated much earlier in the State of West Bengal, it was formalised in India in 1990 through a circular of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (Government of India 1990). To date, 19 State Governments have issued resolutions regarding JFM which provide for collaboration with village

communities. These States together cover about 75 percent of the coyntry's forest area. Moreover, JFM is an important feature of externally aided projects which have emerged as a significant source of funding to the forestry sector in India. Approximately Rs. 35 billion is expected to become available to the forestry sector in the next few years (Rizvi pers. comm.). The JFM framework. therefore, has become crucial to the Indian forestry sector due to its extent and reach.

This paper is based on a survey carried out in 22 project villages of the Gurgaon district to find the relative dependence of various sections of the rural population on village common lands and their perception of the 'Village Forest Committees' which are at the heart of JFM arrangements. Based on the survey results and the history of changing property rights in this region, the paper raises issues which bear on the sustainability of the gains of Aravalli Project as well as of the JFM framework.

CHANGING PROPERTY RIGHTS IN COMMONS

The villages in this region were categorised as 'joint villages' and though popularised by the writings of Sir Henry Maine ( 1 895) as typical Indian villages, their land tenure systems exhibited much variety and subtle distinctions. These distinctions in tenure were important since the land tenure in the village determined the manner in which the rights and liabilities were shared among members of, the village proprietary body and also the manner in which the common

98 Kumar; Bren and Ferguson

lands were held, managed or partitioned. Tenure, in turn, was based upon the constitution of the village or on the circumstances in which the village was formed.

The revenue settlement operations carried out during the British period between 1800 and 1900 affected the traditional land use and tenures by formalising fluid property rights as well as by creating new rights in land. They recognised the existence of cultivable fallow in already settled villages and recorded them as village commons. The village boundaries of pastoral communities, too, were clearly demarcated and primeval wastes (all shamilat) near such villages were incorporated within the boundaries converting them into village commons. This gave the village proprietary body rights over such lands, which had not been the case earlier. By limiting the wastelands available to villages the surplus wastes became available to the State, which were then converted into Government Reserve Wastelands or rakh thereby creating property rights for the State (Baden-Powell 1892). The revenue settlements thus created two new property rights in their wake, one for the village proprietary body and other for the State.

The Punjab Land Revenue Act of 1871 and the Punjab Laws Act of 1872 accorded legal status to the customary law in Punjab. Accordingly, the village common lands that were held collectively were to be administered in accordance with the customs declared by the villagers. The customs declared by the villagers at the time of revenue settlements were recorded in wajib-ul-arz or the 'Village Administration Paper'. Although recording of customs accorded legal status to them, it robbed them of the flexibility to evolve and change with emerging situations. The State and not the village communities became the source of rule, and many customs such as those relating to occupancy tenants, land alienation and preemption were declared void by specific legislation.

The landscape in Punjab, meanwhile, was witnessing changes. Agricultural growth, increasing indebtedness of peasantry and increasing human and livestock populations generated pressures on commons, increasingly giving rise to disputes. During this period, the increase in cultivated area in Punjab was the second highest in the country (Ali 1988) and this trend continued till 1947. An enquiry by Sir Malcolm Darling (1925) in 191 8-19 found more than 80 per cent of proprietors in debt. The population of Punjab increased by 24.3 per cent between 1855 and 1881 and by 37 per cent between 1881 and 1931 (Chand 1939). The livestock population increased by about 133 percent between 1868 and 191 1 (Chakravarty-Kaul 1996). These changes imposed stress on the traditional village institutions and also sharpened conflicts among different sections of the village communities.

The village communities were not homogeneous; they consisted of both proprietors (malikan deh) and non- proprietors (ghair mutik) including the tenant cultivator (murasi) and service class (kamins). The village proprietary body (malikan-deh) collectively held the cultivable fallow (banjar qadim), residential area (abadi-deh), catchment (johads), area around village (gora-deh) and village woodlot. The proprietary body had, among others, the right to use,

manage and partition the common lands according to the customary tenure (Baden-Powell 1896). While the proprietary rights over commons were vested in village proprietors, all the residents had user rights. The proprietors monitored and controlled the access to the residential area which was non-divisible and could not be partitioned, mortgaged or sold. However, such measures were abolished by specific legislation or rendered useless by judicial decisions and as a result the village proprietary body lost control over entry into the village. This created the conditions for the entry of commercial interests in villages and increasing pressure on resources created and sharpened conflict over user rights between proprietors and non- proprietors. As such disputes weakened communal control and management of commons and, thereby, the capacity for collective action, the proprietors increasingly began resorting to the partition of commons. From the above discussion it is clear that although socio-economic factors were putting stress on communal management of commons, the role of the State was also crucial in changing the property rights in commons that hastened their partition and privatisation.

However, after independence in 1947, the Land Reform Act, 1954 and the Punjab Village Common Lands (Regulation) Act. 1961 took away the right to partition from the proprietors and vested the commons in village Panchayats created under the Punjab Gram Panchayat Act, 1952. Thus, village commons became the de facto property of the government. Village Panchayats were elected bodies designed to function as units of self-government at the village level. These have, now, been given constitutional status through the Constitution (Seventy-Third Amendment) Act, 1994 and are governed in Haryana under the Haryana Panchayati Raj Act, 1994. Legislative actions after 1947 prevented further partition of commons, but they failed to evolve a suitable management regime for viliage common lands under Panchayats. As collective action in villages was built around village commons, their take-over by Panchayats further-reduced the scope of collective action. Management of common lands no longer remained the responsibility and concern of village communities, instead it became the responsibility of the State. Village Commons, for all practical purposes, became 'open access' creating an ideal situation for 'the tragedy of the commons' (Hardin 1968) to occur. The story of commons after 1947 is, therefore, one of gradual degradation due to lack of management, exacerbated by increasing human and livestock populations and encroach- ment, and of diversion by the state.

JFM FRAMEWORK AND ARAVALLI PROJECT

The JFM framework aims at motivating the village communities to 'identify themselves with the development and protection of forests from which they derive benefit'. It seeks to organise people into a 'village institution, specifically for forest regeneration and protection' with the incentive of a share in the usufruct from the areas that they

100 Kurnar; Bren and Ferguson

cultural waste were not significantly different for big and small farmer household and also for landless and marginal farmer households (Appendix, 3iv).

These results show that while total energy consumption increased markedly with landholding and therefore with income, the shift away from fuelwood to alternative fuels was not as marked. As the landholding households keep more livestock (cow and buffalo) compared with landless households, their consumption of dung cake is, not unexpectedly, higher. Similarity between big and small farmer households on one hand and between landless and marginal farmer households on the other in respect of agricultural waste follows from similarity in their agricultural landholding.

Livestock distribution

The percentage of households keeping livestock varied with the landholding, the.smallest being for the landless and the highest for the big farmers (Table I ) . A household's choice of livestock, too, showed variation with the landholding class. A higher percentage of marginal, small and big farmer households were found to keep buffalo and cow as compared to landless households. More of the landless and big farmer households kept goats and sheep compared to the small and marginal farmer households.

To compare the livestock holding across the households the livestock units were converted into 'tropical bovine units'(TBU) (see Appendix, Part 5). The average number of 'tropical bovine units' per household was found to be higher for small and big farmers compared to landless and marginal farmers (Table 2). The big farmer households were significantly different from the landless, marginal and small farmer households in this respect. Although the small farmer households were not significantly different from the marginal farmer households both were found to be significantly different from landless households.

TABLE 1 Livestock distribution

Households % HH % HH % HH % HH (HH) with with with with goats

livestock buffalo cow and sheep

Landless 58 44 19 29 Marginal farmer 85 69 3 5 14 Small farmer 9 3 86 3 3 16 Big farmer 99 95 3 3 30

TABLE 2 Average livestock holding

Households AV. AV. AV. AV. (HH) TBU no. of no. of No. of

per HH buffalo cow goats and sheep

Landless 2.14 0.98 0.28 4.12 Marginal farmer 2.0 1 1.28 0.57 1.14 Small farmer 2.25 1.78 0.56 0.69

, Big farmer 4.18 1.90 0.84 4.67

Not only in average number of total TBU per households but even in terms of numbers of buffaloes, cows and goats per household these four landholding classes were found to be different. The landless kept the least whereas the big farmers kept the highest number of buffalo per household. A similar trend was found in average number of cows per households, the landless keeping the least and the big farmer keeping the highest average number of cows per household. In the case of goats and sheep both the landless and the big farmer households were found to have higher numbers per household compared with marginal and small farmers. These differences were found to be statistically significant (Appendix, 3vi, vii).

The differences can be explained in t m s of higher availability of agricultural fodder in land owning households and of labour in landless and big farmer households. The availability of agricultural residues (fodder and concentrates) increases with size of agricultural landholding and as cows and buffaloes are more dependent on agricultural fodder and concentrates, it is easier for households with agricultural land to support them. On the other hand goats and sheep being free ranging require labour for grazing instead of agricultural residues, and labour can easily be provided by landless households. Rearing of goats and sheep, therefore, is an economically attractive proposition for landless and poor households. However, a relatively high percentage of big farmer households, too, kept goats and sheep to cater to the commercial demand of meat as they could afford to hire labour for grazing. This contradicts the widely held belief that only the poor households keep goats and sheep and that, with an increase in income levels and higher availability of fodder, they would shift to cows and buffaloes.

Fodder sources

The share of different sources of fodder, that is, common land, agricultural residue and market, varied across the landholding classes (Figure 2). Although the common lands formed a significant source of fodder for all the landholding classes, its share was found to be significantly higher for landless households than that of marginal, small and big farmer households. The share of fodder from agricultural residues was, as expected, significantly higher for big farmers compared with other landholding classes. The difference between small and marginal farmer households was not statistically significant. The share of fodder from the market was, not unexpectedly, low for big farmers compared with the others. The difference between landless and marginal farmer households was also not significant in this respect.

These results can be easily explained. Dry fodder and concentrates either become available as agricultural residues or are purchased from the market. As their availability increases with agricultural landholding, the big farmer households become less reliant on the market as compared to the other landholding classes, The only sources for green fodder, on the other hand, are village common lands on which every livestockowning housekold, including the big farmers, are dependent.

102 Kumac Bren and Ferguson

Equity perception and rule requirement

The perception of the present system of withdrawal of bio- mass from the common lands, which is virtually an 'open access' system, as an equitable one was more strongly held among the landless, marginal and small farmers as compared to the big farmers (Figure 4, lower data set). This is not unexpected because more restriction on the use of commons puts more pressure on poor. However, more than 80% (Figure 4, upper data set) of the respondents in all landholding classes felt the need for more regulated use of commons, thus indicating their awareness of the danger of degradation in the absence of regulations. It also indicates that common ground exists among various landholding classes for collective action in this regard, a conclusion contrary to the popular perception that differences among them inhibits it.

CONCLUSIONS

1. All the four classes of household, i.e. big, small, marginal and landless households, depend on common lands for fuelwood. Although the households do not keep a separate account of the fuelwood extracted from different sources, anecdotal evidence and observation suggests that the major part of their fuelwood comes from the common lands. Household income was found to be positively correlated with size of agricultural landholding. The energy consumption of big farmer households is higher than that of other households and the share of fuelwood in household energy is the highest for all classes of households. This is contrary to the prevailing perception that only the landless or the poorer sections depend on village commons and that an increase in income levels induces a shift away from fuelwood. This has significant implications for any rural development model that focuses on employment generation activities and not specifically on natural resource management. The increase in household income as a result of employment generation activities would result in higher energy and fuelwood consumption in the household. Therefore, unless rural development focuses specifically on fuelwood production, investment in the rural development sector may, in fact, increase the pressure on common lands, so leading to further degradation. However, as the ability of poor and landless households to shift away from fuelwood to alternative sources is very limited, degradation of commons would put greater stress on their survival compared with other household categories.

2. The availability of agricultural residues and, therefore, agricultural landholding plays a significant role in the choice of livestock in a household. This, coupled with the constraints of capital and capacity to take risk, implies that more of the landless households would continue to keep goats and sheep. Even the big farmer household would continue to keep goats and sheep because of the commercial demand for meat in the nearby metropolitan areas. Therefore, the increased production of fodder from commons andor

extension are unlikely to induce the villagers to replace goats and sheep with cows and buffaloes as expected by the project strategy. Moreover, as the share of fodder from the commons continues to be highest even for the household that keeps cows or buffaloes, the replacement of goats and sheep by cows and buffaloes, if it occurs at all, would further increase and not decrease the pressure on commons. This raises questions not only about feasibility but the desirability of the strategy.

The acceptance of village forest committees as the appropriate institution for future management of common is low among all the sections of households because of the perception that these are temporary entities and without legal and administrative authority. As the chairperson of the Panchayat is also the ex-officio chairperson of the village forest committee, it is seen as a mere extension of Panchayat. On the other hand, the Panchayat is perceived as a more stable institution compared to the village forest committee because of its constitutional status. In the present situation Panchayats have legal jurisdiction over village common lands but have neither the financial nor the administrative wherewithal needed for their management. Although the village forest committees have been created for the management of commons, they not only suffer from the same resource handicap as Panchayats but are also temporary institutions lacking adequate legal status. As both the Panchayats and village forest committees lack financial resources, the village communities continue to look to the government, giving rise to the 'lazy husband syndrome'. The State Forest Department, on the other hand, has both the financial and administrative resources but has no legal jurisdiction over the common lands. Moreover, it cannot regulate the use of common lands in a sustainable manner due to the high transaction costs involved. It can possible be done only by a village institution. However, the creation of a new village level institution (that is the village forest committee) without adequate powers is not the answer, because they cannot become effective institutions for management of commons without legal status and financial resources. The presence of three institutions, viz. the State Forest Department, Panchayats and village forest committees, with overlapping functions and similar handicaps creates ambiguity in relation to the property right regime and, therefore, is not conducive to effective management of commons.

4. There is a clear perception among all landholding classes that a regulatory regime with proper rules of withdrawal of biomass from village common lands is needed, though there is some fear among the landless that a regulatory regime would curtail their access to commons. This perception and the fact that ail sections of village communities are dependent on commons for fuelwood and fodder are the biggest strengths of the project. They provide a common basis for effective mobilisation of the communities in evolving a regulatory management regime for commons on which all the sections of village community are heavily dependent for subsistence and quality of life. However, this would not happen on its own and a people's institution (either

Use and management of common lands of the Aravalli, India 103

Panchayat or VFC) with adequate administrative and financial powers is one of the prerequisites.

GOVERNMENT OF PUNJAB. 1961 The Punjab Village Common Lands (Regulation) Act, 1961.

HARDIN, G. 1968 The tragedy of commons. Science 162: 1243- 1248.

KALLA, J.C. l998 A study on the socio-economic viability of Village Forest Committees in the Aravalli Project: Aravalli Project, Department of Forests, Government of Haryana 39 PP.

KAUL, R.N. and REDHEAD, J.F. 1998 Institutional development in the sustained management of rehabilitated common lands: Aravalli Project, Department of Forests, Government ,of Haryana. 24 pp.

KRUSKAL, W.H. and WALLIS, W.A. 1952 Use of ranks in One- Criterion Analysis of Variance. Journal of American Statistical Association 47: 583-621.

MAINE, Sir H. S. 1895 Villages communities in the East and West.John Murray, London. 413 pp.

MID TERM REVIEW MISSION. 1995 Rehabilitation of common lands in the Aravalli Hills: Commission of the European Communities. 69 pp.

SRIVASTAVA, J.P.L. and Kau1,R.N. 1994 Greening of the common lands in the Aravallis: Aravalli Project, Forest Department,

REFERENCES

ALI, 1. 1988 The Punjab under imperialism. Princeton University Press. 264 pp.

BADEN-POWELL, B.H. 1892 The land systems ofBritish India. 3 vols. Vol. 11. Clarendon Press. 771 pp.

BADEN-POWELL, B.H. 1896 The Indian village community.: Longmans, Green, and Co., London. 456 pp.

CHAKRAVARTY-KAUL, MINOTI. 1996 Common lands and customaq law: instittdonal change in North India over the past W O

centuries. Oxford University Press, Delhi. 3 15pp. CHAND, G. 1939 India's teeming millions.George Allen & Unwin,

London. 374 pp. DARLING, M. 1925 The Punjab peasant In prosperity and debt. 4th

ed. Columbia: South Asia Books. 277 pp. DUNN, O.J. 1964 Multiple contrasts using rank sums.

Technometrics 6: 241-252. GOVERNMENT OF INDIA l990 Involvement of Village Communities Government of Haryana. 47 pp

STATSOFT INC. 1984 Statistica 5.1, Tulsa. and VAs in the Regeneration of Degraded Forest Lands.

Appendix 3. Value of Q statistic for multiple comparison tests (at p = 0.05 the critical Q value is 2.63)

For non-parametric multiple comparison, the test statistic Q = R, - R, l SE was used. SE, the standard error was calculated using the following formula:

(i) Energy consumption

S. No. Land holding classes Value of Q-Statistics

SE = \/ N (N + l)(l/n, - lln,)/12 where R, and R, are mean ranks. 1 . Big farmer vs. landless 2.86

2. Big farmer vs. marginal farmer 3.75

Values of Kruskal-Wallis (H) Statistics (at a = 0.05) 3. Big farmer vs. small farmer 5.05

S No. Item Value of H p Value Statlstlcs

(ii) Fuelwood

S. No. Land holding classes Value of Q-Statistics

I . Landless vs. big farmer 6.13

2. Landless vs. small farmer 9.05

1 . Total energy consumption 79.03 0.0000

2. Fuelwood 91.13 0.0000

3. Dung cake 64.43 0.0000

3. Landless vs. marginal farmer 5.17 4. Agricultural waste 201.08 0.000

4. Big farmer vs, small farmer 2.65 5. Livestock distribution 185.87 0.000 5. Small farmer vs. marginal farmer 2.19 6. Cow 38.32 0.0000

7. Buffalo 221.27 0.000 (iii) Dung Cake

8. Goat and sheep 20.72 0.0001

9. Fodder from commons 195.14 0.000 S. No. Land holding classes Value of Q-Statistic

10. Fodder from agri. residue 317.91 0.000 1. Landless vs. big farmer 4.42

I I . Fodder from market 155.08 0.000 2. Landless vs. small farmer 6.93

12. Awareness of VFCs 31.15 0.0000 -

3 Landless vs. marginal farmer 4 64

104 Kumar; Bren and Ferguson

(iv) Agricultural wastes (X) Fodder from agricultural residue

S. No. Land holding classes Value of Q-Statistic S No Land holding classes Value of Q-Statistic

1. Big farmer vs. landless 17.04 I . Big farmer vs. small farmer 0.15

2. Big farmer vs. marginal farmer 6.38

3. Big farmer vs, small farmer 4.92

4. Small farmer vs. landless 11.77

2. Landless vs. marginal farmer 2.03

(v) Livestock distribution 5. Small farmer vs. marginal fanner 2.25

6. Landless vs. Marginal farmer 7.64 S. No. Land holding classes Value of Q-Statistic

1 . Big farmer vs. landless 13.03 (xi) Fodder from market

2. Big farmer vs, marginal farmer 6.33 S. No. Land holding classes Value of Q-Stat~stic

I. Big farmer vs. landless 10.74

2. Big farmer vs. marginal farmer 6.94

3. Bie farmer vs. small farmer 4.65

(vi) Buffalo distribution 3. Big farmer vs. small farmer 3.5 1

S No Land hold~ng classes Value of Q-Stat~stlc 4. Small farmer vs. landless 7.02

5. Small farmer vs. marginal farmer 1.96 1. Big farmer vs. landless 13.76

2. Big farmer vs. marginal farmer 7.02 6 . Landless vs. Marginal farmer 1 .92

(xii) Awareness of existence of village forest committees

3. Big farmer vs. small farmer 4.78

4. Small farmer vs. landless 8.23

5. Small farmer vs. marginal farmer 2.87 S. No. Land holding classes Value of Q-Statistic

l . Big farmer vs. landless 3.99 6. Marginal farmer vs. landless 3.75

2. Big farmer vs, marginal farmer 2.95

3. Big farmer vs. small farmer 2.70 (vii) Cow distribution 4. Small farmer vs. landless 0.90

5. Small farmer vs. marginal farmer 0.61

6. Landless vs. Marginal farmer 0.08

S. No. Land holding classes Value of Q-Statistic

I. Landless vs. big farmer 3.93

2. Landless vs. small farmer 3.28 4. Energy equivalents

Fuel types Energy equivalent

Fuelwood 12.36895 MJIKg '

Agricultural wastes 1 1.25575 MJlKg

Dung cake 8.75368 MJIKg

(viii) Goat and sheep distribution

S. No. Land holding classes Value of Q-Statistic

l . Landless vs. big farmer 2.68 Kerosene 45.93474 MJIlt

(ix) Fodder from commons

S. No. Land holding classes Value of Q-Statistic

1. Landless vs. big farmer 12.92

2. Landless vs. small farmer 9.72

3. Landless vs. marginal farmer 8.71

4 Big farmer vs. small farmer 2.92

5. Conversion factor for tropical bovine unit

Livestock unit Tropical bovine unit

l camel l TBU

l Buffalo 0.9 TBU

l Cow 0.75 TBU

l Goat 0.25 TBU - -

1 Sheep 0.25 TBU

International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000 105

Forest Reserve encroachment: the case of Tano-Ehuro forest reserve in Western Ghana

C. E. OWUBAHi, N. T. DONKOR2* and R. D. NSENKYIRE3

Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, U.S.A. * Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6G 2H1

Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

* Corresponding author ndonkor@gpu.srv.ualberta.ca

SUMMARY

A study focussing on illegal farming and permanent settlement of farmers in the Tano-Ehuro forest reserve in western Ghana was undertaken to assess government policies to protect the forest, causes of encroachment, achievements and failures of the government's anti-forest encroachment campaign code-named 'Operation halt'. Past government policies have been intermittent and inconsistent and have contributed to increased encroachment into the reserve. Major causes of encroachment include collusion between farmers and chiefs, low court fines, a quest for fertile land and inadequate monitoring. Operation halt is not a deterrent because only 20% of the reserve remain today, from about 40% at the beginning of the operation in 1990. Only 200 out of the l000 ha of cocoa farms destroyed under the programme has been planted to trees, The programme fails to address the drastic ramifications that accompany forced evictions. I t is recommended that a permanent solution be sought through collaborative forest management.

Keywords: collaborative forest management, illegal farming, protected areas.

INTRODUCTION

In developing countries, land is perhaps the most basic resource available for the social and economic development of their people. However, with high population growth rates total demand is increasing, exerting increasing pressure upon the natural resource base and productive land resources are increasingly becoming scarce in most of these countries (FAO 1985). To streamline social and economic activities both within and outside forests, governments have often promulgated laws to protect, manage and guide the use of forests. While these laws are well intended, the reality of prevailing circumstances, particularly cultural values, multi- ple stakeholders and multiple use of forest resources, make management of forests complex. In Ghana and elsewhere, the complexity has often generated conflicts between land users. As FAO (1984) notes one of the most difficult decisions about land use has been which forested land should be cleared and converted to agricultural uses.

There is a continuum regarding measures to conserve nature. On one end is outright preservation involving strict protection of natural ecosystems, for example wilderness areas where no form of development or extraction is allowed. In the past, conservation programmes have tended to adopt this model not only because of the certainty it provides in terms of preserving the biodiversity of the particular ecosystem, but also because it is less cumbersome to manage in terms of implementing policies and regulations.

Intensive management of ecosystems including access by local communities characterises the other end of the continuum. With time, this model has gained popularity partly because the notion of wilderness preservation is not only in conflict with many local peoples' view of nature, but it also denies the reality that most protected areas, are in fact, inhabited (Colchester 1996). According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), about seventy percent of all protected areas are inhabited (Dixon and Sherman 1991).

There is now the increasing realisation that conservation no longer means, for example, denying forest-dependent communities access to forest reserves, but rather allowing such access while at the same time recognising that users have an obligation to protect the forest ecosystem. This is the challenge that faces governments, resource managers and conservationists in developing countries.

Tano-Ehuro Forest Reserve (TEFR) in the Western Region of Ghana is used here as an example of this challenge. It is among a set of forest reserves which initially were designated as 'protected timber lands' but were later constituted as forest reserves. Not only were communal rights to use of the forests recognised, but rights of farmers living in the forests were too. Specifically, their farms were 'admitted'. Today, TEFR is characterised by massive illegal farming and permanent settlement of farmers in the reserve. After many futile attempts to stop the on-going destruction of

106 Owubah, Donkor and Nsenkq'ire

the reserve, the Government of Ghana, in 1990, launched an anti-forest encroachment campaign code-named 'Operation halt'. Operation halt is carried out by the military, police officers, temporary labourers and employees of the Forestry Department, authorised managers of forests in Ghana. This paper assesses the intent of government policy initiatives taken to reserve and protect TEFR and the causes of the illegal farming, and evaluates the achievements and failures of 'Operation halt'.

While TEFR does not represent the general situation vis B vis forest reserves in Ghana, it presents evidence of the scale of illegal farming in some forest reserves in the western region of Ghana. It also embodies challenges inherent in the nature conservation model at the other end of the continuum where indigenous rights to land are fully recognised. It portrays the dilemma facing governments, administrators, conservationists and forestry personnel in ensuring sustainable forest management, and raises questions on the effectiveness of measures taken to resolve conflicts within such models.

BACKGROUND

Site selection

The Western Region is the best stocked timber-producing area of Ghana with a total of 5 1 forest reserves and is home to several of the country's largest timber firms. It is also amajor cocoa-producing area. In the Sefwi-Wiawso and Juabeso- Biadistricts, where the soils and climate are most suited to the cultivation of cocoa, forest clearing was already proceeding at 3-5 percent of the area per annum (Ahn 1959). Despite the adoption of various initiatives to stem the tide of illegal farming, the problem persists and is significant enough to threaten the continued existence of some forest reserves in the Western Region. It is now estimated that some forest reserves in the region have been destroyed to the extent of 5O-7O% of their total area (England 1993) (see Table 1).

TABLE 1 Scale of illegal farming in certain forest reserves in vvestern region of Ghana as of Januar~ 1990 p---- -

Reserve O/o Illegally % Adm~tted Total 9 tarmed farms tarmed

Bla-Tawya 57 76 18 47 76 23

Bod~ 76 50 6 20 82 70

Manzan 59 1 1 32.19 91 30

Sukusuku 74 50 I 1 37 85 87

Tano-Ehuro 57 67 l 80 59 29

Source: England (1993).

The selection of TEFR for the present study was based on the massive nature of illegal farming and permanent settlement of farmers in thereserve, and theconflicts between the task force and the farmers. Data were collected through questionnaires administered to village leaders and to

households. Different questionnaires were administered to District Forestry Office staff, the 'Operation halt' task force members, and some professional foresters and resource managers in the forestry sector. Information gathered was supplemented with personal observations and examination of office records including monthly reports at the District Forestry office.

Location and physiography

Tano-Ehuro forest reserve is in the Sefwi-Wiawso Forest district in the western region of Ghana (SU58'N, 2"37'W) and covers an area of 176.1 km2. The reserve lies within the Moist Evergreen Forest (Hall and Swaine l98 1). This is the second richest forest type in the country in terms of economically valuable species (economic trees). Dominant trees include Piptadeniastrurn africanurn, Triplochiton scleroqlon, Antiaris africana, Ternlinalia superba, Pycnanthus angolensis, Nesogordonia papaverifera, Entandrophragnza angolense and Celtis zenkeri. Encroachment of the reserve by illegal farmers has however resulted in pockets of forests in a sea of farmlands. The reserve has a maximum relief of about 150 m above mean sea level. Soils of this forest are mainly forest ochrosols with forest gleisols occurring along major stream valleys. The ochrosols are usually reddish brown on summits and upper slopes of hills, orange-brown or brown on middle slopes and yellow brown on lower slopes. The ochrosols are less leached, better drained, fertile and are the most important soils in Ghana from agricultural point of view (Boateng 1966). The forest ochrosols are referred to as haplic ferralsol (FAOAJNESCO 1988).

Climate

The area experiences a double rainfall regime with one peak in May to June and another less marked peak in September to October. Mean annual rainfall is 1750 mm. Two air masses, the south-west monsoon winds and the dry east trade winds (harmattan) characterise the rainy and dry seasons, respectively. The mean monthly maximum temperature of this area is 3 1 -33"C, and occurs in the months of February - March, while the mean monthly minimum in the coldest months (December - January) is 19- 12 "C. The average daily range is 8-9°C.

History, land use system and management of TEFR

Forest reservation in Ghanadates back to 19 10 when the first Forest Bill recommending reservation was written. This bill was withdrawn in 191 1 in response to opposition from communities owning the forests (Agyeman 1994). Nonetheless, the colonial administration was given authority to enforce forest reservation through a new Forest Ordinance passed in 1927. The bill did not alter ownership of the forest reserves, rather it recognised and confirmed that title to the reserves would always remain with the native owners. With the fear of losing their lands removed, communities generally allowed forest reserves to be carefully located with the

Forest reserve encroachment in M! Ghana 107

objective of ensuring future production potential of the forests and to create a favourable environment for the expanding cocoa, palm nut, cola and other economic crop plantations (FAO 1976).

The Protected Timber Land Act of 1959 (Act 34) declared TEFR and others (e.g. Bia Tawya, Boi Tano and Bodi) timber lands. The Act's purpose was to ensure that desirable timber species in these forests were extracted before the lands reverted to other uses. This was an agreement between the government and the landowning stools. Ghana's post-independence socialist era of state control of natural resources culminated in the proposition in 1965 to constitute the Tano-Ehuro timber land as a forest reserve. This was done under the provisions of the Forest Ordinance (CAP 157). In 1977, the Supreme Military Council government duly constituted the Tano-Ehuro timber land into TEFR.

The order constituting the area as a forest reserve contained three schedules, namely description of the area covered by the inquiry, admitted communal rights and demarcated admitted farms with the names of their respective owners. It is noteworthy that twenty- five cocoa farms with a gross area of 313.4 ha owned by 46 farmers were 'admitted' into the reserve. In addition, communal rights held by landowning stools were also recognised

The timber concession in this reserve was granted to Messrs. African Timbers and Plywood (Ghana) Limited (AT & P) covering the entire reserve for 25 years effective September 4, 1968 and expiring in September 1993. Salvage felling was done by AT & P in 1988 to prevent the total destruction of economic species in the reserve. As of October 1990, a total of 9,154 commercial trees are reported as having been felled and extracted. Between 1975 and 1990 extraction of minor forest products including Garcinia sp, and Rattan rattan was allowed to take place.

Human population and infrastructure

The boundaries of the 'admitted farms' have since been extended beyond recognition and many settler farmers have moved into the reserve. It is estimated that about 80% of the reserve has been encroached upon. The principal crops cultivated are cocoa and food crops such as cocoyam. plantain, yam and cassava. Currently, it is estimated that five to six thousand people live in the reserve, consisting of sixteen farming communities (i.e. cluster of villages and cottages). There are about eight primary schools and day care centres, averaging 200 pupils in each school. In addition, there are clinics, markets, churches and cocoa sheds (concrete buildings erected by the government where cocoa is weighed and stored before being transported out of the region) in the villages inside the reserve. Farmers themselves constructed roads linking major communities in the reserve.

Classes of farmers and land-holding patterns

Migrant farmers form the majority of those engaged in illegal farming in the TEFR. These are people from other ethnic divides coming from other parts of the country. They settled,

however, with the help of local accomplices. There is conflict between the local Sefwi people who no longer have enough land for farming and the chiefs, who according to the locals enriched themselves by selling land to migrants without making adequate provision for their own people. Sixty-five percent of the farmers said they learned of the availability of farmlands in the reserve through local chiefs and already settled farmers who had paid visits to some regions to advertise the existence of land for farming purposes. The rest got to know through local resident friends or their own volition.

More than eighty percent of the farmers have more than six dependents (usually farm helpers) in their household. This fact explains how fast farmers encroach the forest by enlarging their farms every growing season.

Farmers in the reserve hold different kinds of tenure arrangements, but two aredominant; there are those who have purchased (or leased) parcels of land from chiefs, and those who hold land through tenancies ('abunu' and 'abusa'). Leasing is usually for an unspecified period of time. While purchasing, and to a lesser extent leasing, confers on the farmer an absolute right to deal with the land, tenancies are restrictive. Under the 'abunu' tenancy, the agreement is between a settler farmer (who has leased land from a chief) and a tenant. The farm produce, mainly cocoa, is divided equally between the two. The tenants owe no allegiance to the chief. With the 'abusa' tenancy a caretaker tends and maintains an already established farm. His share is a third of the produce, while two-thirds goes to the owner of the farm.

People who initially give lands to the farmers include chiefs, settler farmers, absentee farmers and family heads. The chiefs are the biggest culprits. Some sixty percent of the farmers had some form of receipt to acknowledge ownership of parcels of land. The remainder had no legal document to support their tenure: a few had inherited their land while the rest were equally split between abunu and abusa tenancies.

CAUSES OF ILLEGAL FARMING

The number and total land cover of forest reserves in the region arguably constitute the principal cause for peoples' quest to encroach on them. For example, Sefwi-Wiawso and Juabeso-Bia forest districts in the region have 33% and 59% of their land reserved respectively (Forestry Department and International Institute for Environment and Development 1993). Nevertheless, the quest for land apart, the main factors influencing encroachment and illegal farming in the TEFR include collusion by tenants and chiefs (the great bulk of transfers of land were from subchiefs), corruption among previous forestry officers, conflicting claims to ownership of land, unemployment, increased population, lack of man- power and equipment to monitor and protect the reserve, and low court fines.

The passage of the Administration of Lands Act, the State Lands Act and the Concessions Act in 1962, which vested responsibility for the reserves in the state in trust for the stools concerned, arguably diminished communal control of forest

108 Owubah, Donkor and Nsenkyire

reserves. By the time the formerly protected timber land was being proposed as a reserve, chiefs were already aware of the limitations these acts had imposed on reserves. Also, the 1974 Forest Protection Decree further limited communal and individual access to the reserves. Given these laws, and the fact that TEFR was originally not meant to be a reserve, it is not surprising that disgruntled chiefs deliberately frustrated the government's efforts by selling parts of the forest to farmers.

Notwithstanding its economic importance to the national economy, the expansion of the cocoa industry has been at the expense of Ghana's tropical forest, and the Western Region is no exception. Indeed, it is the best-stocked timber producing area of Ghana, but it also has soils and climate suitable to cocoa production. The result is that 'there are no longer vast areas of uncultivated forest awaiting development by enterprising cocoa farmers, except in forest reserves' (Kasanga 1994). Furthermore, bush fires exacerbated the quest for fertile land in 1983, thereby making forest reserves enviable to farmers.

Lack of manpower to protect the forest reserve made encroachment easy. From office records. it appears that two forest guards and four permanent labourers are responsible for the protection of the reserve, among other duties. Lack of transport and other logistics impede the effective patrolling and inspection of the reserve. Most of the illegal farming activities are carried out deep inside the reserve, hence making early detection difficult. Periodic analysis of remotely sensed data would have shown establishment of new farms, but inadequate equipment and limited budgets did not allow such analysis.

Though some farmers were prosecuted at the regional and district courts, 70% of the farmers think the fine was not deterrent enough. Some offenders were acquitted and discharged, and although warned not to re-enter the forest they often flouted the court's orders. It remains to be seen whether or not higher fines and longer terms of imprisonment needs to be imposed to deter people from committing forest offences.

Government failure largely contributed to the encroachment in TEFR. Reasons include lack of political will to deal with encroachers into the reserve; delays in reservation of Tano-Ehuro timber land; inconsistent and sometimes contradictory policy initiatives; and relatively low court fines.

The policy of allowing the 'admitted farmers' during the creation of the reserve was well-intentioned, but given the history of the reserve and the limited resources of the Forestry Department, it was bound to be problematic. Expansion of the farms was inevitable because keeping the farmers at bay through enforcement was going to be expensive. Also, landowning stools exploited the dual ownership of the forest reserve between communities and the government. Apparently, when their royalties from timber began to dwindle, some chiefs and people from surrounding communities still wanted to benefit directly from the reserve, therefore resorting to farming and selling portions of the reserve. Undoubtedly, the personal interests of Paramount

Chiefs in the area catalysed encroachment into the reserve. They could have been more involved in stopping unauthorised alienations but as argued by Kasanga (1 994), in customary law, the extent to which farmers authorised by Paramount Chiefs or their sub-chiefs occupied the land is evidence of their territorial boundaries. Although unauthorised alienations were unacceptable, it was preferred to sale of farming rights by rival chiefs owing allegiance to other Paramount Chiefs.

ATTEMPTS TO PROTECT FOREST RESERVES FROM ENCROACHMENT

Cocoa farms existing within forest reserves at the time of demarcation were generally allowed to remain. Hall and Swaine (1981) reported that in the Volta Region the allowed farms tended to increase to the extent that some of the ostensible 'reserves' consisted more of farms than forest. In this Region, the Forestry Department was successful in prosecuting 525 illegal farmers in the courts during 1972.

The destruction of forests in the TEFR is, in part, the result of inconsistent government policies. Attempts to stop encroachment into forest reserves in the western region dates back to 1973 (England 1993). The Forestry Department arrested fifty-two illegal farmers in the Sukusuku forest reserve but the police could not be persuaded to prosecute the offenders (England 1993). Shortly after, the Assistant Commissioner of Police in Tarkwa ordered the suspension of all investigations into forest offences (Departmental Records 1973).

The Forest Protection Decree in 1974 raised penalties for forest offences and the Public Lands (Protection) Decree also passed in 1974 'provided a procedure for evicting trespassers from public land without prior recourse to a court of law' (NRCD 24311974, NRCD 24011974). These decrees were partly intended to stem the on-going wave of forest destruction by strengthening the hand of the -Forestry Department. However, all Departmental investigations were suspended pending the recommendation of the Nyinaku Committee, which was set up to inquire into the circumstances surrounding the illegal alienation of land in forest reserves in the western region. Meanwhile, traditional authorities and wealthy farmers were profiting from the sale and acquisition of farming rights in forest reserves.

In 1975, the Nyinaku Committee published its report and found that the sale of farming rights in forest reserves was being made on purpose to undermine the government's policy on forest reservation (Report of Committee 1975). The committee made the following recommendations: eviction of all illegal farmers from the reserve, destruction of illegal farms, replanting of the destroyed farms to tree crops, drafting in of military to prevent further encroachments, better equipping of the Forestry Department, farmers to be given refund of fees paid to local chiefs from relevant traditional councils. and chiefs and agents who had alienated the land to face criminal prosecution.

Forest reserve encroachment in W Ghana 109

Efforts to discourage encroachment of the forest suffered a set-back in 1977. Under the 'operation feed yourself' programme, the then secretary of the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources issued a directive to the Chief Conservator of Forests to stop destruction of illegal farms, and to allow farmers in the reserves to continue farming. As argued by England (1993) 'the advice of the Secretary was wholly irrational, and demonstrates the ability of vested interests to influence the highest levels of decision making in order to frustrate the impact of laws unfavourable to them'.

In 1979, the government revived efforts to reclaim the forest reserve by enlisting the services of the military tocrack down on encroachers. In 1984 and 1987, the government again showed renewed commitment to forest protection but delays by the courts and low fines spurred the farmers on. All of these might have resulted in apathy among the forestry department staff in the forest district, and encouraged farmers to expand their farms.

Higher rates of encroachment prompted the Rawlings' government to launch the 'Operation halt' campaign in 1990 to check further illegal destruction of forests. The government decided that 'in view of the large-scale dimension of farming activities and resultant large settlements and infrastructural developments, the destruction of illegal farms with undue haste would result in serious social and economic dislocation the consequences of which would not be in the national interest' (Departmental Records 1990). The policy decided that young farms in the reserves not yet bearing fruit should be completely destroyed as should illegal extensions to admitted farms and planted to timber species. Illegally settled farmers should be ejected and chiefs who sold land in the reserves should be prosecuted. The services of police, army and para-military should be called on to provide security. Older farms were to be phased out over a period of five years during which time the land should be planted up with timber species by means of intercropping with the mature cocoa trees. Farmers should be responsible for the well-being of the young trees. Uncooperative farmers should be dispossessed. Educational campaigns should be intensified and patrols should be undertaken to ward off farmers who might re-enter the reserve. It is difficult to tease apart the fine-sounding declaration of not destroying illegal farms with haste and the provisions of this policy.

Nature of conflict between the task force and farmers

Opposition to 'Operation halt' has become highly organised. Farmers have organised themselves into formidable associations, and the sequel has been violent clashes between farmers and the task force. These were characterised by events such as farmers assaulting task force members, stoning and firing of gun shots at task force members. In one instance, a policeman was taken hostage by a group of farmers in the reserve.

Causes of conflict and direct confrontation between the two parties stemmed from allegations and counter- allegations by the two parties, including: ( 1 ) alleged

destruction of mature cocoa farms by the task force, (2) destruction of food crops by the task force in the execution of their duties, (3) accusation of favouritism on the part of the task force in the clearing and destruction of cocoa farms, (4) deliberate destruction of newly planted tree seedlings by farmers, and (5) continued defiance by farmers in the establishment of new farms in the reserve.

EVALUATION OF GOVERNMENT'S ANTI-FOREST ENCROACHMENT PROGRAMME

The history of TEFR suggests that any anti-forest encroachment strategy that included eviction of farmers and destruction of farms was bound to be controversial. It is therefore not surprising that task forcelforestry department staff, farmers and other resource managers held diverse views and opinions on Operation halt. The task force and Forestry Department staff argued that the operation should continue since it is the only measure necessary to salvage the encroached-upon forest from total devastation. Eighty-five percent of farmers did not support the operation. They described the operation as one of intimidation, inhuman and too drastic. Other resource managers and professional foresters held varied views from support and non-support of the operation to finding alternative solutions.

This paper argues that the objective of destroying new cocoa farms but not old ones is not significantly different from the earlier policy of admitting farms in the reserve. It encourages farmers to remain in the reserve because there is a tendency to clear more land for the cultivation of food crops to support their subsistence living which, in turn, gives them time to thwart the government's efforts to eventually evict them. Moreover, there is no clear statement on what action should be taken with respect to the 'admitted farmers' who have extended the boundaries of their farms and townships along with schools and other institutions. So long as these towns exist there will continue to be a demand for farmland.

The December 1994 Forestry Department's monthly overview of Operation halt in the TEFR details the following: total area of immature cocoa farms destroyed (952.24 ha); total area pegged and planted (200 ha); and length of boundary cleaned (3.6 km). As a result of inadequate logistics, the task force has worked in only five of the 15 operational zones. The slow pace of the operation suggests that by the time the task force gets to the relatively inaccessible areas of the reserve, the new cocoa farms established by farmers have fruited and escaped destruction.

It is also doubtful whether the acreage planted to trees can be properly tended. The species used for planting were Tectona grandis, Cedrella odorata and Terminalia ivorensis. On appraisal, survival of C. odorata stumps, for example, was 40%. Sporadic rainfall and termite attack partly account for low percentage success. Invasion of weeds especially Chroniolaena odorata at the reclaimed sites also inhibits growth of planted tree species.

Educational campaigns and increased patrols to ward off culprits have not been effective. Part of the problem is the

110 Owubah, Donkor and Nsenkyire

enmity between a great number of farmers and the staff of the Forestry Department. It is difficult to find common ground for education. One wonders if any educational campaign and eviction are not mutually exclusive. Also, the limited resources available to the Forestry Department make it difficult to cope with the situation and to achieve any desirable impact. The Department has not succeeded in rehabilitating other degraded reserves elsewhere.

Operation halt appears to be a short-term measure because there are neither rewards for compliance nor alternatives to mitigating the social problems arising out of the evictions. Success of the operation should perhaps be judged not by the number of cocoa farms destroyed but by the extent to which it has deterred farmers from further encroachment upon TEFR. About 40% of the reserve was intact at the beginning of operation in 1990 (Departmental Records 1990, England 1993), although Hawthorne and Abu Juam (1993) classified it then as condition 5 (very poor forest with less than 25% coherent canopy). Today, only 20% of the forest is considered intact. Operation halt is not a deterrent.

CONCLUSIONS

By the time Operation halt was launched. many of the farmers had increased the sizes of their families and were already calling their communities 'home'. Opposition to Operation halt has been intense because farmers are not only protecting their livelihoods, but also they are resisting the break-up of their families. It is perhaps not surprising that Operation halt has not been able to achieve its goal of deterring farmers from further encroachment.

In addition to the complexity of the issues that confront Operation halt, its limited budget and infrequent logistical support may also explain its relatively poor achievement. Parts of the TEFR are virtually inaccessible. This, in addition to the task force's limited knowledge of the terrain and frequent attacks by hostile farmers. has affected the operation.

Operation halt was doomed to fail because it ignored the active participation of the encroachers in finding alternatives to the problem. By ignoring the encroachers and the involvement of traditional institutions, management ofTEFR not only followed perhaps the most difficult of the options available to Government of Ghana, but it also ignored the social acceptability component of sustainable forest management.

It may be argued that the encroachment and illegal farming activities in TEFR is relatively insignificant compared with the extent of the 279 forest reserves in Ghana, but there are reasons why forest encroachment should be of concern to conservationists and Government of Ghana in particular, Inappropriate solutions to encroachment tend to spur others to encroach on other nature reserves. In Ghana, illegal settlement and farming has been reported in some forest reserves including Desiri forest reserve in the Brong- Ahafo and Ashanti regions, and Bodi, Bia Tawya, Manzan, Sukusuku and Tano Suraw forest reserves in the Western

Region (Forestry Department and International Institute for Environment and Development 1993). Against this background it appears that if left unchecked, illegal farming and settlement in forests would have large scale and long- term detrimental effects on the already dwindling forests of Ghana.

Clearly, the government's efforts at stopping encroachment into TEFR have not yielded the intended results. In view of the massive nature of illegal activities and resultant large settlements in TEFR coupled with the area's growing population and increased demand for land, it is tempting to argue that the government should stop Operation halt and de- reserve TEFR. This argument is strengthened by the fact that cocoa continues to be the mainstay of the economy and that eviction of farmers and destruction of existing cocoa farms will impact negatively on livelihoods. Moreover, the operation as it stands does not reward compliance nor provide alternative livelihoods to affected families, thus the characteristic non-cooperation of farmers will probably continue.

While the above argument may be valid, it is likely to set an unwelcome precedent. If law and court rulings are about precedents then this course of action is likely to have unintended consequences for forest management. Accepting the above argument would also suggest that all options to reach an agreement have been exhausted. This paper argues that the contrary is true.

Government needs to accept its mistakes in resolving the problem thereby accepting that its policies have contributed to the current impasse. Compromises are necessary and this realisation is the key tomodifying Operation halt. In line with that, Paramount Chiefs, sub-chiefs and all farmers involved in the disputes must also accept their faults in creating the problem. As a matter of principle, TEFR should not be de- reserved, rather all pending indictments and prosecution of culprits could be quashed in return for a guarantee by . traditional and district authorities that they accept responsibility for helping to prevent further encroachments into the remaining forest reserve. Payment of forest'tevenue to traditional and district authorities could be made dependent on their success in implementing this policy. Additionally, a system of taxation could be instituted for all farmers who have encroached into the reserve. The tax should be set such that it increases every year. The purpose is to make continued occupation of the encroached forests more costly with time and so discourage it. Taxes would go towards strengthening the District Forestry Office in its efforts to protect the remaining reserve as well as intact forest reserves in the region.

The coercive aspects of the programme should be abandoned. The operation could be infused with educational programmes involving foresters, agroforesters, community workers and opinion leaders in the farming communities. It may be necessary to institute a rehabilitation scheme that engages both migrant and indigenous farmers in joint forest management with the Forestry Department. Both indigenous and exotic tree species may be planted on new cocoa farms (taungya system). This approach hasmerit becausecocoa, the

Forest reserve encroachment in W Ghana 1 11

dominant cash crop grown by farmers in the reserve, is a shade loving plant especially during its initial stages of growth. The problem is that in the past taungya operations in fully established forest reserves did not work well in the region because seedlings of timber species were simply ignored by the farmers. The Forestry Department does not have the manpower to monitor and supervise replanting activities at the farm level. A framework that allows farmers and their families to keep portions of the value of trees logged on their farms could be provided to serve as an incentive for farmers to tend trees. According to Amanor (1996), there is a wealth of knowledge on local management and rehabilitation and a rather massive failure of conventional agroforestry schemes.

For such a measure to work properly, it would be necessary to have political commitment by government and full involvement of the local people, assessment of local people's needs, appropriate technical solutions, systems of incentives, suitable rural institutions, supportive organisations, an extension network and research support (see Yao 1984). Operation halt followed a top-down approach to resolving issues. It was developed in Accra, but the new Forest Services Division seeks to restore that trend with guidelines for forest management planning that would be collaborative thus recognising the importance of local interests.

While the suggestions made in this study cannot be a panacea for solving all conflicts in the management of reserves, they have application to some of the forest reserves in Ghana currently under pressure by encroachers. It is interesting to note that most of these encroached reserves are part of the same set of protected timber lands that were later constituted as forest reserves. This paper submits that management of ecosystems that recognises and allows access by local communities will continue to pose challenges, but they can be overcome if policies intended to protect the resources reflect the views of stakeholders.

REFERENCES

AGYEMAN, V.K. 1994 Land, tree and forest tenure systems: implications for forestry development in Ghana. Prepared for Office of Learning and Dissemination, African Development Foundation, Washington, D. C.

AHN, P. M. 1959 The principal areas of remaining original forest i n western Ghana and the agricultural potential. Department of Agriculture, ADM 5/41164.

AMANOR, K.S. 1996 Managing trees in the farming system. The perspective of farmers. Planning Branch, Forestry Dept., Kumasi, Ghana, 202 pp.

BOATENG, E. A. 1966 A geography of Ghana. P* ed. Cambridge Univ. Press. 2 12 pp.

COLCHESTER, M. 1996 Beyond participation: indigenous peoples,

DIXON, J.A. and SHERMAN, P.B. 1991 Economics ofprotected areas: a new look ar benefits and costs. London, Earthscan.

ENGLAND, P. 1993 Forest protection and rights of cocoa farmers in the western region. Journal ofAfrican Law 36 (2): 164-176.

FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION 1976 Forestry administration problems in selected African countries. Rome, 60 PP.

FOOD A N D AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION 1984 Land evaluation for forestry. FAO Forestry Paper 48. Rome.

FOOD A N D AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION l985 Intensive multiple use forest management in the tropics: Analysis of case studies from India, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean. FAO Forestry Paper SS. Rome.

FAOIUNESCO. 1988 Soil map of Ghana: Soil classification legend. Survey Department, Accra, Ghana.

FORESTRY DEPARTMENT and INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR EKVIRON- VENT A N D DEVELOPMENT 1993 Study of incentives for the sustainable management of tropical high forest of Ghana. 236 PP.

HALL: J . B., and SWAIXE, M. D. 1981 Geobotany: distribution and ecology of vascular plants in a tropical rainforest. Junk publisher, The Hague, The Netherlands, 383 pp.

HAWTHORNE, W. and ABU JCAM, M. 1993 Forest protection in Ghana: Forest Inventory and Management Project. Planning Branch, Forest Dept., Kumasi, Ghana, I I I pp.

KASANGA, R. K. 1994 Land tenure systems and forest resource management: tenurial conflicts and forest conservation in Ghana. Paper presented at a workshop on Forest Land Use Options: Conflicts and Solutions; organised by The British Council, January 24-28, 1994, Kumasi, Ghana.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE appointed under E1 70. 1975. Government Printer, Accra.

YAO, Y. S. 1984 Community forestry: building success through people's participation. Unasylra 32:29-35.

biological diversity conservation and protected area management. Unasylva 47:33-39.

DEPARTMENTAL RECORDS, FOREST DEPT. Juabeso-Bia. 1973 Letter from ACF, Sefwi-Wiawso, to the Deputy CCF, Western Region.

DEPARTMENTAL RECORDS, FOREST DEPT. l990 Dairy of illegal farming in Tano-Ehuro forest Reserve. Sefwi-Wiawso.

1 1 2 International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000

Combating desertification: the Asian experience1

SEN WANG1, RUI ZHENG2 and YOULIN YANG3

Canadian Forest Service - Pacific Forestry Centre, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, B.C., Canada V8Z 7M5 senwang@pfc. forestry. ca Secretariat of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, PO. Box 260729Haus Carstanjen, Martin- Luther-King-StraBe 8, 537 75 Bonn, Germany zrui@unccd.de National Bureau to Combat Desertification, State Forestry Administration, 18 Hepingli Dongjie, Beijing 7 00714, China yangyl@caf. forestry.ac.cn

SUMMARY

Desertification is a pernicious problem that plagues millions of people in many parts of the world's arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas. In recent decades. the international community has taken initiatives to address the problem and the efforts have accelerated since the adoption of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in the mid-1990s. This paper reviews the experience in the Asian region in implementing the Convention for combating desertification. The extent of the desertification problem in the region is described and major initiatives and programmes that have been adopted by national governments in the region are summarised, with the illustration of the case of China and the highlighting of several regional action programme networks. Challenges lying ahead for the Asian region are discussed. Future needs in Asia in the continued battle against desertification are identified.

Key words: desertification, land degradation. National Actlon Programmes, Asia. Chrna

INTRODUCTION

Covering approximately one third of the total land area of the earth and inhabited by at least 900 million people, drylands - or arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas - are among the world's most important ecosystems. According to FAO ( 1999). an estimated 70% of the world's drylands are affected by a variety of land degradation and desertification processes, which affect about one sixth of the world's population. At present, the impact of desertification is believed to be felt on 3.3 billion ha of land, causing decline in soil fertility and structure and the degradation of range and cropland (Middleton and Thomas 1997, Ramnayya and Rajakutty 1997). Furthermore, the area of desertified land is expanding at an alarming rate, resulting in huge losses in ecological and economic terms (UNCCD 1996).

Human efforts in combating desertification date back decades if not centuries. One of the recent milestones was the United Nations (UN) Conference on Desertification held in Nairobi, Kenya in 1977, which led to the adoption of the UN Plan of Action to Combat Desertification. The 1980s was a decade of alarm sounding on the challenges of environmental disasters including desertification and awareness heightening about the need for accelerated and co-ordinated action by the international community. In 1992, the convening of the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil paved the way for the negotiation and subsequent conclusion of the UN Convention to Combat

S

Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought andlor Desertification, Particularly in Africa (UNCCD). The adoption of the Convention in 1994 has formalised a global institutional framework in stimulating international as well as national efforts in countering desertification.

The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the Asian experience in combating desertification. The paper is organised as follows. The second section describes the extent of the problem of desertification in the Asian region. Section 3 highlights the major initiatives and programmes that have been adopted at the country, sub-regional and regional levels in Asia. Section 4 outlines the challenges lying ahead for the region. The paper ends with some remarks regarding future needs in Asia in the continued battle against desertification.

THE PROBLEM OF DESERTIFICATION IN ASIA

The definition of desertification differs from one source to another. Mabbutt (1984) states that desertification is the diminution or destruction of the biological potential of the

l Opmons expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the agencles with whlch the authors are assoclated.

Combating desertification: the Asian experience 1 13

land, leading ultimately to desert-like conditions. Nelson (1990, p.2) observes that 'desertification is a process of sustained land (soil and vegetation) degradation in arid, semi- arid and sub-humid areas, caused at least partly by man. It reduces both resilience and productive potential to an extent which can neither be readily reversed by removing the cause nor easily reclaimed without substantial investment.' This observation served as the basis for a widely accepted definition of the term 'desertification' at the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit. According to UNCCD (2000), desertification is formally defined as 'land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.'

Hot, dry regions are invariably characterised by unreliable rainfall, resulting in low productivity. Much of the usable land in dry regions is in danger of being converted to unproductive waste by a combination of ecological and socio-economic factors. The locations in Asia that are particularly threatened by desertification are generally around the perimeters of existing deserts that sprawl across the landscape of Central Asia. However, by definition, desertified areas include all areas that are degraded. Land degradation poses a serious threat to food security and, in turn, the livelihood of rural dwellers, particularly those in marginal agricultural areas. Some form of soil degradation affects a large portion of agricultural land, pasture and forest areas in Asia. For instance, over 70% of agricultural lands in South Asia and about one quarter of the total land in Southeast Asia are degraded by one or more processes of degradation, for instance, deforestation, overgrazing and improper agricultural practices (Thapa 1998).

Wind and water erosion, waterlogging, salinity, flooding, loss of organic matter and biodiversity have been identified as the major contributors to desertification (Haq and Ul-Bari 1997). In spite of the existence of a considerable quantity of isolated data and anecdotal evidence related to desertification, hard evidence, especially in terms of field observations over time, is either lacking or poorly documented. Notwithstanding disagreements over the bio-physical nature and extent of desertification, it is commonly recognised that the effects of land degradation include sand dune encroachment and salinisation, invasion by undesirable species, and declining crop yields. It is further recognised that natural processes as well as human activities are responsible for land degradation. Many parts of Asia's drylands have experienced, and are continuing to undergo, changes towards more desert- like conditions, whereby the productivity of natural or managed ecosystems is lowered, with adverse effects on the livelihood of human populations.

INITIATIVES AND PROGRAMMES IN ASIA

Building upon the many efforts made in the past decades, including that of the UN 1977 Conference on Desertification and the Plan of Action tocombat Desertification, the birth of UNCCD has provided a formal and specialised institutional

umbrella for combating desertification at a global scale. A consensus has been achieved among the international community that UNCCD should primarily be implemented through National Action Programmes (NAPs) supplemented by regional and sub-regional programmes and initiatives. While constituting the very core of UNCCD, NAPs are developed by national governments in close co-operation with donors, local populations and voluntary organisations. Two primary purposes are supposed to be served by NAPs, that is, (i) identifying the factors contributing , t o desertification, and (ii) proposing practical measures necessary to combat desertification and to mitigate the effects of drought. Back in the 1980s, national action plans were developed in many countries under the impetus of the UN Plan of Action to Combat Desertification. However, many such plans turned out to have only partial success or simply failed. Of the many reasons that accounted for the limited effect of the previous national plans, the gap between lofty goals and dire realities, the neglect of community participation and support, and the lack of emphasis on human factors were identified as the principal causes (Kassas 1984, Dregne 1984). In principle, the new NAPs are expected to be more promising than the old ones given their greater emphasis on integrating efforts across sectors and involvement of the local communities. It has been recognised that effective action to combat desertification has to be carried out locally and must be adapted to local circumstances and conditions, but local action must be integrated into national and regional strategies to ensure that it gets adequate priority, that duplication is avoided and that resources are used optimally.

Main thrusts in combating desertification

Since the mid-1990s. Asian initiatives in combating desertification have proceeded along the following lines. First, countries in the region have responded quickly to the new Convention. One evidence is that, as of the end of February 2000, as many as 46 countries in Asia and the Pacific had submitted their instruments of ratification (UNCCD 2000). Second, in the light of the geographic vastness of the desertified areas and the socio-economic diversity of the region, it has been recognised that there are no obvious regionally applicable solutions. Thus, national governments in Asia have agreed to carry out desertification control principally at the national level by means of NAPs. In formulating NAPs, authorities tend to observe these three principles and approaches: (a) programmes proceeding in an iterative, decentralised and integrated manner, (b) viewing combating desertification as a comprehensive consultative process involving local communities and other stakeholders, and (c) designing activities to aim at capacity building, using common approaches such as training, workshops and technical advisory services. Third, Asian countries have undertaken efforts to establish a Regional Action Programme (RAP) through several regional conferences. The first Regional Conference on the Implementation of UNCCD in Asia took place in New Delhi in August 1996, followed by the

114 Sen Wang, Rui Zheng and Youlin Yang

Asian Ministerial Conference on Regional Co-operation to Implement the CCD in Asia held in Beijing in May 1997, and the International Experts Group Meeting convened in Bangkok in December 1998. The Appendix presents more details about the regional milestones by means of a chronology of the major international events regarding desertification combating, with particular reference to the Asian efforts.

National Action Programme - the case of China

UNCCD emphasises that the preparation of NAP should be a critical element in mapping out a strategic and coherent programme for combating desertification and drought. Essentially, NAP is considered a key operational tool for transforming the provisions of the Convention into concrete actions and measures for desertification control. The lessons learned from the limited success associated with previous national action plans serve as useful guidance for decision- makers in their search for new solutions to the problem of desertification. In this respect, China is a case in point.

Deserts cover 1 1.4% of China's landmass, or l . 1 million km2, most of which are in the north or northwest of the country. However, the total area of desertified land is estimated to have exceeded 2.6 million km', or 27.3% of the nation's territory (Zhang 1999). China has pursued a strategy by establishing in 1994 a national institutional structure, namely, the China National Committee for the Implementation of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (CCICCD). This committee was granted the power for initiating and co- ordinating efforts that cut across government ministries and various stakeholder groups. Spearheaded by CCICCD, China is among the first groups of Asian countries that completed the formulation of a NAP in 1996 (CCICCD 1997a, 1997b).

Subsequently, the Central Government of China developed and formulated the China National Programme for Ecological Environment Improvement in 1998. In the light of this master plan, the National Bureau to Combat

Desertification and the Bureau of Ecology Restoration of the State Forestry Administration have been combined as a single national-level authority in charge of China's national programmes and projects on desertification combating and ecological improvement. Under the auspices of the State Forestry Administration, the new agency is renamed the National Bureau for Desertification Rehabilitation and Ecology Restoration. Accordingly, China's NAP has been readjusted and re-orientated to outline a three-phase programme the implementation of which will span the first half of the 21" century (see Table I).

The China NAP has identified key programme interventions for combating desertification in the country. Among others, monitoring and assessment is considered one of the priority areas with the following key thrusts:

the collection and analysis of all information covering land degradation and its dynamic changes, with the findings to be used as background information for combating desertification: the establishment of desertification early warning systems; and the provision to central and local governments and other users of information, research results, analyses and assessment services with the aim of meeting the needs of different levels of decision-makers.

To promote capacity building and research geared towards the collective effort of combating desertification in China. the National Desertification Monitoring Centre has been created, which is complemented by the establish- ment of the National Training Centre for Combating Desertification, and the National Research and Development Centre for Combating Desertification. Linkages with academic institutions that undertake various activities concerning desertification combating are being forged through these centres. As a result, efforts have become more effective in identifying means to put scientific research results into a policy and development context as required by UNCCD.

TABLE I Three Phases of the China National Action Programme

Phase Period Features

First 2001 -2010 Arresting desertification with specific targets according to the type of forces that causes desertification (i.e. agents of erosion, rangeland degradation, salinisation, etc.). After the implementation of the programme, 12 million ha of artificial plantation of trees, shrubs and grasses will be established and vegetative coverage will be increased by 7.1%. Preservation of existing plant resources and rehabilitation of the affected lands will be emphasised as the major programme components.

Second 201 1-2030 Dealing with the stabilisation and improvement of the ecological conditions and the living environment in the regions affected by desertification. Continuity of the first phase of the projects and focus will be put on establishment of biological complex, protection of ecosystems, improvement of degraded rangeland, setting-up of reserves in arid. semi-arid and drv sub-humid areas. Ecological rehabilitation and restoration will be the core tasks.

Third 2031-2050 A~m~ng to bung under control the desert~ticatlon processes through the sustainable rehabilttat~on of the areas targeted in the first two phases In total, 17 4 mill~on ha will be rehabrl~tated by adoptmg anit~c~al plantations, enclosure and fenctng of degraded areas, dune t~xat~on, atr-seeding, water-savlng techn~ques and establ~shment of forage farms.

Source L1 (1 999)

Combating desertification: the Asian experience 1 15

China's efforts in combating desertification have yielded rich experiences over the years and Yulin Municipality has been recognised as an exemplar of success, especially at the local level. Situated at the northern tip of Shaanxi Province, Yulin embraces the southern edge of the Mu Us Desert that connects the Ordos Plateau and the Loess Plateau. Historically, the area was plagued by a high frequency of sandstorms. Worsening desertification had such adestructive effect on the livelihood of the local inhabitants that the municipality seat was relocated southward three times in the decades prior to the early 1950s. However, great efforts have been made in recent years, especially since the beginning of the 1980s. As a result, the problem of desertification is considered to be under control.

Of the many approaches that have been adopted, three have proved highly effective. First, local participation and motivation by suitable incentives are found to be essential to the successful implementation of desertification combating programmes. Within the framework of the public ownership of the land, themunicipal authorities introduced acontracting responsibility system. Encouraging rural households to improve the publicly owned sandy land by growing cereal or fodder crops and developing tree and grass cover, this system provided economic incentives because local participants were permitted to retain produce arising from their productive activities or to share the benefits in accordance with mutually agreed contracts. Over the past ten years, the various activities undertaken by the households in the municipality covered a total of 300 000 ha of sand dunes, or approximately three ha per household. Second, while the household contracting responsibility system is suitable for small-sized plots that are close to homesteads, entrepreneur- ial programmes are effective for ameliorating large tracts of remote sites. Specifically, a variety of tenure arrangements have been introduced to facilitate the transfer of user rights from the public sector to the private sector and these user rights are usually valid for an extended period of time. Those enterprises that invest in the improvement of sandy land by opening up businesses may be exempt from certain government taxes apart from entitlement to some technical support and financial subsidies. Third, applying traditional and local knowledge is essential to successfully combating desertification. It is a tenet for both NAP and UNCCD that desertification is a global problem with local solutions (Yang 2000). While establishment of artificial plantations of trees, shrubs and grasses has been recognised as the most effective measure to stabilise mobile dunes and fix shifting sands, the local people in Yulin have accumulated a reservoir of knowledge that is especially applicable to the region. One of the well-known techniques is mulching the sand surface with a mixture of straw checkerboards, clays and pebbles for slowing down movement of dunes and reducing blow-up. As a result of concerted efforts in combating desertification, today Yulin Municipality boasts a shelterbelt system running a total length of 1 500 km that protects thousands of ha of cropland. The forest cover of the municipality has been increased from the 2% half a century ago to the present 39% (Zheng 1999).

Thematic Programme Networks - a regional approach

As mentioned earlier, NAPs form the very core of UNCCD. Broadly speaking, NAPs are expected to identify the factors contributing to desertification, and practical measures needed for combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought. However, it was also recognised during the 1996 New Delhi Conference that there are cross cutting elements in the battles against desertification. In the light of this recognition, the Asian countries have decided to purslle regional co-operation through the splitting of region-wide actions into programme areas that national research institutions in the region may be invited to lead and help to implement. This approach has been endorsed to assure broad participation by institutions that enjoy comparative advantages in specialised areas related to desertification control. The underlying philosophy is based on the thinking that coalitions of research institutions working in similar areas would stimulate debate and encourage collaboration, hence the major reason for networking.

By the time the Beijing Ministerial Conference was convened in May 1997, consensus had been reached on the need to promote regional collaboration in the identified programme areas through the establishment of six thematic programme networks (TPNs) in (i) desertification monitor- ing and assessment, (ii) agro-forestry and soil conservation, (iii) rangeland management and sand dune fixation, (iv) water resources management, (v) capacity building for drought impact mitigation, and (vi) local area development. China, India and Iran expressed their willingness to act as the network task manager for the first three TPNs, respectively. The 1998 Bangkok International Expert Group Meeting firmed up, among other things, the specifics of the identified TPNs. The six TPNs were expected to form the constituent elements of the Asian Regional Action Programme. In particular. the establishment of the networks would entail the identification of objectives and principles, procedures of membership, designation of task managers, programming and delivery, and resource mobilisation.

In July 1999, the Thematic Programme Network on Desertification Monitoring and Assessment for the Asian Region, or TPNI, was formally launched in Beijing, China. National institutes from 14 Asian countries have indicated their desire to collaborate in desertification monitoring and assessment using space based technologies. March 2000 witnessed the launching of the Thematic Programme Network on Agro-forestry and Soil Conservation, also known as TPN2, in New Delhi, India. The launching of TPN3, which focuses on rangeland management and sand dune fixation, is expected to take place in Iran towards the end of 2000. The thematic programme network model has begun its infant period and the experience will be useful to the Asian region and, indeed, the rest of the world.

However, networks usually evolve slowly and the proper functioning of a network tends to follow a development path indicated by its own internal logic. As there will be half a dozen regional networks altogether, a Regional Backup Facility has been proposed to be established as a regional

1 16 Sen Wang, Rui Zheng and Youlin Yang

co-ordination unit under the auspices of UNCCD to assist countries and international organisations in monitoring the implementation of the TPNs. In the meantime, a Regional Support Group has also been proposed as a consultative mechanism, particularly to facilitate resource mobilisation in support of the implementation of TPNs and close collaboration with the international donor community (Wang 1999).

CHALLENGES AHEAD

The Asian experience indicates that many challenges encountered in combating desertification lie in the lack of adequate institutional capacity, availability of and access to appropriate and affordable technology, mobilisation of financial resources, and active participation of stakeholders. Specifically, the main challenges are threefold. First, there is a persistent dilemma. The complexity of the desertification problem and the local variability indicate the need for predominantly community-level initiatives characterised by a respect for and use of indigenous knowledge and promotion of participatory approaches supported by small-scale local experimentation rather than large-scale national or regional programmes (Yang 2000). However, such community-level initiatives are necessarily expensive to organise. A balance has to be struck to reconcile the two levels of activities in order to bring about well co-ordinated, cost effective undertakings.

Second, it is of the utmost importance to promote ( 1 ) meaningful measurement of the extent of desertification, (2) scientifically valid analyses of the causes of desertification, and (3) increased focus on the design of technologies to complement efforts in combating the problem. However. the lack of knowledge about the nature and extent of the desertification problem and about the appropriate technologies available suggests the need for more attention to research regarding the development of benchmarks and indicators relevant to desertified areas. In obtaining appropriate technologies that certainly vary from one location to another. the principle of affordability must be observed. There is a great need and urgency for more location-specific design of technologies and for more attention in adaptive research to the analysis of profitability and risk.

Third, drylands tend to be geographically remote from centres of government and administration and, indeed, from sources of capital and technology. Consequently, it is not surprising for desertification combating efforts to suffer from a lack of political commitment and financial support. Furthermore, desertification processes in vulnerable arid and semi-arid areas are inseparable from social and economic processes in neighbouring more fertile areas and other related sectors. Accordingly, it is necessary to undertake planning at appropriate levels and long-range management procedures that include desert and related non-desert areas and apply identical ecological and economic standards to both. Social structures influence land use and can be supported towards improved land management. However, it must be borne in

mind that every effort should be made to take advantage of existing institutions and try not to reinvent the wheel.

Last but not least, the ambitious Regional Action Programme approach shows that what Asia has begun to consider is bound to require (a) persistent political commitment from the national governments in the region, (b) effective co-ordination among the institutions involved, (c) adequate interactions among various stakeholders, and (d) necessary funding support from international, regional as well as national financial sources. It is expensive and risky to make accomplishment in any of the aspects, let alone the satisfaction of all the requirements in their entirety.

CONCLUSION

Although desertification is a problem of global magnitude, the complexity and local variability of the problem suggests that there are no obvious globally applicable solutions and universal technologies. Nearly half the countries of the world face problems of aridity to a varying degree, and for the last decades the international community has shown a keen interest in the problems of arid and semi-arid zones. This momentum needs to be sustained and strengthened. Governments need to build up nation-wide adaptive research and extension and community development capacity to support village-level participatory development on a selective, but expanding scale. To be able to effectively deal with the problems of dryland management there is a need for more knowledge on the extent, causes and appropriate institutional and technological responses to this complex problem. Combating desertification involves all aspects of environmental issues, including concerns surrounding poverty and food security, biodiversity, climate change and the availability of water. Asian countries have taken new steps on the long journey of desertification combating in the hope of improving the well being of the people in the region and around the world.

REFERENCES

CHIKA NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF UNCCD (CCICCD). 1997a Proceedings of the Beijing Ministerial Conference on Regional Co-operation to Implen~ent UNCCD in Asia. Chinese Ministry of Forestry, Beijing.

CHINA NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF UNCCD (CCICCD). 1997b China Country Paper on Cornbaring Desertification. China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing.

DREGNE, H.E. 1984 Combating desertification: evaluation of progress. Environmental Conservation 11: 1 15-1 2 1 .

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGAN~SAT~ON OFTHE UNITED NATIONS (FAO). l999 Forestn lnformation Notes on Combating Desertification. Rome.

HAQ, S . and UL-BARI, 1. 1997 Overview of traditional uses and know-how to combat desertification and drought in Pakistan. Irz: Proceedings of the Second Asia-Africa Forum on Combating Deserrification. UNCCD, Bonn.

KASSAS, M . 1984 Seven years after the 1977 UN Conference on Desertification: lessons learned or to be learned. Environmental Consenution 11: 195-197.

Combating desertification: the Asian experience 1 17

LI, Y. 1999 Stepping up forestry development for ecological and environmental improvement. People S Daily Overseas Edition. September 2, p.2.

MABBUTT, J.A. 1984 A new global assessment of the status and trends of desertification. Environmental Conservation 11: 103- 113.

MIDDLETON, N.J., and THOMAS, D.S.G. (ed.) 1997 World Atlas of Desertification. 2""d. Amold, London.

NELSON, R. l990 Dryland Management: The "Desertification" Problem. World Bank Technical Paper 116. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

RAMNAYYA, E.V, and RAJAKUTTY, S. 1997 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification: networking among NGO-basic framework and approaches. Desertification Control Bulletin 30: 46-57.

THAPA, G. 1998 IFAD Statement at the International Expert Group Meeting on the CCD Regional Action Program for Asia In: Proceedings of the International Experts Group Meeting on the Preparation of the Regional Action Programme for Combating Desertification and Drought in Asia. Bangkok.

UNCCD. 1996 Communiqut! Concerning the Status Quo of Global Desertification. Geneva.

UNCCD. 1998 Proceedings of the International Experts Group Meeting on the Preparation of the Regional Action Programme for Combating Desertification and Drought in Asia. Bangkok.

UNCCD. 2000 UNCCD web site: http://wwwwunccddde. WANG, S. l999 Background Paper for the Launching Meeting for

Asian Thematic Programme Network on Desertification Monitoring and Assessment (TPNI). Beijing.

YANG, Y. 2000 Report on the Measurement of the Reciprociw between Traditional and Modern Knowledge and Their Promotion. China National Committee for the Implementation of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification. Beijing.

ZHANG, Z. 1999 Tree planting for developing ecological forestry: an arduous task and a long journey. People's Daily Overseas Edition. July 6, p.2.

ZHENG, S. l999 Approaching Yulin's desertification fighters: a profile of combating desertification in Yulin of Shaanxi Province. People's Daily Overseas Edition. October 16, p.3.

APPENDIX

Chronology of Major Events regarding Desertification Combating, with particular reference to Asia

Aug. 29-Sept. 9, 1977

1979 198.5 June 1992

June 17, 1994

Oct. 15, 1994 Aug. 5- 12, 1996 Aug. 21-23, 1996

Dec. 26, 1996 May 13- 15, 1997

June 10-1 2, 1997

Sept. 2-5, 1997 Sept. 29-Oct. 10, 1997 May 26-28, 1998 Sept. 14-16, 1998

Nov. 30-Dec. 11, 1998 March 2, 1999 July 22-23, 1999 July 24-25, 1999 July 26-27, 1999 NOV. 15-26, 1999 March 14- l6,2MX)

UNESCO undertook a worldwide research programme on arid zones, in order to encourage and advance the study of the problems of these regions. This programme included publication of 30 volumes in the 'Arid Zone Research' series, and the development of important research and training institutions United Nations Conference on Desertification convened in Nairobi, Kenya following the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3337 and the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification was adopted Publication of World Map of Desertification by FAO, WMO and UNESCO Desertification recognised by FAO as one of the three major global threats to environment and development The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil provided a forum for discussion of various environmental and developmental concerns. One response was the mandate to negotiate the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought andlor Desertification, particularly in Africa (UNCCD) UNCCD formally adopted in Paris as an important international commitment to resolve the issue of land degradation in the drylands of the world and to provide guidance to its member countries to mobilise and co- ordinate resources. The designation by the UN of June 17 as World Day to Combat Desertification provides a useful event around which to focus activity UNCCD opened for signature in Paris First Asia-AfricaForum, Beijing, China to initiate collaboration between the two regions in thecontext of the CCD Regional Conference on the Implementation of UNCCD in Asia, New Delhi; this conference endorsed the concept of decentralised programme networks and identified the cross cutting elements which should be considered in the support programmes of each networks UNCCD entered into force Beijing Ministerial Conference on Regional Co-operation to Implement the CCD in Asia; i t adopted the Regional Action Programme for Asia (RAP for Asia) through the setting up of 6 Thematic Programme Networks Inter-regional Conference for Central Asia on the Implementation of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, Tashkent, Uzbekistan Second Asia-Africa Forum on Combating Desertification, Niamey, Niger First Conference of the Parties to UNCCD, Rome, Italy First Asian Meeting of UNCCD National Focal Points, Otsu, Japan International Expert Group Meeting for the Preparation of a Sub-regional Action Programme on Combating Desertification and Drought in Western Asia, Muscat, Oman International Expert Group Meeting on the Preparation of the Regional Action Programme for Combating Desertification and Drought in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand Second Conference of the Parties to UNCCD, Dakar, Senegal Workshop on Regional Research Co-operation to Combat Desertification in Asia, Tokyo, Japan Asia - Africa Technical Workshop on Early Warning Systems, Beijing, China Secorld Asian Meeting of UNCCD National Focal Points, Beijing, China Launch of TPN I (desertification monitoring and assessment), Beijing, China Third Conference of the Parties to UNCCD, Recife, Brazil Launch of TPN2 (agro-forestry and soil conservation), New Delhi, India

1 1 8 International Forestp Review 2(2), 2000

The Convention on Biological Diversity: an overview and lessons learnt from the Zimbabwean experience1

E. M. SHUMBA and D. MARONGWE

Forest Research Centre, Forestry Commission, PO.Box HG 595, Highlands, Harare, Zimbabwe

SUMMARY

Although biodiversity contributes significantly to Zimbabwe's national income, its components (v iz . forestry, wildlife, aquatic life and agriculture) are being lost at an alarming rate. This fact contributed to the country's signing and ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1994. Zimbabwe is the first country in Southern Africa to successfully complete its Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP), one of the requirements under the CBD. The Plan provides a framework rather than a detailed map of immediate action. This gives flexibility to national institutions in proposing their role and participation in implementing the action plan. Lessons learnt from the BSAP preparation process include the need for a flexible institutional framework to spearhead and coordinate the process, appropriate human capacity to prepare the document, clarity on the roles and responsibilities of the various actors and stakeholders, and timely disbursement of funds and some flexibility in the execution of certain activities.

Keywords: Convention on Biological Diversity, Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, Zimbabwe.

INTRODUCTION

In 1992, world leaders met in Rio de Janeiro to discuss issues related to the environment. This was in recognition of the wanton destruction of the world's natural resources in pursuit of economic development. For example, it is estimated that more than 1 1 million ha of the world's tropical forests are destroyed each year. This leads to. or contributes to. the loss of key habitats, soil and water erosion, land degradation, siltation of water bodies, reduction in aquatic life and global warming. While there may be debate on the magnitude of these effects, there is no doubt that deforestation and the resultant land degradation constitute a major threat to the maintenance of biodiversity and even to planetary survival. It was against this background that a number of conventions on the environment were born during the Rio Earth Summit. They include the Convention to Combat Desertification, the Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

This paper focuses on the last and the extent to which Zimbabwe, as a signatory, has implemented part of its provision namely the preparation of the Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP). Lessons learnt during the BSAP preparation process (which is new to most developing country parties) are also presented.

The term biodiversity refers to the life support systems and natural resources such as forestry, wildlife, aquatic life and agriculture upon which mankind depends. It has been described as the variation between ecosystems and habits; the variation between species; and the genetic variation within

individual species. The Convention aims to promote biodiversity conservation, its sustainable use, and the equitable sharing of the resultant benefits. It stresses the need for international; regional and global cooperation on issues related to the conservation of biodiversity because of the latter's transboundary nature and global significance. The Convention requires developed country parties to the Convention to provide financial support to developing countries for its implementation. To facilitate this, a-funding mechanism called the Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established. The fund is administered by the World Bank and UNDP on behalf of donor countries.

The Convention requires parties to take stock of their biodiversity; and to develop and implement national strategies, plans and programmes popularly known as National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans. The first stage in the development of a BSAP is the preparation of a country study report on the status of biodiversity in acountry. The report also evaluates the importance of biodiversity to the national economy and highlights various threats to its existence. This is followed by extensive stakeholder consult- ations that culminate in the formulation of a national strategy and action plan.

L A revised verslon of a paper presented at the National Conference on Environment Conservation at the Harare Internatzonal Conference Centre, 1998.

The CBD: lessons learnt from Zimbabwe 119

ZIMBABWE'S PERSPECTIVE ON THE CBD

Zimbabwe is one of the over 172 countries that have signed and ratified the CBD. Its adherence to the Convention is in recognition of the importance of natural resources to the national economy and the fact that over 70 % of the country's 12.5 million people still depend on these resources for survival. For example, the dominant sectors and their contribution to Zimbabwe's Gross Domestic Product in 1996 were as follows: manufacturing 17%; agriculture, forestry and fishing 18%; mining, 5 %: and distribution, hotels and restaurants (which include tourism) 18%. However, natural resources are being depleted at an alarming rate as shown by the following examples.

Despite their importance in providing timber and non timber forest products and a range of habitats for various fauna and flora, it is estimated that some 70,000 ha of Zimbabwe's forests are lost to agricultural expansion and other uses each year. This has led to drastic reductions in woody vegetation in some heavily populated districts of the country. Increasing human numbers coupled with habitat losses through deforestation are imposing tremendous pressure on wildlife, an important source of meat protein especially in rural areas. It is now difficult to sight wildlife species such as the rabbit in most communal areas! In the field of agriculture, commercialisation is discouraging the production andon-farm conservation of traditionally important crops such as fingermillet, pearl millet, cowpeas and bambaranuts. This leads to their genetic erosion and reduced household food security especially in drought-prone areas which constitute the bulk of the country. Deforestation, improper land use systems and industrial development are contributing to land degradation and the siltation and pollution of water bodies resulting in changes in aquatic biodiversity. For example, the Tiger fish, which used to be an important commercial fish in Lake Chivero in the I970s, has not been caught in the last six years. It is generally believed that high pollution loads in rivers draining into the lake and in the lake itself have contributed to the demise of this fish species.

It was against the foregoing sombre background that Zimbabwe found it necessary to sign and ratify the CBD. This enables the country to access financial resources from GEF through UNDP for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity components that have global significance. Furthermore, Zimbabwe has a long-established commitment to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use as shown by the following examples:

About 15% of the country is under reserved forests and national parks. These offer good examples of the in situ conservation of major vegetation and animal types i n the country. The Parks and Wildlife Act gives privileges to owners of private land and Rural District Councils in communal areas to utilise and exploit animals on their land. Such an

arrangement has given these communities incentives to sustainably manage wildlife resources through the formation of conservancies/game ranches on private land and participation in the internationally acclaimed Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) programme in communal areas. This has led to an increase in wildlife species diversity and an improvement in the ecosystems of the affected areas. However, the CAMPFIRE approach has yet to be extended to the full range of wildlife species and to other natural resources such as forests and aquatic life.

In 1987 the Zimbabwe government prepared a National Conservation Strategy document based on the World Conservation Strategy. This document contained a strategy that would ensure that the nation's natural resources are used on a sustained basis. Unfortunately the strategy failed to become an official document as it was not presented to Parliament. it was not integrated into the first five year National Development Plan of Zimbabwe (1986-1990) and did not identify accountable agencies and their respective responsibilities. Consequently, the strategy only became a reference document instead of a guide for sustainable development in Zimbabwe.

In addition, government introduced an Environmental Impact Assessment Policy whereby projects with potentially adverse environmental effects will be prescribed, making them subject to environmental audits. Furthermore it is expected that an Environmental Management Bill aimed at consolidating various pieces of environmental legislation and providing incentives and regulatory mechanisms for environmental management will soon be tabled in parliament.

WHAT HAS ZIMBABWE DONE AS A SIGNATORY TO THE CBD?

Zimbabwe, through the Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tourism applied for and obtained funds (US$300 000) from GEF through UNDP to prepare its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP). In order to prepare the BSAP, the Ministry established a Secretariat, Steering Committee and a Consulting Group. The former was responsible for the day-to-day running of the project. The Steering Committee provided overall guidance and direction to the project and linked it to related national initiative such a the State of the Environment Reporting, Climate Change, the National Action Plan and the District Environmental Action Plan. A multidisciplinary Consulting Group drawn from the public and private sectors was responsible for developing the plan.

The BSAP preparation process placed emphasis on stakeholder consultation at various levels. Such consultations were carried out during national and provincial workshops where relevant information was obtained; and the emerging un-met needs, strategies and action plans reviewed, prioritised and improved upon based on local and national realities. About 400 people including environmentalists,

120 Shumba and Marongwe

academics, administrators, politicians, traditional leaders, church leaders, business leaders and journalists participated in the exercise. International consultants with global expertise in biodiversity planning, GEF linkages and the preparation of BSAPs were brought in to provide technical backstopping to the secretariat at the launch of the project and during the final national workshop. In order to raise awareness on theBSAPpreparation process, acommunication strategy was designed and implemented. Among the activities carried out under the strategy were: a quarterly newsletter highlighting progress on the BSAP preparation process; a media workshop attended by 20 representatives of the print and electronic media, a parliamentarian's workshop attended by 25 legislatures.

Based on the consultations elaborated above, a number of un-met needs in the conservation and sustainable use of Zimbabwe's biodiversity were identified and prioritised as follows:

a) The absence of comprehensive and elaborate biodiversity inventory and monitoring programmes.

b) Inadequate incentives for some local communities and individuals to undertake biodiversity conservation and sustainable use initiatives in both protected and non- protected areas.

c) Inadequate environment awareness, education and training at various stakeholder levels.

d) Limited appreciation of the importance and contribution of biodiversity to the national economy and to local communities by policy makers.

e) Inadequate, conflicting and poorly enforced pieces of legislation that tend to adversely affect biodiversity conservation and sustainable use.

f) A limited financial base and institutional capacity to facilitate the monitoring of biodiversity projects at the local level.

g) Inadequate affordable alternatives to reduce the reliance on natural resources.

h) Inappropriate research and extension approaches in biodiversity conservation and sustainable use.

Specific strategies and plans were then formulated to address the foregoing un-met needs (the Zimbabwe BSAP). Annex 1 presents the strategies and plans developed for the first three un-met needs as an example. It must be pointed out that the BSAP provides a framework rather than a detailed map of immediate action. Such an approach gives tlexibility to various national institutions in proposing their role and participation in the implementation of the action plan. It is interesting to note that Zimbabwe is the first country in Southern Africa to have successfully completed its BSAP. The country was also commended by a GEF evaluation team that assessed BSAP preparation processes in twelve countries selected for this exercise worldwide. However, unless the brilliant plans in this document are implemented, it will, like many others before it, fail to improve the country's landscape but gather dust on beautiful office shelves!

WHITHER ZIMBABWE'S BSAP?

As pointed out earlier, Zimbabwe embarked on the BSAP project because theGovernment was convinced that this was a worthwhile undertaking and not just a fulfilment of the requirements of the CBD. Consequently, government has demonstrated its commitment to the implementation of the BSAP by keeping the Biodiversity Office in the Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tourism open for purposes of facilitating the preparation of specific projects from the plan for submission to GEF for possible funding. The following community-based project proposals have been formulated through the participation of relevant stakeholders to date:

Sustainable use of forest biodiversity: Traditional medicinal plants in Zimbabwe. The objectives of this project are to: add value and promote the conservation, cultivation and sustainable use of medicinal plants; and develop a legal framework for their conservation, sustainable use and equitable benefit sharing. Incentives for community participation in sustainable forest biodiversity in the Gwampal Lake Alice Forest and Nkayi Communal area of Zimbabwe. The objective of this project is to develop and implement incentives for community participation in sustainable forest bio- diversity management through a CAMPFIRE type approach. Sustainable utilisation of the full spectrum of wildlife biodiversity in the Binga district of Zimbabwe. The project's objective is to develop and implement a sustainable and diversified use of wildlife beyond the 'big five' (i.e. lion, elephant, leopard, buffalo and rhini;). The conservation and sustainable use of traditional crop biodiversity in the semi-arid areas of Uzumba, Maramba and Pfungwe districts of Zimbabwe. The objective of this project is to enhance the knowledge base, institutional capacity and commmnity participation in the conserv- ation and sustaianble use of traditional crop biodiversity.

In addition, theMinistry hasassisted various organisations interested in developing project proposals which are in line with the BSAP for possible financial support through GEE It is hoped that the foregoing initiatives will not only complement but also enhance current national efforts in biodiversity conservation which are hampered by financial constraints. It is noted, for example, that the government's budget allocation to key departments involved in biodiversity conservation and management fell by 49 96 in real terms over the period 1987188 to 1997198.

LESSONS LEARNT

The fact that Zimbabwe has successfully completed its BSAP is no mean achievement. This is against a background that of the 15 Eastern and Southern African nations that participated at a Regional Biodiversity Forum held on 2 l to 23 February 2000 in Kenya, only one indicated that it had

The CBD: lessons learnt from Zimbabwe 121

completed its BSAP. Reasons for the delays included the following: - Inadequate capacity to handle BSAP preparation which

was considered to be a new inter-sectoral activity within national programming processes which are largely sectoral in nature. To minimise this problem, Zimbabwe adopted a sectoral approach (that is forestry, wildlife, aquatic life and agriculture) in line with existing govern- ment structures, but the engagement of a 15 member inter- sectoral group of consultants to spearhead the technical aspects of the process helped to foster inter-sectoral linkages and facilitated the judicious utilisation of the available skills. Furthermore, two international experts from IUCN wrere invited to the process through participation at the first and final national workshops and the IUCN Regional Office for Southern Africa (ROSA) was called upon to provide specific inputs as required.

- Lack of clarity concerning the respective roles of various stakeholders during the consultation process. Given the broad nature of the subject, it was difficult to establish a representative sample size and to balance sectoral interests. This led to conflicts in some cases and to delays in completing the BSAPs. In the Zimbabwean case, consultations were carried out at both national and provincial levels with participants drawn from all walks of life. In addition, parliamentarians were involved through a special workshop in order to further strengthen constituency representation and to give legitimacy to the process. Notwithstanding the foregoing, budgetary and time constraints limited the extent of grassroots level outreach. However, the involvement of the print and electronic media earlier on in the BSAP preparation process gave it much needed coverage and publicity at all levels. To help minimise sectoral biases, emphasis was

placed on those high priority un-met needs that cut across sectoral interests during the development of the BSAP document.

- Delays in the disbursement of funds by the executing agencies and the limited time allowed for the completion of the BSAP preparation process (six months). In the case of Zimbabwe, the former problem delayed the publication of the BSAP document by almost one year. This was mainly due to procedural misunderstandings between the implementing agency (Zimbabwe), the executing agency (UNDP) and the GEF secretariat.

The following steps have been taken to ensure that (unlike its predecessors such as the National Conservation Strategy) outcomes of the BSAP process are implemented.

It is intended that the BSAP document will be officially launched by the Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tourism (MMET) before it is tabled in Cabinet for adoption as an official government document. The MMET intends to keep the Biodiversity Office operational for purposes of coordinating issues related to the CBD and assisting organisations interested in preparing project proposals that are in line with theBSAP document. Furthermore, the office will be responsible for coordinating the Zimbabwe component of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) Biodiversity Support Programme. The latter is aimed at assisting member states complete their BSAPs and to implement some components therefrom. An inter-sectoral committee to coordinate the mobilisation of resources and monitor the implementation of the resultant projects will be formed. This committee will guide and facilitate the operations of the Biodiversity Office.

122 Shumba and Marongwe

ANNEX 1 Strategies and plans developed for the top three unmet needs in Zimbabwe's B S A P

Unmet need Strategy Action Plan

1. Absence of Develop Develop or strengthen biodiversity instruments and monitoring mechanisms for all and elaborate comprehensive relevant projects. biodiversity and elaborate Establish and implement inventory and monitoring systems for various species at the inventory and inventory and genetic, species and ecosystems levels. monitoring monitoring

Identify, review and develop collaborative mechanisms for biodiversity initiatives programmes. programmes for all

undertaken by various players within and outside the country. species of flora and fauna including micro-organisms Involve local communities, institutions and traditional leaders in biodiversity - -

inventory and monitoring.

Develop criteria and review systems for the listing of specially protected species of flora and fauna.

Create databases on biodiversity issues (including socio-economic aspects) at all levels and provide linkages among the levels.

Develop the human and infrastmctural capacity to inventory, monitor, document and store biodiversity information at various stakeholder levels.

2. Inadequate Create incentives incentives for and opportunities local for biodiversity communities conservation. and individuals to undertake biodiversity conservation and sustainable use initiatives.

Review, modify and adopt appropriate methods in the conservation and sustainable use of all flora and fauna (e.g. the CAMPFIRE approach).

Develop appropriate and transparent benefit sharing mechanisms. Adopt a participatory approach in biodiversity conservation and sustainable use

Establish and implement reward systems that recognise local biodiversity conservation efforts.

Develop a framework for protecting and rewarding local innovations and indigenous technical knowledge. Increase the role of and empower local institutions and communities in biodiversity conservation and sustainable use matters.

3. Inadequate Develop and implement a Strengthen environmental education (including biodiversity) at all levels in the environmental a clear, definite formal education curricula. awareness, coordinated national Review activities of players involved in informal environmental awareness education and policy and legislative education programmes and suggest ways of enriching and coordinating their training at framework on activities. various environmental awareness,

Package biodiversity awareness, education and training materials and messages in stakeholder education and training.

local languages. levels.

Establish an environmental watchdog (with public and private sector players) to develop, monitor and evaluate inter-sectoral programmes on environmental awareness, education and training

Develop targeted information dissemination systems for resource user groups (including that targeted at traditional leaders, local institutions, the church and traditional healers).

Develop programmes to implement the environmental awareness, education and training policy and recognise the central role played by the print and electronic media in the process.

Source: Republic of Zimbabwe ( 1998)

International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000 123

COMMENT

The world of teak plantations

R. KEOGH

International Coordinator Teak 2000, 27 Loreto Grange,Bray, Co. Wicklow, Ireland

Bois et For& des Tropiques recently carried a three-part series of articles on teak (Tectona grartdis, Linn. f) that includes eight contributions dealing with most of the important issues relating to its cultivation. The series is timely in that teak, apriority plantation species in the tropics, has received growing interest and attention in recent years, especially on the part of the private sector.

Most of the authors clearly favour teak, pointing out that world-wide demand outstrips supply, and prices often tend to be superior to those of other comparable species. High demand is likely to continue because of the recognised quality of teak timber and because of over-exploitation in areas of natural teak forest. The durability, colour and hue of the wood and its resistance to various forms of rot, mould and insect attack will ensure that the species will always be popular.

Behaghel (1999) provides a brief outline of the history and state of teak throughout the world. The article indicates that, at the present time, there are some 3 million ha under plantations. But statistics about the area are difficult to verify (e.g. Ball (1999) provides a world figure of 2.3 million ha under plantations in 1995). Behaghel mentions four species of Tectotla within the genera, including 7: grandis, 7: handtoniana, 7: philippinerlsis and 7: abluderis and identifies their locations. Only 7: grandis, however, is widely known in the market.

Economic pressures favour short rotations. Therefore, the proportion of small diameter utilisable material is likely to increase from plantations. Behaghel leaves us with a question - should teak stands be cut on early rotations ( l 5-20 years old) to generate income quickly, or should they be left to produce larger diameters (on 40 - 50 year rotations) when they can fetch the best log prices?

Monteuuis and Goh (1 999) acknowledge the current lack of appropriate planting stock, which is caused by limitations in conventional methods of propagating the species by seeds. Consequently, there is a need to explore vegetative propagation techniques. Recent developments of efficient mass clonal propagation by cuttings and micro-cuttings are discussed. A further article is provided by Monteuuis et al. ( 1999) in a Special Issue of Bois et For& and deals with the propagation of teak by in vitro cultivation. These articles are particularly interesting as they outline several methods by

which teak can be propagated. Cuttings and micro- propagation techniques have particular advantages or disadvantages depending on different sets of circumstances. Sound advice is provided by Monteuuis et al. when they recommend: 'The development of adapted protocols for propagating teak both by in vitro culture and by stem cuttings within the same project allows a better comparison on a realistic basis of these two vegetative propagation methods, which can profitably complement each other.' For example, in vitro methods can be useful for initiating cultures free of pathogenic organisms and can be sent to different destinations with phytosanitation immunity. Propagation by the more traditional rooted cuttings may then be employed if skilled staff are not available for micropropagation.

The methods can be used not only for research purposes but at the operational level also. The potential now exists for establishing clonal wood production plantations to provide improved yields on shorter rotations and with the prospects of homogeneous quality. The authors warn that more reliable data are still required before large scale clonal plantations can be established on a sound basis. However, it seems we are a long way down that road.

Bhat (2000) discusses timber quality of plantation teak. Special reference is made to India where the species is clearly the most preferred timber species for the production of high quality sawn wood and veneer from fast-growing hardwood plantations. The article is significant because it highlights the implications of research results for genetic selection. It is noted that selection of individual trees within a specific provenance can offer greater potential than selection of provenances in breeding programmes for the improvement of specific gravity.

The article is also significant because it discusses the implications for timber properties of intensive management, fertiliser treatment and irrigation. Very heavy and moderate thinning treatments in India and Myanmar were found not to alter the strength properties of the timber. There appears to be no cause for concern where plantations are fertilised. There are some discrepancies in information emanating from irrigated plots - more information is needed here.

Regarding rotation length, it is noted that teak can attain optimum timber strength properties in 21 year old plantations. The mean annual increment for shorter rotations

124 Keogh

is almost twice that of plantations grown to 60 years. Faster growth is correlated with higher heartwood percentages of juvenile trees. Bhat concludes: 'Plantation managers therefore can aim at producing larger diameter logs with greater heartwood yield (larger cylinder) per tree by accelerating tree growth of short rotation plantations.' Given the possibility of short rotations the importance of processing small dimension timber is discussed. Appropri- ate processing technologies are needed to ensure that output meets high market standards.

The financial value and genetic potential of teak often make non-destructive methods for wood quality assessment preferable. Bailleres and Durand (2000) consider a sampling protocol that is time saving, easy to manage, cost-effective and that produces samples on which all required measurement can be made. The proposed method extracts the samples from standing trees using a hand-held motor driven drill that removes a core of 12 mm diameter and a length of 30 to 40 cm.. Although several aspects still require to be fine-tuned and developed, measurement on density, shrinkage, colour and natural durability can be carried out on these samples.

Dupuy et al. (1999) turn our attention to the growing plantation and discuss a conventional teak production table for CGte d'Ivoire. The table is an update of an older table and is the fruit of long-term investigations, being compiled after 25 years of research. The oldest plots which were incorporated into the measurements now represent 61 years of growth. The table is based on 200 permanent and temporary sample plots spread across a range of site types including savanna, pre-forest and forest areas. The C8te d'Ivoire tables have found uses beyond the country's borders. Other West African nations. such as Benin and Togo that have not developed tables of their own, have utilised them as valuable guidelines.

Five quality or fertility classes are recognised and average growth rates range from 5 to 16 m%a - ' y -' over rotations of 55 and 35 years respectively. Best growth is found in the wetter (closed) forest areas and ranges from 10 to 16 m! These growth rates are respectable amongst world averages. In pre-forest zones, mean annual increment is between 7 and 10 m', whereas on savanna sites, the range is from 5 to 7 m'ha-' y-'.

Cossi Ganglo and Lejoly (1999) provide the manage- ment perspective from Benin where teak represents 70% of the country's plantations. The original objective of management was to provide sawn timber in good quality and quantity for the local population. Actual thinnings in old stands are less than the recommended yields in equivalent CGte d'Ivoire tables. However, all the products of thinning and final harvest are utilised, making teak the most valuable species in the country. The socio-economic importance of Benin's plantations is also outlined - more than 2 million man-days of employment have been provided in the plantations and today several hundred people work in the teak forest sector.

Of particular interest is the use of natural regeneration in management. Cleared sites can produce between 7,000 and

l

20,000 seedlings per ha after clearing and must be thinned back to produce conventional type blocks. Prominent amongst management problems are windblow and root rot. Windblow is exacerbated in stands where root rot is prominent, as trees are already weakened.

A topic of particular importance is the understorey. A large research study was undertaken and the conclusions emanating from it are useful for guiding good management practices. In the interests of sustainability, a healthy forest floor is imperative as it can avoid erosion and fire damage, and can provide humus litter. Biodiversity of the ground layers of old teak stands is significant; 8 types of vegetation are distinguished, depending on site factors.

Maldonado and Louppe (1999) outline the relationship between the farming community and teak in C6te d'Ivoire. Village plantations correspond to almost 10 percent of the total area planted in the country. Most plots are on a small scale (less than 10 ha). A problem facing villages in the recent past is that local people were not interested in participating in plantation schemes because planted trees belonged to the state. Recent reforms are designed to overcome such problems.

The uses of teak for the local rural and town populations are wide and varied and include poles for construction, rural furniture, bridges, weaving looms, scaffolding, firewood, live fences, boundary markers, etc. Teak leaves are employed widely as wrappers by butchers in the northern markets. Cheaper native woods than teak supply sawn wood to the local markets. Teak logs are used for export.

Unfortunately, a lack of knowledge concerning the financial value of the species is widely observed amongst local farmers and this is exploited by timber buyers. However, information about the value of the species is becoming more widespread.. This has led to the current trend for urban dwellers to invest in plantations in rural areas. There is also increasing private interest in teak plantations.

Vernay (2000) deals with importation of teak timber into France. The species is highly regarded because of its superior properties for a wide range of end uses. The author reminds us that it does not cause corrosion when in contact with metals; it nails well and has natural resistance against fungi and insects. It is not affected by water and therefore is used in marine construction and for floors and tables in wet rooms. It is suitable as garden furniture and decking. Denser timbers are not sought by furniture manufacturers because they are too heavy. Another advantage is its hardiness and it can be used to good effect in flooring. For these and other reasons, teak is extremely popular in France.

A network of specialised importers has grown up in the country and they offer the species in the form of logs, sawnwood, rough planks and end products. Accurate statistics are difficult to obtain partly because the wood comes into the country through a number of channels. There has been a large increase in importations. Hyper-markets buy teak finished products for sale and these outlets contribute to the demand.

Logs with large top diameters provide the type of timber used for the decking of boats and for high quality furniture.

The world of teak plantations 125

Most of this comes from traditional sources (e.g. Myanmar). However, there are restrictions on the supply of larger dimension timber. African teak is associated with the lower value end of the market. Because of the demand, small dimension timber from short rotation crops finds a ready market in France. Even the sapwood / heartwood mix is considered as a plus and regarded as aesthetically pleasing. Knots may cause defects, though knots are also becoming fashionable in teak in France.

Overall, a glowing and supportive picture has been painted for teak. This is not always how the species is portrayed in the literature (e.g. Keh 1997). Besides. there are many calls for a 'new forestry' and a move away from conventional plantations and monocultures towards more complex systems (e.g. Oliver 1999 and Shepherd 1993). A discussion on these issues in the context of future teak plantations would have benefitted the series.

For many years teak foresters have been cautioned about the dangers of causing soil erosion and the loss of humus through poor site selection and poor management of plantations. The advent of sustainable forest development demands that renewed emphasis be placed on avoiding these problems. Supplementary silvicultural management tech- niques may be found by looking to the natural forest where teak is encountered individually, in dense thickets mixed with bamboo, in groups, in patches or pure, depending on a range of site factors and stand history.

Much of the current supply of high grade tropical hardwoods originates from deforestation and degradation. It will be difficult to bring sufficient areas of tropical forests under sustainable management to supply future needs. Quality hardwood plantations could provide supplementary sources. For these reasons, teak wood which is certified. on the basis of social and environmental practices throughout its entire forest and wood chain, has a bright future.

The present series of articles show that teak is a species of great flexibility, with a multiplicity of end uses, serving a spectrum of markets. It can provide many benefits for a range of growers from rural communities to commercial cultivators. Therefore, teak plantations appear set to continue playing an important role in tropical forestry in the future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Mr. Thibaud Lefebvre for help in the translation of French articles.

REFERENCES

[BFT = Bois et ForCts des Tropiques]

BAILLERES, H. and DURAND, P. Y. 2000 Non-destructive techniques for wood quality assessment of plantation-grown teak. BFT 263 (1):17-29.

BALL, J. B.. PANDEY, D. and HIRAI, S. 1999 Global overview of teak plantations. Regional seminar on site, technology and productivity of teak plantations. Chiang Mai. Thailand.

BEHAGHEL, 1. 1999 Etat des plantations de teck (Tecrona grandis L. f.) dans le monde. (The state of teak plantations in the world). BFT 262 (4):6-18.

BHAT, K. M. 2000 Timber quality of teak from managed tropical plantations with special reference to Indian plantations. BFT 263 (1):6-16.

Cossl GANGLO, J. and LEIOLY, J . 1999 Le teck au Benin. Gestion et perspectives. (Teak in Benin - management and prospects). BFT 261 (3): 17-27,

DUPVY, B., MAITRE, H-F. and N'GUESSAN KANGA, A. l999Table de production du teck (Tecrona grandis). L'exemple de la CBte d'lvoire. (Teak yield table -the example of CBted'lvoire). BFT 26 1 (3):7- 16.

KEH, K. 1997 Whither goest Myanmar teak plantation establishment? Proc. XI World Foresrn Congress.

MALDONADO. G. and LOUPPE. D. l999 Plantations villageoises de teck en CBte d'Ivoire. (Teak from farmers' plantations in CBte d'lv'oire). BFT 262 (4): 19-30.

MONTEL~UIS, O., BON, M-C. and GOH, D. K. S. l999 Teak propagation by in virro culture. BFTSpecial Issue 1" trimestre 1999.

MONTEUUIS, 0. and GOH, D. K. S. 1999 About the use of clones in teak. BFT 261 (3):28-38.

OLIVER, C. D. 1999 The future of the forest management industry: highly mechanised plantations and reserves or a knowledge- intensive integrated approach? For: Chrori. 75 (2):229-245.

SHEPHERD, K. R. 1993 Significance of plantations in a global forestry strategy. Australiatl Forestry 56 (4): 327-335.

VERNAY, M. 2000 Le teck en France. pour quoi faire? (Teak in France - what for?). BFT 263 (1):31-38.

126 International Forestp Review 2(2), 2000

TWO COMMENTS FROM NEW ZEALAND

The two Comments which follow by Messrs Whyte (lately of the School of Forestry, University of Canterbury, Christchurch) and Perky arise from the debates concerning the management of indigenous forest on the West Coast of South Island, culminating in the announcement in September 1999 by the Prime Minister of New Zealand, Ms. Helen Clark. that the government were banning timber harvesting on all the State forests concerned. The resulting controversy has been well aired in New Zealand but not so widely noted elsewhere. We are grateful to our two contributors for opening up the subject to a wider audience. The sharp disagreements that have emerged between foresters and many others on the one hand and a determined set of politicians on the other serve to remind professional foresters of the onerous and continuing need to explain the reasons for their actions and so, one hopes, to educate opinion formers.

Forestry in New Zealand undermined

A..G. D. WHYTE

Forplan Services, PO. Box 12297, Christchurch 8030, New Zealand fore020@its. canterbury,ac. nz

BACKGROUND

Committed foresters will be dismayed to learn that, as many predicted, New Zealand politicians have embraced and implemented policies which by banning permitted forestry practices have brought forestry to the depths of despair. The Crown-owned indigenous forests, all except about 9 000 ha, have been locked up in the belief that this will preserve them, the plantation forests are treated as tree farms administered largely by overseas-controlled companies, and constructive advice from the forestry profession is still being ignored by politicians.

This note sets out a factual account of how this tragic situation has eventuated with respect to the indigenous forests and refers in particular to the latest round of political irrationality.

BRIEF HISTORY TO 1987

New Zealand's land area is around 27 million hectares. Today, approximately 52 per cent of the land area is devoted to some form of agriculture, 6 per cent is plantation forest and 24 per cent is indigenous forest. A thousand years ago, 75 per cent of the land area was covered in trees. When the first major influx of European settlers arrived in 1840, over 50 per cent of the land area was still covered in forest. By 1920, when a State forestry department was first created, at least a further 8 million hectares of forest had been cleared for pastoral agriculture. The remaining forest types were the kauri forests in the north, podocarp and podocarphardwood in the warmer, wet, lowland areas throughout the country, and southern beech (Nothnfagus spp.) in the south, the mountains and dry lowlands. From 1920 till 1987, when the

Forest Service was dis-established, the net area of indigenous forest slightly increased from 6.0 to 6.4 Mha. The Forest Service administered less than half this, the Lands Department (national parks, other reserves and areas with potential for farming) about the same and 22 per cent was in one form of private ownership or another.

In 1920, Macintosh Ellis, a Canadian forester who had observed and assimilated sustainable forestry practice in France and Germany during and after the 19 14- 18 war, took up an appointment as the first Director of Forestry in New Zealand. His first report that same year, 'Forest conditions in New Zealand, and the proposals for a New Zealand Forest Policy' was considered a masterly review of the situation. I regard its contents as a visionary document that anticipated, for example, the principles spelled out at the Rio Summit 70 years later. Although 16 000 ha of various exotic plantation species had been successfully established by 1920, Ellis was anxious to determine first whether or not the indigenous forests alone could supply the country's long-term wood needs, as well as providing the usual range of non-timber beneficial goods and services emanating from healthy forests. Thus, he commissioned an inventory of the forests nation-wide between 192 1-23 to provide the necessary data for an analysis. From the information revealed in this exercise, it became obvious that the long-term wood supply capability would run out around 1965. Accordingly, it was on this basis that he petitioned the government to establish plantations of exotic conifers to ensure that the wood needs of New Zealanders could be supplied domestically and that the indigenous forests could survive. But he never envisaged that indigenous timber supply should ever dwindle to zero.

Forestty in New Zealand undermined 127

This approach was reinforced in the mid-thirties by the third director, A.D. McGavock, in his review of forest policy after the worst of the depression years had passed. He pressed for a more conservative continuation of the same, but the government terminated new plantings, because the target set in 1925 for the following 10 years had been more than met by 193 1. McGavock was successful, however, in securing an increase in the area under Forest Service control to 3.4 Mha and anticipated that sustainable levels of harvest from indigenous forest could be maintained. But the Second World War created all sorts of increased demands on the forests, particularly for new housing and farm development for returned servicemen.

A comprehensive multi-resource national inventory of the indigenous forest resource was undertaken from 1946- 55. The main points that emerged were: ( l ) that the condition of all forests, whether timber had been harvested from them or not, had deteriorated because of the adverse impacts of a wide range of introduced pests; (2) that the residual timber resource had been depleted more than expected; (3) ecological data had become available to demarcate forest types regionally; and (4) sample plots had been marked so that re-measurements could be conducted to monitor trends. A useful outcome of this national forest survey was the establishment of an arm of research charged with conducting regional monitoring of vegetation and wildlife in forest ecosystems, developing means of controlling pests, maintaining soil and water quality, and refining forest type maps. The basis was in place by 1960, therefore, for ways of determining and reporting many of the indicators needed today to demonstrate that the extent, composition, structure, health and biodiversity of the country's forests were being maintained. But there was never sufficient funding provided to permit the research to be applied managerially in practice. Any revenue from state forest harvests went to a government consolidated fund, and all state forest expenditure was allocated through a parliamentary annual vote. After 1969 the government further decreed that any state investment in reforestation and silviculture had to earn a return of at least 10 per cent.

The Forest Service proposed a scheme in 1969 to harvest and process wood from beech forests in Nelson, Westland and Southland, three provinces in the South Island, but there was considerable opposition from vociferous environmental groups. Mr Guy Salmon was one of the leaders of that initial opposition and more about his changing role is touched on later. The Forest Service drew up arevised indigenous forest policy for Crown forests in 1974, which represented a re- statement of multiple-use and encouragement of participatory decision-making from all stakeholders. But the National government took till 1977 to ratify the policy, and so the Beech Scheme had to be dropped because of a lack of voted funds to maintain the impetus of the proposals.

MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS FROM 1987 TO 1999

On 1 April 1987, the fourth Labour government made sweeping changes to the public service in general. It had

decided in September 1985 to split forests into 'commercial' and 'non-commercial' types. Essentially, all state indigenous forests were classed as non-commercial and most plantations were regarded as commercial. This ludicrous split denied that all types of forest could and did fulfil a wide range of functions. Nine State-owned enterprises were created, among them the Department of Conservation (DoC), theMinistry of Forestry (MoF) and the New Zealand Forestry Corporation. DoC was charged with preserving natural, non-commercial forests, managing native and introduced fauna and public recreation; MoF provides all the support services formerly carried out by the Forest Service, but with no land and no land administration function; while the NZFC was made a company responsible for managing the commercial forestry assets until sold to private buyers.

DoC now has over 9 million hectares to look after, about 5 Mha of which is in indigenous forest. It was created through a collusion of Treasury, government and environmental groups, on the basis that indigenous forests and other resources would be locked up thus requiring no or very little funding to run. DoC has never attempted in its 13 years of existence to conduct multi-resource inventories over its whole forest resource, because it has neither the resources nor staff to do so and, anyway, there is no legislation requiring it to manage forests sustainably. Rather, the forests are largely left to survive on their own in the mistaken belief that they can be preserved in their present state with virtually no managerial intervention. The criteria and indicators required under the Montreal Process protocol to which New Zealand is a signatory cannot, therefore, be reported without a change of political and departmental attitude.

But there was a fly in the ointment. In 1986, the West Coast Accord was signed (see Salmon 1993). The West Coast region contained the country's last area of indigenous timber production forest in State hands. This Accord officially gazetted c. 130000 ha of the 1.8 Mha of indigenous forest in the region for sustainable wood production. The Crown, moreover, owns 92 per cent of all the 2.3 Mha of land on the West Coast. This agreement was worked out under the aegis of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (PCE) among regional and national government officials, environmental NGO's, foresters and sawmillers. The then Minister of Forests and Deputy Prime Minister (today now Prime Minister) promised to uphold this Accord as a matter of honour, and urged all stakeholders to do likewise. As will be seen later in this overview, New Zealand's Prime Minister of the moment does not appear to have earned her Rt. Hon. title.

The Resource Management Act (RMA) was enacted in 199 1 in order to integrate environmental law into a single all- embracing document aimed at promoting the sustainable management of natural and physical resources. The Act refers specifically to use of resources in a balanced way for people's and communities' 'social, economic and cultural wellbeing and for their health and safety'. This'legislation turned out to be very similar in intent to the 1992 Rio

128 Whyte

Declaration of Forest Priniples and Agenda 21 for SustainableDevelopment to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. New Zealand foresters were very happy to embrace the thrust of both the RMA legislation and the international agreements. But the extreme environmental lobbyists in this country were still intent on halting all harvests (whether sustainable or not) in indigenous forests and interpreted the RMA to mean that 'ecological values', whatever that term means, should always take precedence over people, as though human communities are not part of ecosystems.

New Zealand also signed the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Montreal Process. An amendment to New Zealand's Forests Act of 1949, the 1993 Forests Amendment Act (FAA), was inserted as Part IIIA of the main act. This required all indigenous forest land. with four exceptions, to be managed so as to provide a full range of goods and services while retaining the forests' natural values. DoC was one of the four identified types of forest owner not required to manage its forest resources sustainably. It has not been seen to attempt sustainable forest management as yet in its 13 years of existence, nor has it announced any intention to do so, given the paucity of staff and funds allocated to it.

Another exception specified in the FAA was Timberlands West Coast Ltd. (TWC), a State Owned Enterprise formed in 1990 out of the Forestry Corporation forests allocated under the West Coast Accord. The Deed of Appointment required it, inter alia, to effect an industry transition from unsustainable to sustainable harvesting and management of the ecosystems, and to earn profits. Government control of TWC was exercised through two shareholding ministers of the Crown, the Ministers of Forestry and Finance. TWC had been conducting sustainable helicopter harvesting of its two podocarp forests in South Westland in the 1990's and made similar plans for the beech forests allocated to it in the north. These plans were reviewed and vetted by the PCE and MoF (twice), before application was made for a local government Resource Consent to manage the beech resource sustainably. The District Councils involved invited public submissions regarding the consent application and engaged an independent expert, aprofessor of environmental science, to examine the plans in great detail and on the ground itself. On the basis of that expert's critique and the other submissions. a formal court hearing was scheduled for the week of l 3 to 17 December, 1999. The view of the Councils' expert was that the plans were environmentally acceptable and the balance of submissions was also in favour of the consent being granted. But halfway through the first day of the hearing, the Shareholding Ministers forced TWC to change its statement of corporate intent to disallow beech management and so TWC had to withdraw its application. This directive was carried out within one hour of the ministers being sworn in and before the minority coalition government had been formally sworn in.

The Labour contingent claimed first of all that results of the November general election had given Labour ministers the mandate to implement unilaterally the party's new forest

policy announced on 10 September, but that reason had to be quietly shelved. In March 1999, the Canterbury section of the NZ Institute of Forestry had invited the spokesperson from each of the five major political parties to outline and discuss their party's policy on forestry. The Labour spokesman, Mr. J. Sutton, gave a well reasoned account of his party's commitment to managing all forest ecosystems sustainably, and when asked about rumoured changes in this, he was adamant that there would not be. On 10 September when the Labour party's leader announced a new forest policy that banned timber harvesting from all State forests, Mr Sutton resigned his forestry spokesmanship and has refused to be drawn on the real reason for so doing. People on the West Coast were furious because there is very little else with which they can develop an industry when the Crown holds 92 per cent of the available land resource. The Labour leaders announced that they would encourage the expansion of plantation forests to fill the gap, but any such increase would be inappropriate in aregion where 80percent of the land area is covered in indigenous forests growing on inhospitable soils. There is no land resource suitable for an expansion of plantations and even if there was, the adverse impact of introducing more plantations of introduced species to a landscape dominated by indigenous forest is abhorrent to most people.

The new Minister of Forestry, Mr. P. Hodgson, was required to reply to questions in Parliament about his decision. He stated that he was convinced that TWC's proposed harvests were unsustainable, by his having 'pushed buttons to run a beech model on the Internet'. This was a steady state matrix model, which was inappropriate to any form of adaptive management system, and was run on incorrect default data and assumptions. Later, Mr Hodgson had to concede that he was wrong in this assertion, but said that the plans were 'ecologically unsustainable', which I would take to mean that the proposed management of the forest ecosystems would change their ecological nature unsatisfactorily. Again, he had to retract that assertion, as various independent experts indicated that the outcomes would likely be sustainable in ecological terms. This was what Professor Jerry Vanclay, recipient of the Queen's Award for Forestry at the 1997 Commonwealth Forestry Conference, had to say in his presentation to the cancelled hearing. "New Zealand may achieve more for forest conservation globally by promoting the sustainable use of these beech forests, than can be achieved locally by adding to the already extensive beech conservation reserves " and "Perhaps the most important question relating to sustainability is a simple one: will the forest still exist in the future, and what will it look like?For me, the answer is clear. I expect that the forest will look virtually indistinguishable from comparable areas from which timber harvesting has been excluded, with just two exceptions: the provision of roads may make the forest more accessible, and predator control may mean that the Timberlands forests may have more birds."

Mr Hodgson now hides behind a reason that it was a 'value judgement' that persuaded him and his party to halt

Forestry in New Zealand undermined 129

sustainable harvestingin State indigenous forests. He is now targetting TWC's remaining 7000 ha of podocarp forest being sustainably harvested and managed, even though a recent report on monitoring native bird populations in them has confirmed that they have indeed risen in the last 5 years.

The media were at first slow to pick up on the consequences of Labour's irrational policy, but are now criticising it increasingly. In 6-monthly polls by a recognised survey organisation, conducted over the last 3 years, only between 10 and 12 percent of the population is opposed to harvesting in indigenous forest, about 70per cent are in favour provided that it is sustainable, with the remainder having no opinion. Even Mr Salmon, a signatory to the West Coast Accord, is urging the government not to remove TWC's right to harvest sustainably about 7000 ha of podocarp forest and to recognise that the top priority is sustainable forest management, not unrealistic preservation of ecosystems. I do believe that Mr Salmon's more rational approach today was to some extent a legacy from Commonwealth foresters' dialogue with him in Kuala Lumpur at the 1993 Commonwealth Forestry conference. I hope they will again use their knowledge and skills to persuade our Labour politicians to allow sustainable forest harvests, if only to earn some revenue to combat rampant,

introduced pests in our forests and help reduce the US$500 million hardwood timber and associated forest products bill we have incurred annually in recent years. But if the present government will not change its policies, then it should be advised that it has no right to retain its signature to the various UN conventions and protocols and that it needs to revise the intent of its own RMA legislation.

Only three bibliographical references are given, in the interest of economy of space. Roche (1990) is a source full of references relating to pre-1987 events; Salmon (1993) contains an ENGO's views and the web-site refers to accounts of some current events and thinking. There is much detail that is not supplied here, but readers interested in further detail will find much relevant material referred to in the three below.

REFERENCES

ROCHE, M. l990 History of New Zealand Foresrn. GP Publications Ltd. 466 pp.

SALMON, G. 1993 Conservation and environmental management: an NGO's view. Commonw. For: Rev. 72 (4) No.23 1,233-241.

Does Tim berlands represent a positive vision?'

C.J.K. PERLEY

Chris Perley andAssociates, Forest and Natural Resource Consultants, PO Box 71 16, Dunedin 9001, New Zealand chris@perleyandassoc. CO. nz

INTRODUCTION

In attempting any communication there is a need to establish a common ground of assumptions. Disagreements occur, and any solution must come at that level. Arguing at a higher level without reference to assumptions always involves arguing past each other: you say 'Timberlands are bad' - I say 'Timberlands are good.' Here are some of the assumptions that lead me to the conclusion that Timberlands is 'good'.

A SUSTAINABLE VISION?

All environmentalists have one thing in common: they want a sustainable future for the earth's ecosystems. Where there are differences lies in the position of the human species (is it included or not?), and in the respective paradigms of 'nature' to which people subscribe.

One type of environmental perspective has dominated the 'Timberlands Sustainable Beech Management' debate, in fact most environmental debates, at least in New Zealand. It is the preservationist perspective. It fails to acknowledge human communities embedded in ecosystems. It fails to encompass wider considerations of a sustainable future. It fails totally to acknowledge any view other than that any extractive 'use' of a forest will inevitably result in a forest decline, even its ultimate destruction. Preservation posits a simply alternative between use and forest 'protection', with therefore a simple conclusion that all extractive human practices must cease.

' An edited version of an address given at Otago University to 'Native Forest Action', an environmental group dedicated to the preservation of indigenous forest.

130 Perley

The whole preservationist perspective essentially advocates an ever-increasing area placed under preservation - it seeks to allocate more land to the single function of preservation, where observation remains one of the few acceptable human activities. Extractive resource use is out; the belief being that such is mutually exclusive from the desired end of protection.

With this advocacy comes corollaries, and it is within these corollaries wherein lies the failure of vision that preservation represents. It allocates parts of the environment to a singular function. Implicit in that choice is an acceptance that human demands must be met from heavily modified environmental systems, for humans - like any animal -have demands. The preservationists' choice is use or protection. Given the same human demands for resources, more preserves necessitate more intensive land management outside the preserves -even the bogey of some forms of genetic engineering.

This is a logical corollary of a preservation/allocation model under existing resource demands. The preservation- ists share the stage with those advocates for intensification (narrower objectives and more inputs) of land management. In New Zealand that means advocating a perennially under- funded preservation land use administration (the Depart- ment of Conservation) that has demonstrated an inability to reverse our indigenous biological decline on the 25 percent of New Zealand over which it has jurisdiction. Combine that advocacy with an implicit encouragement of the intensive land use practices that have been associated with our major environmental problems - nitrate pollution of waterbodies, soil erosion, and intensive management's own influences on biodiversity decline (Taylor and Smith 1997). Preservation rewards a failure, and fails to challenge another failure.

Preservation does nothing to change the overall ethical approach to ecological and resource management. Yet it is the simplest concept as an environmental paradigm or model (the simple assumption being that 'preserving it will save it, and then we'll all be all right'), and therefore enjoys the greater share of public support, at least in New Zealand. This does not make it right.

There is an alternative conservation paradigm. It is more complex, and requires, irlter alia, a change of perspective in our human relationships with the environment (an ethical change). This model is to broaden our environmental considerations across the widest landscape, with a commensurate move away from intensification and preserves toward creating a society (a group with some commonality of values) and an economy that works within the world's ecological limits. I believe it also requires a change toward an ecological economics and an environmen- tal ethic which treats humanity as part of the environment.

Others environmentalists have argued for such an approach, not least Leopold's 'land ethic' (1949), Nash's 'new environmentalists' (1967), and Norton's 'new environmental management paradigm' (1992). They represent a paradigm shift in environmentalism, involving working with people as well as ecosystems, away from the rather puritanical, authoritarian, finger-pointing perspec-

i

tives which prefer appatently quick-fix rule-based solutions rather than more complex consciousness-changing solu- tions. What we as a species do is a function of our belief systems and perspectives. Therefore, a sustainable future requires that we change these fundamentals, instead of applying band aids that do nothing to change the perspectives. Unfortunately, the preservation paradigm attempts to force compliance within a system that keeps encouraging the wrong perspectives. Changing perspectives requires a positive vision, not a negative bible thumper.

Here is what DonnelaMeadows (1996) said in relation to the current predominant environmental message and philosophy. She is a co-author of the Club of Rome report on the Earth's environment - particularly relating to resource depletion. Her environmental credentials are established.

'Environmentalists have failed perhaps more than any other set of advocates to project vision-which may be as much a statement about the culture into which environmentalists are trying to communicate as it is about their communication ability. The general public associates environmentalism with restriction, prohibition, regulation, and sacrifice. When I ask people what they think a sustainable world might be like, I usually hear about tight, centralized control, low material standard of living, and no fun ..... Whatever the reason, hardly anyone seems to envision a sustainable world as one that would be nice to live in. The best outcome of reaching sustainability that the public perceives, is the avoidance of catastrophe. Survival, but not much more. THAT IS A FAILURE OF VISION.'

The lesson? Unless people can be given a positive vision about a world where natural resources are invested in and protected, they will be unlikely to want to be part of any social change that moves us in that direction. That social change has to involve a new way of managing ecosystems to achieve sustainable ends - it does NOT mean a model of 'natural' preserves and 'commercial' deserts which'fails to accommodate humanity.

Integral to this need is a new environmental ethic modelled perhaps on such philosophers as Aldo Leopold and the ideas of the American environmental and social essayist Wendell Berry (1971, 1977, 1981). These ideas represent a radically different perspective of our place on this planet - reconciling the existing hubris and dominion with a dose of humility. Leopold's famous reference is land as part of our 'community' of concern.

Wes Jackson is another visionary whose research interests lie with community and ecological sustainability, especially in the American Mid-west. In his books (Jackson 1987, 1994) he argues that our separation from nature is an essential part of the environmental problem we currently face. He makes direct reference to the dichotomy of which the preservationistfallocation paradigm is part - and the apparent easy generalisation which apparently only lets most of us see nature as either Madonna or whore. An equal marriage is apparently not an option.

Timberlands - a positive vision ? 13 1

"Most of us have behaved as though nature must be either subdued or ignored. ... this often subconscious mindset has helped alienate us from nature and led to many of our current problems with agriculture and resource management"

Becoming Native to This Place (Blazer Lectures,l991) by Wes Jackson

The above quotation raises a subtle, but perhaps very important question for many New Zealanders. Are we yet native to this place? Or are we so removed from the environment and the environmental history of this country that we are really just European tourists on a 70 year holiday '?

Europeans accept that they use their continent's resources - including their forests - and have done so for thousands of years. Simon Schama in his excellent book Landscape and memoy (1 995) presents a compelling thesis of the European's integration with their own environment. By contrast, some environmentalists in New Zealand will proudly proclaim they have no furniture made from New Zealand timber, yet comfortably acknowledge that they possess oak - or worse - metal and petrochemical substitutes. Is this the perspective of a 'native' of New Zealand, or a tourist?

WHAT DO WE NEED TO GET A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE?

A sustainable future demands a number of steps: 1. an understanding, and acceptance, of the problem - i.e. initial facts; 2. an understanding of how environment, society and economy relate; and 3. a move to resource conservation. including such actions as reduced use, increased recycling, and more ecosystem-based management approaches. These steps are discussed below.

An understanding of the problem - initial facts

A number of facts are, I think, irrefutable. They are these:

Most of the earth's natural resources are finite Humans use natural resources Natural resources are reducing through either human over-exploitation or indirect harm through such activities as pollution Use of resources is most often associated with environmental degradation

(Markets tend to over-supply goods with negative externalities and under-supply goods with positive externalities. It is cheaper for the producers not to pick up the tab for their own environmental and social costs external to their operations. For example, markets tend to create an incentive for intensive land management where the real cost of production in terms of environmentally adverse effects falls outside the land manager's accounts -either to society downstream or to generations as yet unborn.)

We need a functioning environment to provide human resource needs (their maintenance and quality) and as a life support system. The natural world is far more dynamic, and far more entangled in human history than popular beliefs about 'the balance of nature' have typically acknowledged.

(In contrast, the popular view is that nature is a stable, homeostatic community capable of preserving its natural balance more or less indefinitely if only humans can avoid disturbing it. That is - humans are separate from nature. The work of ecologists such as Drury (1998) and Botkin (1990) is relevant.)

'Nature' is a human construct. The way we describe, perceive and understand the world is so entangled with our own values and assumptions, that the two (humans and nature) can never be fully separated. The work of environmental historians such as William Cronon (1995) and Schama (1995) is relevant. Both extremes - i.e. nature as 'virgin', 'Madonna' to be 'preserved' 'untouched'. and nature as 'whore' to be 'managed' as 'property' for commercial exploitation - represent a Manichaen idea that sets humanity as either awestruck observer, or indifferent and contemptuous user.

(For example, the concepts or beliefs that the death of a tree contributes incrementally to the 'death' of a forest -o r that use and protection are mutually exclusive - or that aesthetics, and a 'sense of place' may represent natural rather than cultural values - is the lens through which we assess issues: mostly at an emotional level. But our underlying concepts may be wrong, so we ought to question them.)

Views of the world - how environment, society and economy relate

The ideas of how economy, society and the environment relate underpin human action. The different perspectives are outlined diagrammatically below.

FIGURE 1 The neo-classical paradigm

Environment 0

132 Perley

The view above of the economy as encompassing society, with theenvironment somehow disconnected and set apart is shared by both many economists as well as many environmentalists. Society and economy are separated from nature. That is, the environment is a separate issue. It is not.

Environment

FIGURE 2 Three intersecting rirtgs

Recent attempts to integrate the three have lead to the intersecting rings approach (three legs to the stool). The suggestion is that there is give and take about which to emphasise. Under this model the environment can be continually compromised to favour economics and society. Environmental hlstory has shown that, ultimately, this is a false picture. One relevant forestry example is the role of forests in the civilisations of the Mediterranean (Perlin 1989). Eventually the economy will come to live within the bounds of the environment - it has the choice of doing it voluntarily, or being forced by circumstances.

FIGURE 3 Embedded rings

The embedded rings expresses the view that the environment underpins everything. It cannot be compromised without eventual compromise to society and economy.

Economy is a function of, that is secondary to, both environment and society.

This should, I believe, be the preferred model, and is the direction those who wish to have a sustainable future should be moving toward.

A move to more ecosystem-based management approach - what that entails

Forestry management paradigms (see page 133) run from mining/exploitation, through utilitarian paradigms to preservation. No sustainable future that includes humans can include too high a proportion of the extremes. Any paradigm that includes a large measure of preservation must also have an element of short term focused exploitation to provide for resources. This link appears to be ignored by many preservationists. That is, too much focus on oases of preserves must involve the encouragement of commercial deserts, for the simple reasons that it focuses attention on one, and because the reduction in potential resource supplies inherent in preservation leads to a call to increase resource supplies in those areas that are left.

For a sustainable future we ultimately need to:

reduce resource use (including a reduced human population); move toward substituting renewable resources for non- renewable resources; and move towards ecosystem-based management paradigms that emphasis ecosystem health as the paramount objective while providing for people in communit~es.

This final point is the exact sentiment of the purpose of New Zealand's Resource Management Act, 199 1. This Act provides the legislative framework for all resource management and environmental planning at the local authority level.

Such a shift in management emphasis would involve changes in ethics and our understanding of, and relationship with, nature (e.g. land doesn't 'belong' to people. Rather, people 'belong' to the land).

The changes in ethics would be:

a land ethic to encompass the environment as part of what we consider our sphere of concern. Aldo Leopold called this an extension of the concept of community to encompass 'the land'. This broader perspective would include 'intrinsic' values - that is, those env~ronmental values not of apparent utilitarian/instrumental value to humans, and to encompass a longer term view (the time period in which ecosystems function) a consumption ethic (with implications for population).

The changes in understanding would involve:

Short (future very highly discounted)

Wholly Anthropocentric

Shortest possible Intergenerational financial timber

rotation

Wholly Primarily Anthropocentric Anthropocentric

Long (ecological) perspective

Long (ecological) perspective

Wholly ecocentric - no

commercial extraction.

Primarily Ecocentric

Narrowest considerations -

utilitarian monetary values

of owners

Considers only utilitarian values to

owners

Considers only utilitarian values to owner and wider

community.

Broadest perspective - Intrinsic, utilitarian,

community considerations.

Intrinsic ecological values & non-extractive utilitarian values.

Above sustainable yield for all

Relates to cashflow and

capital

At 'sustainable At or below 'sustainable timber' yield yield' of timber

possibly artificially

Relates to timber Relates to utilitarian forest quality and quantity values - timber, aesthetics,

water quahty, recreation.

Below 'sustainable yield' of timber alone

None

Relates to ecosystem functions.

Relates to ecosystem functions.

Low (unmanaged)

High (intensive management) - may

require fertiliser

Sustaining crop production (wood

fibre)

Low to moderate - fertiliser not required.

Low Low

Sustaining ecosystem functions,

biodiversity and complexity

across space and

Nil (Unless green

accounting)

Sustaining capital and

Profit

Sustaining crop production (wood fibre, and other

utilitarian "crops" ) to woner and community

Sustaining ecosystem functions, biodiversity and

complexity across space and time

More (unless green

accounting)

Less (unless green accounting)

Timberlands - a positive vision ? 135

6. Adaptive Management: assumes that scientific knowledge is provisional and focuses on management as a learning process or continuous experiment where incorporating the results of previous actions allows management to remain flexible and adapt to uncertainty. This principle is also enshrined in Timberlands' management approach (TWC 1998, p. 167, p. 172).

7. Inter-agency Cooperation: involves cooperation with other administrators and private owners to accommodate wider ecological boundaries. TWC specify dealing with recreation concerns in co- operation with the Department of Conservation, and prior to the release for national submissions had consulted widely with local communities.

8. Organisational Change: implementing Ecological Management requires changing accepted ways of operating, ranging from the simple (putting in place different operational guidelines, or forming inter-agency committees) to the complex (changing professional norms and relationships between community interests). TWC has a history of changing operational management over the last four years to include greater environmental value. From the outside the forestry management culture is perceived as being more environmentally focussed and open to such interest groups as members of the environmental movements than are most other forestry companies.

9. Humans embedded in nature: involves the concept that humans cannot be separated from nature. Humans are fundamental influences on ecological patterns and processes and are in turn affected by them. This is a philosophical perspective that accepts that the distinction between 'natural' and 'artificial' is arbitrary in much of environmental history. The sometimes doctrinaire reaction that human economic interaction is necessarily harmful is not accepted by TWC, nor by many other ecologists (Drury 1998).

10. Values a s determinants of behaviour: involves the concept that, regardless of the role of scientific knowledge, human values play the dominant role in Ecosystem Management. This is the concept expanded on by Jenkins (1997).

It is unclear from the management plans whether TWC explicitly understands the importance of values from an examination of the management plans. What does come through is that those who wrote these plans have these values. Whether they specifically develop them in their staff is not included in these plans.

Grumbine used these ten dominant themes to form a basis of a working definition of ecosystem management; "Ecosystem management integrates scientific knowledge of ecological relations within a complex socio-political and values framework toward a general goal of protecting ecosystem integrity over the long term. " Timberland's intentions fit this description.

DOES TIMBERLANDS THREATEN THE BEECH ECOSYSTEMS?

The greatest threat to the NZ beech forest (Nothofagus) ecosystems is animal pests. Beech ecologies are noted for their vigour and regenerative capabilities. This is demonstrated by the amount of ex-clearfelled beech that has since regenerated and is now classified as significant by Department of Conservation.

If NZ beech (especially Nothofagus menziesii, N. fusca and N. truncata), Kauri (Agathis australis), and totara' (Podocarpus totara) were European trees they would be managing them as part of their heritage. As species they are entirely compatible with the CO-existence of an element of use and protection.

Managed along ecosystem-based lines, with appropriate and continual monitoring, and with an emphasis placed on reducing introduced pest species, Timberlands does not threaten the beech ecosystems. It may well involve an improvement in the health of the ecosystem in comparison with the conservation estate.

One common assumption is that removal of timber represents the loss of considerable nutrients from the system. It does not. Wood is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Their predominant components are C, H and 0 , all products of photosynthesis via CO, and H,O. Eighty-five percent of the nutrients in a forest are in the leaf litter and the crown, including the cambium layers below the bark. The forest grows by cycling nutrients between the crown and the litter layer, with the structure of the tree coming from photosynthesis.

Removing timber, while leaving the crown and litter intact, is analogous to leaving the nutrient rich wheat, and harvesting the chaff. Timberlands are intending to harvest 50% of the forest mortality, and of these trees, only 50% of the wood is extracted (that part of high economic value). More than enough remains for regeneration and other ecological functions. The nutrient removals should be lower than natural additions from soil weathering and atmospheric inputs. That is why forests do not need fertilising, and why they improve the nutrient status of depleted farmland.

CONCLUSION

We have a choice of continuing the present preservationist vision represented as a rather dour, disapproving, authoritarian, puritanical view (witch hunts included), or of joining what Roderick Nash called the New Environmental- ists.

The New Environmentalists have gone beyond the 'save the tree' simplicity to actually trying.to work toward a sustainable future from a deeper understanding of the environment, people and communities, and an economy that allows us to provide things like universities, art galleries, and yes, even furniture.

136 Perley

REFERENCES

BERRY, W. 1971 A continuous harmony: essays cultural and agricultural. Harcourt, Brace & Co.

BERRY, W. 1977 The unsettling of America: culture and agriculture. Sierra Club Books.

BERRY, W. 1981 The gift of good land: further essays cultural and agricultural. North Point Press.

BOTKIN, D. 1990 Discordant harmonies: a new ecology for the 21" century. Oxford Univ. Press.

CONSTANZA, R., NORTON, B.G. and HASKELL, B.D. (eds.) 1992 Ecosystem health: new goals for environmental managers. Island Press.

CRONON, W. 1995 Uncommon ground: toward reinventing nature. W.W. Norton & CO

DRURY, W.H. 1998 Change and chance: ecology for conservationists. Univ. California Press.

GRUMBINE, R.E. 1994 What is ecosystem management? Cons. Biol. S (1): 27-38.

JACKSON, W. 1987 Altars of unhewn stone: science and the earth. North Point Press

JACKSON, W. 1994 Becoming native to thisplace. (Blazer Lectures 1991.) Univ. Press Kentucky.

JENKINS, A.M. 1997 Forest health: a crisis of human proportions. 3. For. 95 (9): 11-14

KoLB,T.E., WAGNER, M.R. ~ ~ ~ C O V I N G T O N , W.W. 1994Concepts of forest health: utilitarian and ecosystem perspectives. J. For. 92 (7): 10-15.

LEOPOLD, A. 1949 A Sand County Almanac, Oxford Univ. Press. MEADOWS, D. 1996 Envisioning a sustainable world. In: Getting

down to earth: practical applications of ecological economics. International Society of Ecological Economics.

NASH, R. 1967 Wilderness and the American mind. Yale Univ. Press.

NORTON, B.G. 1992 A new paradigm for environmental managementh: Constanza, R., Norton, B.G. and Haskell, B.D. (eds.) 1992 Ecosystem health: new goals for environmental management. Island Press.

PERLEY, C, l998 Assessing Timberlands' sustainable beech management using concepts of ecosystem health and ecosystem management. N.Z. J. Fox 43 (3):3-7.

PERLIN, J. 1989 A forest journey: the role of wood in rhe development of civilization. Harvard Univ. Press.

SCHAMA, S. 1995 Landscape and memory The Bath Press. TAYLOR, R., SM~TH, l . , COCHRANE, P., STEPHENSEN, B. and GIBBS, N.

1997 The state of New Zealand's environment. Ministry for the Environment, GP Publications.

TIMBERLANDS WEST COAST LTD. (TWC) 1998 Overview plan for sustainable beech management.

International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000 137

REVIEWS

MAYERS, J. a n d BASS, S. Policy that works for forests and people. Policy that works Series No. 7 . International Institute for Environment and Development, London. 1999 324 pp. Summary o n the internet at www.iied.org/ptw I S N N 1028-8228. ( N o price available.)

.A tree's a tree. How many more do you need to look at? - Ronald Reagan; Well, it depends what you mean by the word 'is' ... - Bill Clinton, to the Starr Inquiry. These statements by Presidents of the USA, used by Mayers and Bass to illustrate two of their key points -respectively, the existence of diverse valid perspectives, and the. significance of context - also epitomise some of the broader features of the forests debates of the past few decades: the contested values of forests and trees, and the preponderance of words which belie actions. This book addresses particularly the latter point, by focusing on actions and approaches to facilitate better policy outcomes.

Those of us who teach - or, more accurately, help others learn -about 'forest policy' often struggle with the paradox that a topic which is so inherently alive can seem rather less so in the classroom, especially to those, such as the typical undergraduate or early career graduate, whose personal engagement with policy issues has been limited. While it is relatively easy to convey the more mechanistic and structural elements of formal policy and 'policy making', linking these coherently to the typical policy milieu and outcomes is challenging - in part because so much context, and so many perspectives, are necessary to put live flesh on dry policy bones. The challenge is illustrated by the contrast between some of the classic forest policy texts, such as Worrell (1970), and 'real' policy debate such as that between Michael Gane and Jack Westoby which enlivened the pages of Conmonwealth Forestry Review 62 and 63; both elements are necessary, but neither make much sense without the other.

IIED's Policy that works series, for which this is the synthesis paper, attempts to provide both structure and substance to improve policy processes that affect forests. The synthesis paper draws principally on six country case studies - in Costa Rica, Ghana, India, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea and Zimbabwe - and some attendant work in industrialised economies and on related topics, to identify common themes and suggest the foundations of more successful policy about forests. It focuses, necessarily, on policy as a process, and on characterising those elements of policy processes which evidently foster more successful policy outcomes. The authors' underlying premise is captured In their characterisation of the international community's and individual countries' resDonses to the forest policy challenges of the latter pan of last cen;ury as 'policy inflation and capacity collapse', and the consequent increasing distance between policy and practice. This, of course, is not a new observation - for example, Ken King made the same point very eloquently at the 10Ih Commonwealth Forestry Conference in 1974 - but it remains, regrettably, as valid now as it has been since the first forest policy of modem times was declared in India in 1855. The research programme of which this book is a product was intended to help redress that divergence, and represents an important step towards that goal.

The book is in two parts: the first, a synthesis of outcomes from the country case studies; the second, a synopsis of methods and tools used in those policy analyses. The case studies, published as Nos. 1-6 in the same series, are substantive and important pieces of

work in their own right; this synthesis gives a sense of their richness, and reflects their diversity, without diminishing them. The case study conceptualisations of policy processes, reproduced in the synthesis, illustrate these points: they range from visualising forest policy as a tug-of-war, complete with spectators, to an (admittedly over-extended) water cycle; the images include 'policy triangles' and 'policy spirals'. The distilled outcomes will not surprise those familiarwith the policy literatureof recent years, and are acknowledged by the authors to have a Utopian dimension, but are nevertheless worth summarising here. The synthesis identifies seven process elements and four key steps in the transition to their realisation:

Elements of good policy-making and implementation:

a forum and participation process national definitron oJ and goals for; sustainable forest management agreement on ways to set priorities engagement with extra-sectoral influences on forests and people better monitoring and strategic information on forest assets, demand and use devolution of decision-making power 10 where potential contributions to sustainability are greatest democracy of knowledge and access to resource-conserving technology

Key transitional steps: recognise rnulriple valid perspectives and the political nature of the game get people to tlze negotiating table make space to disagree and experiment learn from experience, get organised, and fire up policy conlmunities.

The second part of the book, an 'appendix' of some 80 pages, seeks to 'offer some guidance on the approaches and methods for engaging with policy, [where] 'engaging' implies the messy business of locking horns, rather than the anticipation of a happy marriage'. It is very much a workbook; its principal value is in the diversity of approaches and perspectives identified, if only in passing and pithily (e.g. a Box on Machiavellian tactics). The authors intend to elaborate on this appendix in a separate publication, which will be a useful supplement to the stimulating synopsis presented here.

Policy that works for forests and people is an important contribution to both the literature and the activity of forest policy. It is much more a resource book than a text book, with some of the inherently eclectic flavour of the former, but it recognises and meets a burning need. Like 'forest' policy, this book is a product whose credibility and value are strongly associated with the process from which it emerged, and much of its strength derives from the realities of the country study processes. The book concludes by expressing the hope, echoing - amongst others - Jack Westoby, that 'forestry can and should be an activity which changes the political environment for the better'. It should help those who think similarly.

138 Reviews

~TERNATIoNAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANISATION A manual for the application of criteria and indicators for sustainable management of natural tropical forests. Part A /National Indicators; Part B / Forest Management Unit Indicators. ITTO Policy Development Series No. 10. Yokohama, Japan. 1999.2 vols. each of 50pp.

The 'Forest Principles' enunciated at UNCED Rio 1992 called for the identification of criteria and indicators to be used to evaluate progress in countries' efforts to practise sustainable forest management. Guidelines for sustainable management were elaborated under the auspices of I'ITO prior to UNCED. The new International Tropical Timber Agreement under which IlTO operates came into force in 1997. It included the explicit objective to pursue a strategy for achieving export of tropical timber and timber products from sustainably managed sources by the year 2000. In pursuit of this aim I n 0 decided to elaborate criteria for the measurement of sustainable tropical forest management to facilitate assessment and monitoring of progress toward the Year 2000 objective.

This initiative, involving the 28 tropical timber producing members of ITTO, is one of 7 regional initiatives which bring together more than 150 countries in an international process aimed at the development and implementation of national-level criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management (FAO 1999). Grayson and Maynard (1997) record a number of these and G.J. Francis (1998) looks at the Helsinki initiative in his review of the Third Ministerial Conference on protection of forests in Europe.

The objective of the criteria and indicators is to provide member countries with a tool for assessing changes and trends in forest conditions and management systems and on the direction of change, either towards or away from sustainable forest management. To do this the manuals set out the 'criteria', which define the essential components of sustainable forest management, and each of these is characterised by a set of quantitative, qualitative or descriptive 'indicators'.

The seven 'criteria' are: 1. Enabling conditions - legal, policy, economic and institutional framework; 2. Forest resource security; 3. Ecosystem health; 4. Flow of forest produce; 5. Biological diversity; 6. Soil and water; 7. Economic, social and cultural aspects. These correspond with the basic elements adopted by the various initiatives. While the headings give an idea of the essential components embraced by each criterion, their scope is elaborated in a short preamble. As an example that for Criterion 2 reads: 'Sustainable forest management is a long term enterprise and depends upon stability and security of a nation's forest estate. It considers comprehensively the extent of land under natural and plantation forests....'.

The full coverage intended is brought out more clearly by the list of indicators and the detail of information requested. Looking again at Criterion 2 one finds the indicators relate to the extent of land under various types of forest, demarcation of boundaries, conversion of forest to other uses and existence of procedures to control damage from human activity such as encroachment and fire, lndicators in Criterion 3 are designed to monitor both human and natural damage. Forest resource assessment is considered under Criterion 4, Row of produce. The logic here is that resource and potential production are considered together with planned and actual production and area harvested. Under Criterion 5 the indicakrs monitor the establishment and management of protected areas, endangered, rare and threatened species and conservation of

genetic variation. Its development was with the assistance of IUCN. Criterion 6 deals with protective management for water and soil conservation. The first and the 7* Criteria look more at the social and economic aspects - governmental, legal and institutional infrastructure, investment, income and employment and relationships to civil society and local communities. Archaeology, recreation and carbon storage are. included.

This structure is not unambitious. Each criterion is supported by at least 5 indicators, one with as many as 18, and the total is 66. Forty of the indicators are supported by tables and there are many multiple questions. In moving from Part A, applicable at the National level, to Part B aimed at the individual Forest Management Unit a few indicators are dropped as being not applicable at that level. The end result is a very large number of questions that would be a challenge to a well-appointed national forestry organisation and, one would think, quite daunting to the manager of a Forest Management Unit. It will be interesting to see how the twelve ITTO member countries, currently carrying out tests of these indicators, respond.

In the introduction to The Forest Certification Handbook (IIED 1995) Chris Upton and Stephen Bass, in reference to the closely related subject of certification, raised the questions 'Can it be of use in slowing forest loss and degradation?', 'Is it a distraction pulling resources into activities that fail to make change?', and 'Is it practicable?'. In his foreword to that volume, Duncan Poore saw the more important role of certification as providing an incentive to raise the standard of forest management. As collaborator with Thang Hooi Chiew in the preparation of these manuals, he sees their main purpose as being to help countries in assessing their own progress towards sustainable forest management Poore (1 999).

In general the manuals do present a well considered listing of many issues that must be of concern in the good management of forests and the information to support it, so they make an immediate contribution towards raising standards. As a basis for - formal recording and reporting they appear rather complex both for collection and understanding. Experience shows that it is sound practice to base international reporting systems on information that countries agree is necessary to them and is practicable for most of them to collect and report without burdensome extra expense. May one hope that the International Community will tend to converge on a listing of a few critical indicators which help good collaboration between countries, with the main resources going to sound management of natural resources contributing directly to the well-being of the people?

FAO 1999 Stare of the World's Forests. FAO, Rome FRANCIS, G.J. 1998 Review of 'Third Ministerial conference on the

protection of forests in Europe'. Commonw. For. Rev. 77(4) : 290-29 1.

GRAYSON, A .J. and MAYNARD, W.B. (eds.) 1997 The World's Forests - Rio+J: international initiatives towards sustainable management. CFA, Oxford.

POORE, M.E.D. with THANG Hoof CHIEW 1999 Manual labour serves wider purpose. Tmpical Forest Update 913.

UPTON, C. and BASS, S. 1995 The Fomt Certification Handbook. International Institute for hvironment and Development, London.

International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000

FARJON, A. and PAGE, C.N. (compilers) Conifers: Status Summary and Conservation Action Plan. 1999. IUC/SSC Conifer Specialist Group. IUNC, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 121 pp.

Globally, there are 630 species of conifers, of which 200 are restricted to the Southern Hemisphere. Forty-three species alone are endemic to the South Pacific island of New Caledonia. Of the 630 conifers, 25% are threatened with extinction. Of those threatened, an estimated 70 species will become extinct in the near future if current trends continue.

This monograph, compiled by Aljos Farjon and Christopher Page and written by a renowned panel of 37 specialists, highlights the importance of conifers throughout the world and addresses conservation issues that will determine the future distribution and existence of this very important group of species. The compendium is divided into 4 very readable chapters.

Chapter 1 deals with the global assessment of coniferdiversity. It presents a revised edition of the Global Red List of Conifers threatened with extinction. For each of the 200 species on the list, a conservation status is assigned as 'critically endangered', 'endangered', 'vulnerable' or 'low risk'. Most importantly, these criteria are well defined in the appendix of the book so that the reader can clearly understand how the panel reached its decision about the conservation status of each species.

Chapter 2 summarises general concepts of conservation. It begins by providing reasons why the conservation of conifers is important. A list of 9 conifer 'hotspots' is given that highlights geographical areas with high concentration of species that are threatened. Hotspots are found in both developed and developing countries and include such diverse regions as California, USA, the natural forests of southern Chile and Patagonia, Argentina, and Tasmania, Australia.

Chapter 2 concludes by providing guidelines for in situ conservation and strategies for ex situ conservation. Even though some practical recommendations are given, much of the discussion is academic. This section would have been more useful to the reader had it acknowledged the difficulties associated with initiating and maintaining in siru conservation programmes. The harsh reality is that many in situ conservation programmes for forest species are failing, especially in developing countries. Well meaning governmental and local organisations simply do not have the financial resources to successfully manage in siru conservation programmes for the long-term. What alternative suggestions on conservation approaches can the scientific community offer based on the social, economic, and political realities in developing countries in the 21st century?

Fortunately, some authors outline alternatives in chapters 3 and 4 (such as development of eco-tourism, etc.) when talking about regional conservation action plans. Furthermore, this book gives much more emphasis to the benefits of ex situ conservation than most documents of its type. For example, the importance of botanical gardens as a means of protecting threatened species ex siru is mentioned. The argument in favour of ex situ conservation of conifers could have been strengthened by citing the successful activities of international organisations that have been working in this area for decades such as CAMCORE (USA), DANIDA (Denmark), the Forest Resources Division, FAO (Italy), and the Oxford Forestry Institute (UK).

Possibly the strongest part of 'Conifers' and certainly one of the most interesting are chapters 3 and 4 that provide assessments of conifer diversity by geographic region (chapter 3) and individual accounts of the conservation status for 10 endangered conifer species (chapter 4). In most instances, these sections have

been written by scientists who have spent their entire careers studying specific ecosystems and species. The regional action plans cover 7 geographic areas. Each action plan summarises the conservation status of the region and offers recommendations on what should be done. The individual species account includes representation from around the world such as Fiji acmopyle (Acmopyle sahniana) and Sicilian fir (Abies nebrodensis). The individual species' accounts summarise distribution, habitat, history and conservation.

I highly recommend 'Conifers' to those lay people and researchers interested in knowing more about the conservation status of these interesting and important tree species. The book is' written in non-technical language and is well suited to a wide audience. Some may disagree with the group of species included on the Red List by the panel of experts. However, as Aljos Farjon mentions in the Foreword, 'Conifers' is a 'first attempt' to address many of these important conservation issues. I believe it is a very good first attempt and look forward to subsequent issues from the panel.

TIMBERLAKE, J., FAGG, C. and B A R N E ~ R. Field guide to the Acacias of Zimbabwe. CBC Publishing, Harare. 1999. 160 pp. nps. ISBN 0-7974-1936-5.

Field guides on plants are pretty rare in tropical Africa. There is the occasional slim volume on 'wild flowers' aimed at the tourist market; for southern Africa there is a nice 'Bundu books' series, but serious works with keys are still pretty thin on the ground. Flora Zambesiaca covers Zimbabwe, of course, and the volume on Mimosoideae appeared in 1970, but this can hardly be called a field guide. Ttie slim volume under review is a field guide, and a very good one at that. It works at the scientific level, but is also very accessible to the interested amateur. It is well-illustrated, and will serve its purpose admirably.

Acacias form an important part of the drier vegetation of tropical Africa, and forty species have been found in Zimbabwe. Wood of several of these species is used in construction, for fencing, in woodwork and for firewood; Acacias are important to wildlife, including honey bees, and are a valuable dry season browse for both wildlife and livestock. Edible gums and bark tannins are minor products. The reverse of the coin is shown by three species that invade pasture or rangeland.

This guide treats the species alphabetically. Scientific and common names (in the main Zimbabwean languages as well as English) are accompanied by brief, practical descriptions, full- page illustrations and a small distribution map. For every species there is a note highlighting the field characters, which also mentions other species with which it could be confused; there are notes on distribution and ecology, on variation, on wood characteristics and uses. Rosemary Wise's illustrations are crisp and clear, and 1 especially enjoyed the little habitat sketches with animals, people or landrovers giving scale.

The key at the beginning of the book uses vegetative characters only, though pods are occasionally mentioned for confirmation. I found that one can get quite far with just branches and spines alone, which is very useful in dry areas! Interspersed with the species treatments are boxes on interesting topics such as growth rings in Acacias; provenance trials; seed germination; nodulation; and more. A full character matrix, pages of illustrations comparing the pods and listings of species by area and habitat type complete the guide.

I40 Reviews

I am impressed by this field guide. It is well-designed, user- friendly, and it works. It is a pleasure to use and I recommend it highly.

BRUNS, S., MANTELL, S., TRAGARDH, C. and VIANA, A.M. (eds.) Recent advances in biotechnology for tree conservation and managemeat. Proceedings of an IFS workshop. International Foundation for Science. Stockholm, Sweden. 1998. 334 pp. ISBN 91-85798-46-0.

IFS is an organisation whose activities are less well known than they deservito be. Its research grants (up to US$12,000) to young researchers in developing countries are an aid to those who wish to - continue their research after obtaining post graduate qualifications and are an exemplary use of limited funds*. IFS workshops provide a forum for grantees to present their work and establish contacts and this one held in Brazil in 1997 reflected the relatively large number of researchers that IFS was supporting in this field in Latin America. The proceedings contain some 28 papers split into nine sections as follows: 1 ) Traditional approaches to forest inventory and tree population studies in Latin America and the Caribbean, 2) DNA fingerprinting tools for studying genetic diversity in trees, 3) Measuring intra- and inter-population genetic diversity in tree populations using isozyme and DNA fingerprinting techniques, 4) Development of practical approaches to conservation, propagation and downstream processing in forestry, 5) Recent advances in cell and tissue culture of trees, 6 ) Perspectives in conservation biotechnology of forest trees, 7) Characterisation of forest tree mycorrhizal inoculants, 8) Networking in forest biotechnology in Latin American and the Caribbean, 9) Discussions and workshop conclusions.

Inevitably in a publication of this nature. coverage is rather patchy, both in the breadth of the workshop topic, and in thequality and relevance of the papers. The headings are in reality rather loose labels for the contents of each section, and often fail to describe the papers found within. As a consequence there are some good papers which are of no immediate relevance to the workshop topic and whose potential readership would probably have been better targeted by publication elsewhere. The proceedings would also have been better served by an introduction to each section to illustrate how the topic and papers fit into the wider picture of conservation and tree management. This would perhaps have avoided the impression one is currently left with of a rather loose collection of papers on more or less related themes. Thus, while the papers illustrate a variety of ways that biotechnology may aid either tree conservation or management, there is often a failure to recognise the largely complementary role that such advances will play in either field.

The application of many modern biotechnology techniques to management will inevitably be on a reduced number of commercially important tree species. Massive increases in fund- ing for tree improvement may warrant more attention to biotechnology, but diversion of currently available funds to longer term biotechnological research initiatives is likely to have a negative impact on genetic improvement programmes for these species (Haines 1994). Biotechnology must therefore primarily enhance andlor complement classical breeding measures rather than replace them (Burdon 1994, Haines 1994). Similarly, the responses to and consequences of changes and loss of genetic diversity are on a longer time scale than most demographic/ ecological factors and genetic information alone may only rarely

translate automatically into definitive conservation strategies. In this sense few of the papers provideclear evidence as to how recent advances in biotechnology will be used in practice to provide tools to aid forest conservation.

Although these proceedings do not present any startling advances in the field, and will not appeal to the reader who is looking for a rounded coverage, they do contain some worthwhile and interesting papers. They will perhaps be of most interest to those working on population genetics and conservation of trees, where the coverage is more extensive and rounded. Overall the IFS and editors should be congratulated on both funding the workshop and publishing the proceedings, which could be a useful library volume for consultation. In that sense, and given the geographical coverage of the research, it is perhaps a shame that their publication in English is likely to restrict the number of researchers and students within Latin America who read them.

BURDON, R.D. 1994 Tree breeding and the new biotechnology - in damaging conflict or constructive synergism? In: LAMBETH, C .and DVORAK, W. (eds.) Resolving tropical forest resource concerns through tree improvement, gene conservation and domestication of new species. Proceedings of IUFRO Conference S 2.02.08, CartaginaICali, Colombia, 1992. CAMCORE, N.C. State University, North Carolina, U.S.A. Pp. 1-7.

HAINES, R. 1994 Biotechnology in forest tree improvement. FAO Forestry Paper no. 118, Rome, Italy. 230 pp.

* details of the IFS programme can be obtained at www.ifs.sel index.htm

International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000 141

NOTICES

Notices are prepared by the Editor unless otherwise indicated.

AMMAN, K. (ed.) Bushmeat - Africa's conservation crisis. THOMAS, C . (coordinator). Keystone millenium meeting, N e w World Society for the Protection of Animals. London. 2000. Scientist Conference Report. New Scientist (London) pull- 44pp. Pbk. out supplement, Vol 166, n o 224, 15 April 2000.

This hard-hitting, clearly written paper, with a foreword by Dr Jane Goodall, draws attention once more to the increase in harvesting of bushmeat in Central and West Africa and illustrates the argument with dramatic pictures of dead and orphaned primates. The' summary reads: 1. The bushmeat crisis in West and Central Africa has worsened over the past decade and is now recognised as the major threat to the survival of countless wildlife species including Africa's great apes. 2. National and international interest in and awareness of the bushmeat crisis has not been matched by practical responses. 3. Political declarations have not been translated into meaningful action on the ground. 4. Logging operations in Central and West Africa's forests continue to be instrumental in the supply of and .. . demand for bushmeat in the region. Logging companies are directly implicated in the bushmeat trade. 5. Development projects funded with government or intergovernmental finance have facilitated the bushmeat trade by opening forestry to logging operations, providing infrastructure and vehicles used by hunters. Such projects directly conflict with projects aimed at biodiversity conservation that these same intergovernmental agencies are funding. 6. Enforcement efforts and conservation initiatives have been piecemeal and lack the funding, personnel and support from the highest political levels to be effective. Efforts to enforce legislation can be effective where such support is provided. 7. A repeated theme throughout the report is that raised by hunters - the commercial bush meat trade is wiping out wildlife populations and is unsustainable. Unless action is taken the hunters themselves - including subsistence hunters - face critical problems in the future. Indigenous peoples in particular are losing the wildlife resource and the forests upon which they have depended for centuries.

One reference (p.7) summaries the Resolution, passed at the European Union - Africa Caribbean Pacific Assembly meeting in Namibia in March 1996, on the hunting and killing of great apes and destruction of tropical forest in Central and West Africa.

DAJA PRADNJA RESOSUDARMO Forestry donors to Indonesia briefed on CIFOR's deforestation research. CIFOR News No. 24, January 2000, p p 4 -5.

This article describes findings from 'research in Indonesia by CIFOR's Underlying Causes of Deforestation Programme'. The opening paragraph is noteworthy: 'Deforestation is defined, in simplest terms, as the permanent loss of natural forest cover. ... Because deforestation refers to the loss of natural forest, the rate of deforestation is not reduced by reforestation efforts or the establishment of tree plantations'.

The blurb to this extra large supplement reads: 'With biology set to revolutionise our lives, an elite group of biologists met at Keystone in the Rocky Mountains to reflect on where we're heading.' 30 single column length articles set out all you ever wanted to know about recent and impending developments in biology and never dared to ask. One of the contributors to the meeting, E. Meyerowitz, catches the reader's attention, if only momentarily since a moment's thought makes clear how outrageous the claim is, by illustrating the statement 'This is the most important object on Earth' with a slide of an apical meristem.

European Union T r o ~ i c a l Forestry Papers (European Union / Overseas Development Institute. London)

RICHARDS, M. 'Internalising the externalities' of tropical forestry: a review of innovative financing and incentive mechanisms. Paper l . 1999. 3 8 pp. I S B N 0-85003-402-7. Available in English, Spanish and Portuguese.

The summary notes that 'Carbon trading, timber certification, bioprospecting deals, fair trade and marketable 'Forest protection marketing obligations' involve mechanisms for capturing the externality benefits of forestry. Of these carbon trading has most potential ...... but faces major technical and political problems. ... it is by no means certain that forestry will be included in the Clean Development mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol'.

BROWN, D. Principles andpractice offorest CO-management: evidence from West-Central Africa. Paper 2. 1999. 33 pp. ISBN 0-85003-404. Available in Eng, Fr.

'The involvement of local communities as well as the state in forestry management is now an important principle of tropical forest policy and practice, and a major component of most international forestry aid programmes. ... Using case studies from Ghana and Cameroon, the paper reviews the ambiguities in the classical model of forest CO-management and the difficulties which arise when attempts are made to apply the model to specific national contexts ... Existing strategies of forest CO-management are weighed against alternative options to improve the husbandry of the resource and increase public accountability.' (From cover blurb).

The last quoted sentence summarises a careful analysis which considers, among other things, social complexity (where does power historically lie), equity versus the reality of poor people's willingness to invest, the value of participatory research, and the feasibility of educating the local community in a wide range of technical and economic issues.

HADEN, P. Forestry issues in the Guiana Shield Region: a perspective on Guyana and Suriname. Paper 3.1999.19 pp. ISBN 0-85003-403-5. Available in Eng, Span.

A background document, highlighting the many opportunities and threats to forest sector development, prepared for a 1998 donor- coordination meeting on current forest management and conservation strategies in Guyana and Suriname.

BROWN, D., &CHARDS, M,, SCHRECKENBERG, K., SHEPHERD, G. and TILLER, S. Getting aid delivery right: host country, donor and international complementarity for greater aid effectiveness in the forest sector. 1999. 37 pp. ISBN O- 85003-474-4. Available in Eng., Span.

This is the heavyweight among the 5 papers noticed here. It follows on the section entitled 'Issues and trends for the future '(pp.22-24 in Dr Gill Shepherd's Chapter 1 of Shepherd et al. (1998)) and sets out the ODI team's view of the evolution of project aid planning and management within the forestry sector. The development of thinking and action is chronicled and critically appraised starting with the Tropical Forestry Action Plans begun by FAO in 1985, leading through the World Bank's sector wide approach of the following decade to the newest favoured route to effective delivery of aid the nfp - 'national forestry programme'. The story of evolution of aid vehicles is one of changing targets as well as changing abilities on the part of both donors and recipients. The developments to which nfps are to be sensitive are ownership (of projects), decentralisation (of aid management) institutional learning, and donor complementarity (a most desirable requirement) and responsiveness to international forces which run supranationally through existing Rio Conventions. The paper poses the question whether countries will be able through the nfp process to achieve sustainable forest management without the benefit of international support such as a global instrument relating to the SFM of all types of forest. The paper make the strong assertion that without the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (or its successor) this happy outcome will be well nigh impossible for most.

This is a most valuable survey of the scene, providing much useful historical and illustrative material as well as raising cogent questions. Wisely the authors do not go overboard for nfps in all countries and circumstances. The cover blurb notes: 'The experience of sector-wide programmes in other sectors offers clues as to where and in what ways successful nfps might be developed'.

SHEPHERD, G. 1998. Europe:an overview. In: SHEPHERD, G., BROWN. D., RICHARDS, M. and SCHRECKENBERG. K. The EU tropical forestry sourcebook Overseas Development Institute and European Commission. Chapter 1.

DAVIES, I. and RICHARDS, M. The use of economics to assess stakeholder incentives in participatory management: a review. Paper 5. 1999. 45pp. ISBN 0-85003-476-0. Eng. only.

precision' and who feel that a more qualitative analysis is more appropriate and useful. And on the other hand are those who think that lack of more quantitative analysis and a failure to place realistic numbers on costs and benefits has proved a serious limitation on the design of effective ~(artici~atory) F(orest) M(anagement).. inter- ventions. .... This paper explores this debate and considers the case for 'participatory eonomic analysis', which attempts to bring together the qualitative and quantitative approaches.'

In a disarming note in the Introduction (p. l), the authors explain why their 'literature review is longer than optimal'. They appear to believe that some 20 pages have to be devoted to a review of cost- benefit analysis as it stands today, while only one section of 6 pages is concerned specifically, though scattered material in the concluding section develops various aspects, with the treatment of benefits and costs in participatory forest management schemes. The avowed reason for coolness with CBA lies in its concentration on efficiency as opposed to equity considerations. However most analysts recognise the route to the latter as the gains to different income groups, for which data commonly exist.. Here however a whole range of dimensions are introduced and the reader is left wondering just how to choose which to assess and how to combine the resulting scores.

MISCELLANEA

United Nations Forum on Forests 9

The Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF), which followed the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) and both of which have been led by Dr Maini, Chairman of the Commonwealth Forestry Association, recently came to the end of its term of appointment. At its meeting in April 2000 the UN Commission on Sustainable Development decided to recommend to its parent body in the United Nations organisation, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), that the present Forum should be replaced by a United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF). It is planned that the substantial number of meetings arranged by IFFduring its life, together with reports, will be recorded in a publication with which the Commonwealth Forestry Association will be associated.

As the cover blurb notes:'There is an underlying tension between two schools of opinion as regards the application of economics to community-level forestry. On the one hand are those who think economic analysis inappropriate or tends to result in 'spurious

International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000 143

FORTHCOMING INTERNATIONAL EVENTS

July 16-21. Merida, Mexico. The impact of global environmental change on forests, and the impact of forests on global environmental change. Contact Eric Diaz, INIFAP, Km.24 Carretara MBrida-Motul, Mococcha, Yucatan CP 97445, Mexico, email era@cirse.inifap.cona-cyt.mx or Judy Loo, Canadian Forest Service, Box 4000, Fredericton, NB E3B 5P7, Canada. email jloo@nrcan.gc.ca

August 5-6. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Improved forest. management and harvesting for tropical forests. FAO/ IUFRO satellite meeting of the IUFRO World Congress; 3.05.00 Forest operations in the tropics. Contact R. Heinrich, FAO Forestry Department tel+39-06-570 54727, email Rudolf.Heinrich@fao.org

August 6-10. Newfoundland, Canada. Annual conference of the Canadian Institute of Forestry. Contact Len Moores, fa^ +l-709-637-2290.

August 7-12. XXI IUFRO World Congress, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. XXI IUFRO World Congress Organising Committee, 52109 Kepong, Malaysia, fax +60- 3-636-7753,email iufroxxi@frim.gov.my http: frim.gov.my/iufro.html

August 15-21. Chengdu, China. Forest ecosystems - ecology, conservation and sustainable management. IUFRO 8.0.00 Forest environment, l . 14.00 Unevenaged silviculture. Contact Dr Shi Zuomin and Ms. Dong Na, Institute of Forest Ecology, Environment and Protection, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Wanshoushan, Beijing 100091, China, tel+86-10- 62888308, fax + 86-10-62884972, email Shizm@fee.forestry.ac.cn:

August 21 - 25. Kuhmo, Finland. Restoration and management of biodiversity, 4th international workshop on disturbance dynamics in boreal forests. Organised by the International Association of Vegetation Science and the Finnish Biodiversity Research programme. Contact Workshop on disturbance dynamics, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 24, FIN-00014, Helsinki, Finland email DIST2000@ Helsinki.fi Website http://honeybee.helsinki.fi/dist2000

September 20-22. Betkm, Brazil. New approaches to the management of neotropical primary rainforest by industries and communities. IUFRO 1.07.05 Natural regeneration of tropical rainforests, 1.05.08 Natural stand regeneration, 3.05.00/6.01.00/8.0l.00/8.07.00. Contact Dr Natalino Silva, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, CP 48, CEP 66240, Belbm, Par& Brazil, tel +55-91-226 6622, fax +S-91-226 9845, email natalino@cpatu.embrapa.br, nataiino@amazon.com.br

September 24 -30. Portland, Oregon, U.S.A. IPC 2000 - 21st session of the International Poplar Commission. Websites: www.nefes.umn/ipc2000 ; www.poplar.ca

SeptIOct. Rome, Italy. Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management: joint meeting of international processes. FAO with IUFRO Task Force on sustainable forest management. Contact Christel Palmberg-Lerche, Forest Resources Development Service, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 1-00100 Rome, Italy, email Christel.Palmberg@fao.org

October 4-7. Jonkoping, Sweden. Elmia, International wood products and components trade fair. Contact Alan Sherrard fax +46-36-16-46-92, email timber@elmia.se Website www.elmia.se/timber

October 8-13. Durban, South Africa. Forest genetics for the next millennium. IUFRO 2.08.01 tropical species. Contact Colin Dyer, IUFRO Conference Organiser, PO Box 11636, Dorpspruit 3206, South Africa, tel+27-33 1-425779, fax +27-331-944842, email iufro@icfr.unp.ac.za

October 29-31. Asheville, U.S.A. Third International Oak Conference. Contact Ron Lance, The North Carolina Arboretum, 100 Frederick Law Olmsted Way, Asheville, NC 28806% 15, U.S.A., tel +l-828-665-2492, fax +l-828-665-237 1, email rlance@ncarboretum.org

November 16-21. Washington D.C., U.S.A. National Convention, Society of American Foresters. Contact Mike Murphy, SAF, 5400 Grosvenor Lane, Bethseda, MD.208 14- 2 198, tel +l-301-897-8270, fax +l-301-897-3690, email murphym@safnet.org

November 29-December 2. Bhopal, India. Workshop on national level criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management of dry forests in South Asia. Contact Patrick Durst, Regional Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP), 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand, tel +66-2-281-7844 ext.139, fax +66-2- 280-0445, email patrick.durst@fao.org

November 28-December 2. Kathmandu, Nepal. Biotechnology applications for reforestation and biodiversity conservation. BIO-REFORIIUFRO-SPDC. Contact BIO- REFOR, Nepal Workshop, c/o Nepal Flora Implementation Project Office, Dept. of Plant Resources, MFSC, HMG/N, G.O.P. Box 2270, Kathmandu, Nepal, tel +977-1-251159, fax +977-1-251141, email banaspati@flora.wlink.com.np

December 1. Washington D.C., U.S.A. Annual meeting of the International Society of Tropical Foresters. Contact Dr Warren T. Doolittle, ISTF, 5400 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, U.S.A., email istfiusf@gc.apc.org

144 Forthcoming international events

December 10 - 13. Canberra, Australia. 5th Pacific rim bio-based composites symposium. Contact Dr P. Evans, Department of Forestry, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia, tel +61 2 6249 3628, fax +612 6249 0746, email Bio.symposium0anu.edu.au Website http://online.anu.edu.au/ForestrylwoodlbioIbio.html

April 18-25. Freemantle, Australia. 16th Commonwealth Forestry Conference. Contact Libby Jones, email 1ibby.jones 0f0restry.g0v.uk

July 22-27. Stevenson, Wsahington,U.S.A. Tree biotechnology: the next millennium. IUFRO 2.04.06 Molecular biology of forest trees. Contact Steven Strauss, Forest Sciences Lab., Oregon State University, Corvallis., Oregon 97331-7501, U.S., tel: +l-541-737 6558, fax +l-541-737 1393, email strauss@fsl.orst.edu Website: http://www.cof.orst.edu/cof/extended/conferen/ treebiol

Sept. 12-14. Aberdeen, U.K. Dynamics of forest insect populations. IUFRO 7.03.07 Population dynamics of forest insects, and the Royal Entomological Society. Contact Andrew Liebold, Northeastern F. E. S., U.S.D.A. Forest Service, 180 Canfield St., Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, US. , tel +l-304-285 1609, fax +l-304-285 1505, email sndy @gypsy.fsl.wvnet.edu

16 th COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY CONFERENCE

Newsletter No 57 of the standing Committee on Commonwealth Forestry contains the following details of the programme of the 16th CFC.

Dates 18 - 25 April 2001, venue Esplanade Hotel, Fremantle, Western Australia

Theme Forests in a changing landscape

Sub-theme 1. Landscape change: managing conflicting land pressure at the site and c o m m u n i ~ level

Topics a. Production, protection andparticipation: achieving

balance b. Processes for resolving conflict: managing land use

change c. Converting forests to non-forest uses

Sub-theme 2. The policy landscape: political will and the national forest estate

Topics a. National forest plans and strategies: fundamental or

academic fad? b. Institutions for coping with change: can existing

structures cope? c. Forestry in the public interest: regulation and the

market

Sub-theme 3. The global landscape: framework for co-operation

Topics a. A global governance framework: dream or

possibility? b. Emerging trends in global ecosystems: can forests

really make a difference? c. Forests and trade in the new world trading system

Sub-theme 4. Technology and the forest landscape : rapid changes and their real impacts

Topics a. Trends, opportunities and dangers b. People and the technology change c. Education and training

A meeting of the CFA will be held during the course of the conference week.

International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000 145

ASSOCIATION AFFAIRS

2000 ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

The Association's Annual General Meeting was held on Friday 19 May at the Oxford Forestry Institute, U.K. A note of the meeting is printed in C.F. Newsletter No.9 of June 2000. Copies of the Association's accounts for 1999 are available on request from the Secretary.

THE QUEEN'S AWARD FOR FORESTRY 2000

The Association's selection committee has selected as recipient of the Queen's Award for the year 2000 Dr V.K. Bahuguna of India from a very strong field. Dr Bahuguna, 45, is at present Deputy Inspector General of Forests in the Ministry of Environment and Forests in New Delhi. Before his most recent appointment he has held posts in forest administration, research, teaching and policy formulation, in all of which he served with distinction. He is currently especially active in the development of Joint Forest Management in India .

The award takes the form of a scroll signed by Her Majesty, who is Patron of the Association, and funds to support a travel fellowship. The award will be formally presented on the occasion of the CFA side meeting to be held at the IUFRO World Congress in Malaysia in August 2000.

CHANGE OF EDITOR

A J Grayson, who has edited the Review since 1995, has decided, with some reluctance, to relinquish the editor's chair. His main reasons for this decision are anno domini and the desire to see younger blood introduced into a job where new ideas on sources and particularly on methods of production and access are needed. The September volume of the Review, a special issue on official aid to forestry overseas, will be the last of his editorship.

Dr Alan Pottinger, a forester currently working as Senior Research Associate, Centre for Natural Resources and Development at Green College, Oxford, will take over as Editor from mid- August 2000. We wish him every success and hope that he will find the job as interesting and rewarding as his predecessor has.

LAURENCE ROCHE MEMORIAL FUND

Mrs Felicity Roche has drawn our attention to a Memorial Fund in her late husband's name which has been recently established by her family and Larry Roche's many friends. The chosen object of the Fund is to help relieve poverty in rural Ethiopia through appropriate and sustainable methods of farming and through local training and education in such

methods. The project is called AGROFOREP and is a UK Registered Charity, with Dr Bekele Gessesse as executive director. The project will be establishd in the OromiaRegion of Ethiopia in the highland area. Money donated to the Fund will be spent entirely in Ethiopiaunder the Trustees'direction. The project will involve local people in tree planting for erosion control, pasture improvement, etc., and the training of farmers and government staff, and will engage graduates from the Forestry Faculty of the University of Alemaya at Wondogenet who will thus gain experience in rural devalopment.

We are pleased to publicise this Fund, which will remain open until December 31, 2000. Donations may be sent to: either Natwest Bank, 20 Amhurst Road, London E8 1QZ (a/c no. 61809373); or Ulster Bank plc, 95 O'Connell St., Limerick (a/c no. 71074047); or Mrs Felicity Roche, Madaboy, Murroe, Co. Limerick, Ireland.

OBITUARY

D.G. Cumming 1921 - 2000

Donald Cumming died at his home in Cults, Aberdeen in his 80th year. He was a great Scottish and international Forester.

Born in Switzerland he had a good scottish schooling at Drumnadrochit just south west of Inverness. He started a forestry degree at Edinburgh before the 1939-45 war but enlisted and served for six years in the Royal Artillery, serving mainly in India and Burma. After a long and arduous war he left the army with the rank of major.

After the army he completed his forestry degree at Edinburgh in 1949. He subsequently joined the Colonial forest Service and was posted to Northern Rhodesia where after 17 years service he retired as Chief Conservator in 1966 two years after Zambian independence. These were exciting years in Zambia and Don held together a large and efficient department, committed to national forestry programmes in conservation and development and with strong supporting research and training components. This established the the foundations for sound forest husbandry in Zambia. Don's ability, integrity and drive was recognised by President Kenneth Kaunda who awarded him the Order of Distinguished Service - a singular honour in the the early years of independence.

Don saw the third phase of his career as being in Scotland and in 1967 he was employed as a technician by the University of Aberdeen. One of his early tasks was digging soil pits for student field courses. As in previous undertakings Don worked his way through the ranks, firstly as a Research Assistant, then as his ability to communicate and teach were appreciated he was appointed as a Lecturer and promoted to Senior Lecturer in 1977. With a natural modesty

146 Association affairs

and charm he earned the respect and affection of generations of students. As one of his academic contemporaries observed, 'those of us who worked and learnt with him benefitted from his example of enthusiasm, courtesy, discipline and morality'.

Don played a leading in the Aberdeen region of the Royal Scottish Forestry Society, he was active in conservation and an enthusiastic supporter of the Grampian Farm Forestry and Wildlife Advisory Group. He also maintained his overseas links through the student body He organised a course in Forest Managment and Tropical Silviculture at the University of the West Indies, Jamaica in 1979. He maintained a network of contacts with his Northern RhodesianIZambian associates, and was the driving force behind reunions at Dunblane (1996)and in Natal (1998) and he will be fondly remembered at the year 2000gathering later in the year

Don is survived by his widow Cynthia and his sons Jim and Donald, to whom the Association extends deep sympathy.

J.J. MacGregor 1907-2000

We learn with regret of the death of J. (Jim) MacGregor. An obituary will appear in a later issue of the Review.

148 Translations: summaries

La lutte contre la desertification t l'exphrience asiatique

SEN WANG, RUI ZHENG et YOULIN YANG

La dtsertification est un fltau qui afflige des millions de gens dans plusieurs regions arides, semi-arides et skches subhumides B travers le monde. Face B ce problbme, la communautt internationale a adopt6 diverses mesures au cours des dernibres dtcennies, surtout depuis l'adoption par 1'ONU de laconvention sur la lutte contre la dtsertification, au milieu des anntes 90. Cet article examine l'exptrience des pays asiatiques dans la mise en ceuvre de cette convention. I1 dtcrit l'ttendue de la dtsertification en Asie, rtsume, en citant l'exemple de la Chine, les mesures et programmes principaux adoptts par les gouvemements nationaux de la rtgion, et met en lumibre les programmes d'action de plusieurs rtseaux rtgionaux. Les auteurs discutent des dtfis que 1'Asie aura B relever et des besoins futurs de la rtgion dans son combat contre la dtsertification.

Comparaison de deux cycles de croissance de Pinus radiufa dans le centre de North Island, en Nouvelle- Glande

R.C. WOOLLONS

Le remplacement de placettes datant de 1933 par une strie de 33 nouvelles placettes a permis de comparer deux cycles de croissance de Pinus radiata dans des for& entourant Tokoroa, au centre de North Island, en Nouvelle-Ztlande. Le secteur forestier de la Nouvelle-Zlande doit maintenant dtmontrer son aptitude B pratiquer une exploitation durable, d'oh l'importance p&iculibre de dis~oser de donntes sur la croissance des arbres. La deuxibme strie de placettes a ttt ttablie au dtbut des anntes 70, sur le site exact des premibres. Les analyses de la croissance en hauteur maximale moyenne montrent indtniablement que la croissance est plus avanc6e dans le second cycle, soit de plus de trois mbtres B l'indice de station de 20 ans. Les donntes de surfaces terribres sont difficiles Banalyser, mais leur dtveloppement est trbs probablement sup6rieur dans le second cycle. La croissance des sujets de la seconde rtcolte n'a pas t t t favoriste par l'utilisation de fertilisants, d'herbicides ou de meilleures pratiques forestibres. Elle n'ttait pas non plus attribuable Bun stock gtnttique suptrieur. De tels rtsultats ne s'expliquent pas par une amelioration des sols ; la croissance plus rapide dans le second cycle serait due B des conditions climatiques plus favorables.

SPANISH

Propiedades de un novedoso panel aglomerado de tres capas (MDF) hecho con madera y acolchados no tejidos de henequen

P. R. GILLAH, M. A. IRLE y K. MAHER

Se produjeron bajo condiciones de laboratorio, una serie de paneles aglomerados de densidad media de tres capas (MDF), con

densidades de 550,650 y 750 kg m-', un acolchado no tejido a cada lad0 de una capa central de fibras de madera. El acolchado no tejido es una red de fibras interrelacionadas hechas de una mezcla de madera y fibras de henequtn utilizando un telar. Se evaluaron las propiedades dimensionales y resistencia de 10s paneles aglomerados de tres capas (MDF) y se compararon con paneles MDF esthdares producidos bajo condiciones similares. Se encontr6 que 10s modulus de ruptura (MOR), elasticidad (MOE), fortaleza de enlace interna (IB) y valores de solidez de la superficie de 10s paneles aglomerados de tres capas MDF fueron mls altos que aquellos de 10s paneles MDF estbndar. El espesor del hinchamiento, la absorci6n de agua, el espesor y linearidad irreversible del hinchamiento y las caracten'sticas de estabilidad del panel de tres capas (MDF) eran mucho mejores que 10s paneles ~ ~ k e s t i n d a r e s . Ademb, 10s paneles de tres capas (MDF) presentaron un valor de fortaleza de retenci6n m& alto que la de 10s paneles MDF esthdar.

El uso y administraci6n de tierras comunales en Aravalli, India

A. KUMAR , L. BREN y I. FERGUSON

Este articulo analiza ladependencia relativa de diferentes categorias de en las tierras comunales en las Colinas de Aravalli del estado de Haryana, India de sus necesidades de lefia y forraje, asi como su6n de 10s "Comitts Forestales de la Aldea" que forman la basepara la prktica de la Administracidn Forestal Conjunta. Se discuten las razones que para las diferencias en el uso de recursos entre agricultores grandes, pequefios y marginales y sin tierra. Se encontr6 que todos 10s grupos en las aldeas eran dependientes de la tierra comunal en algdn grado y que favorecibn el uso regulado de las tierras comunales apesar de las diferencias en la dependencia relativa. Se describe y discuten las ambigiiedades en 'arreglos institucionales para la administraci6n de tierras comunales.

Invasi6n de Reserva Forestal: El caso de la reserva forestal Tano-ehuro en Ghana Occidental

C. E. OWUBAH, N. T. DONKOR y R. D. NSENKYIRE

Se llev6 a cab0 un estudio con enfoque la produccibn agricola y establecimiento ilegal de granjeros en la reserva forestal Tano- ehuro en Ghana accidental, con el fin de evaluar politicas gubemamentales anteriores para proteger el bosque, las causas de la invasi611, 10s alcances y fallas de la campaiia gubemamental para evitar la invasi6n de 10s bosques denominada "Operaci6n Detener". Las politicas gubernamentales han sido intermitentes e inconsistentes y han contribuido a incrementar la invasi6n en la reserva. Las mayores causas de la invasi6n incluyen conjura entre granjeros y jefes, baja multas en la corte, la b~squeda por tierra fertil e inadecuado monitoreo. La operacidn detener no es un disuasivo, porque s6lamente el20% de la reserva sobrevive hasta hoy, de cerca de un 40% a1 principio de la operaci6n en 1990. S6lamente 200 de las 1000 hade cacao destruidas bajo el program han sido plantadas con i4rboles. La flaqueza del programa consiste en que no se dirige a las drasticas ramificaciones que acompaAan 10s despojos forzados. Se recomienda que se busque una soluci6n permanente a travts de la administracidn colaborativa forestal.

International Forestry Review 2(2), 2000

Caracterizadbn espacial de mercados de productos forestales no maderem en la zona forestal hiuneda de Came*

M. RUIZ PE&Z, 0. NDOYE, A. EYEBE y A. PUNTODEWO

El articulo analiza la estructura de mercados de productos de bosque no madereros (NTFP) en la zona de bosque humedo (HFZ) de C a m e h dentro de una perspectiva espacial. Se llevo a cab0 una caracterizacion de 25 mercados basada en una serie de productos, comerciantes y atributos del mercado. La combination de atributos de tamaiio y autoabastecimiento resulta en cuatro tipos principales de mercados (nacional, provincial, local y de frontera), mientras que el agrupamiento basado en todos 10s atributos distingue claramente las areas norteiias y surefias del HFZ, y una relacion urbano-rural, nucleo-periferia dentro de cada area. Esta separacion refleja diferentes especializaciones y diversidad de productos, asi como el tamafio del mercado. Dacryodes y Gnetum predominan en 10s mercados norteiios, 10s cuales tienden a ser mayores, mientras que Garcinia lucida, G. kola, e Irvingia son relativamente mas abundantes en 10s mercadosfios. En general, 10s mercados mas grandes son mas diversificados y sus comerciantes son rnas especializados que 10s mas pequefios. Hay tambikn diferencias en el tiempo de almacenamiento del producto, la distancia de la fuente de productos, nivel de imposition de impuestos, y 10s problemas de transporte. Se enfatiza la necesidad entender las multiples, no lineares interacciones entre estos factores.

La Convencibn de la Diversidad Biolbgica: una vista general y lecciones aprendidas de la experiencia de Zimbabwe

E. M. SHUMBA y D. MARONGWE

Aunque la biodiversidad contribuye significativamente a la renta nacionalzimbabwe, sus componentes (viz, forestal, vida silvestre, vida acuatica y agricultura) se estan perdiendo en una tasa alarmante. Este hecho contribuy6 a la firma y ratificacion por parte de este pais, de la Convencion de Diversidad Biologica (CBD) en 1994. Zimbabwe es el primer pais en Sur de Africa en completar exitosamente su Estrategia y su Plan de Accion (BSAP), uno de 10s requerimientos bajo el CBD. El Plan provee una estructura mas bien que un mapa detallado de acci6n inmediata. Esto da a flexibilidad a las instituciones nacionales a1 proponer su papel y su participaci$n en la implementacibn del plan de accion. Las lecciones aprendidas del proceso de preparation de BSAP incluyen la necesidad de una estructura institucional flexible para lanzar y coordinar el proceso, capacidad humana apropiada para preparar el docurnento, claridad en 10s papeles y

responsabilidades de 10s diversos actores y el desembolso oportuno de fondos y alguna flexibilidad en la ejecucion de ciertas actividades.

Combatiendo la desertificacibn: la experiencia Asiatics

SEN WANG, RUI ZHENG y YOULIN YANG

La desertificacion es un problema pernicioso que afecta millones de personas en muchas partes de las areas aridas, semi-aridas y secas sub-humedas del mundo. En dkcadas recientes, la comunidad intemacional ha tomado iniciativas para corregir el problema y ha acelerado sus esfuerzos desde la adopcion de laon de las Naciones Unidas para Combatir la Desertification amediados de 10s 1990. Este articulo revisa la experiencia en la region Asiatica a1 implementar la Convencion para combatir la desertificacion. Se describe la extension del problema de la desertificacion en la region y se resumen las iniciativas y programas principales que han sido adoptados por 10s gobiernos nacionales en la region, utilizando como ilustracion el caso de China y resaltando programas de redes de acci6n regional. Se discuten 10s retos futuros para la region Asiatica. Se identifican las necesidades futuras en Asia en la continua batalla contra la desertificacion.

Comparacibn de crecimiento de Pinus radiata en dos rotaciones en la Isla Norte central de Nueva Zelandia

R. C. WOOLLONS

Una serie de 33 parcelas de remplazo, establecidas en 1933, estan disponibles para evaluar el crecimiento de Pinus radiata en dos rotaciones en bosques alrededor de Tokoroa, en la Isla Norte Central de Nueva Zelandia. El sector de la ingenieria forestal de Nueva Zelandia esta ahora bajo el requerimiento de producir evidencia de sostenibilidad; por 10 tanto la informacion sobre su crecimiento adquiere un significado especial. El segundo lote de parcelas fue re-establecido exactamente en 10s mismos sitios que el primer0 en 10s inicios de 1970. Los analisis de crecimiento promedio de altura principal demuestranque el crecimiento de altura es mayor en la segunda rotacion en el indice de edad 20, de rnas de tres metros. La informacion del area basal es dificil de analizar, per0 es muy probable que el desarrollo del area basal sea mas alto en la segunda rotacion. El crecimiento del segundo cultivo de arboles no ha sido realzado por fertilizantes, herbicidas o mejores practicas de establecimiento y las existencias genkticas superiores no son un factor contribuyente. Estos resultados no se usan para proclamar un mejoramiento de suelo; en lugar de esto, el crecimiento mas rapid0 en la segunda rotacion puede ser atribuida a unas condiciones climaticas mas favorables.