Paper of History of Physics

8/3/2019 Paper of History of Physics

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Newtons life &

development of quantum

physics each period

By :

MILAWATI (091204171)

RAHMANIA (091204177)

7th GROUP

ICP Of PHYSICS

MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE FACULTY

MAKASSAR STATE UNIVERSITY

2011/2012


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PREFACE

Praise of Allah SWT because of His mercy and grace paper entitled "Thedeveloped of Quantum Physics each period, and Newton's life" can be completed

on time.

The success of the author in writing this paper certainly cannot be

separated from the assistance of various parties. To the authors would like to

thank profusely to all those who have assisted the completion of this paper.

The author realizes that in the writing of this paper is far from perfect and

there are still many shortcomings that still need to be improved, to the authors

welcome any suggestions and constructive criticism for the perfection of this

paper, that can benefit anyone who reads it.

Makassar, 14th October 2010


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TABLE OF CONTENT

COVER ......................................................................................................... i

PREFACE ..................................................................................................... ii

TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................ iii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 1

A. Background ................................................................................. 1B.

Problems ...................................................................................... 2

C. Purpose ........................................................................................ 2D. Benefit ......................................................................................... 2

CHAPTER II DISCUSSION ........................................................................ 3

A. Isaac Newton's Life ..................................................................... 3B. Scientific Achievements.............................................................. 11C. Development Of Quantum Physics ............................................. 13

CHAPTER V CLOSING .............................................................................. 21

A. Conclussion ................................................................................. 21B. Suggestion ................................................................................... 21

BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................... iv


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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. BackgroundPhysics comes from the Greek "Physic" which means "nature" or "matters

of nature" while physics (in English "Physics") is the science that examine

different aspects of nature that can be understood by understanding the basics of

the principles and elementary laws. Furthermore, the physics can be defined in

various terms, one of which says that physics is the study of a substance or

substances and the energy and movement.Physics as a science has a very broad sense. But the problem often

encountered in particular in the fields of engineering (chemical) the study of

atomic motions in the heat transfer (thermodynamics). Since the invention of

telescope by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), the development of physics is very

rapid because the experts at that time could have been explained by Kepler's third

law discovered by Johannes Kepler. (1571-1630). The development of physics is

very important is mechanics, which is based on the laws of motion, mass and styleby Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727).

Physics is the science that covers all the fundamental science and living

things (biology, zoology, etc.) and physical sciences (astronomy, chemistry,

physics). Although the physics discussed a wide range of systems, there are

several theories used in physics as a whole, rather than in only one area. Each

theory is believed to be true, in particular the validity region. For example, the

theory of classical mechanics can describe the movement of objects with the right,as long as this thing bigger than atoms and moving at a speed much slower than

the speed of light. This is the development of important physical bertumpuh on

the laws of motion, mass and style by Isaac Newton. However, few physicists

who consider these basic theories diverge. Therefore, these theories are used as

the basis for research into more specialized topics, as well as the development of

quantum physics.


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Therefore, as the person who engaged in the world of science, particularly

physics, we need to know the history of physics itself and its development and do

not forget to also figure - an influential figure in the development of physics. This

is what underlies the manufacture of this paper. This paper will discuss the

historical development of quantum physics as well as an influential figure in the

development of the physics of Sir Isaac Newton.

B. ProblemsBased on the description above background as for the formulation of the

problem posed in this paper are:

1. How is the life of Sir Isaac Newton's character and its influence on thedevelopment of physics science?

2. How did the concept development of quantum physics each period?C. Purposes

1. To find out the lives of Sir Isaac Newton, and its influence on thedevelopment of physics.

2. To know the concepts of quantum physics developments of each period.D. Benefit

By discussion of the lives of Sir Isaac Newton and its influence on the

development of physics, quantum physics and the concept of development is

expected that students will learn the basic physics of the development of one

of them is quantum physics.


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CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

A. ISAAC NEWTON'S LIFENewton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727), English natural philosopher, generally

regarded as the most original and influential theorist in the history of science.

In addition to his invention of the infinitesimal calculus and a new theory of

light and color, Newton transformed the structure of physical science with his

three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. As the keystone of

the scientific revolution of the 17th century, Newton's work combined thecontributions of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, and others into a new

and powerful synthesis. Three centuries later the resulting structure - classical

mechanics - continues to be a useful but no less elegant monument to his

genius.

Life & Character - Isaac Newton was born prematurely on Christmas

day 1642 (4 January 1643, New Style) in Woolsthorpe, a hamlet near

Grantham in Lincolnshire. The posthumous son of an illiterate yeoman (also

named Isaac), the fatherless infant was small enough at birth to fit 'into a

quartpot.' When he was barely three years old Newton's mother, Hanna

(Ayscough), placed her first born with his grandmother in order to remarry

and raise a second family with Barnabas Smith, a wealthy rector from nearby

North Witham. Much has been made of Newton's posthumous birth, his

prolonged separation from his mother, and his unrivaled hatred of his

stepfather. Until Hanna returned to Woolsthorpe in 1653 after the death of her

second husband, Newton was denied his mother's attention, a possible clue to

his complex character. Newton's childhood was anything but happy, and

throughout his life he verged on emotional collapse, occasionally falling into

violent and vindictive attacks against friend and foe alike.

With his mother's return to Woolsthorpe in 1653, Newton was taken

from school to fulfill his birthright as a farmer. Happily, he failed in this

calling, and returned to King's School at Grantham to prepare for entrance to

Trinity College, Cambridge. Numerous anecdotes survive from this period


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about Newton's absent-mindedness as a fledging farmer and his lackluster

performance as a student. But the turning point in Newton's life came in June

1661 when he left Woolsthorpe for Cambridge University. Here Newton

entered a new world, one he could eventually call his own.

Although Cambridge was an outstanding center of learning, the spirit

of the scientific revolution had yet to penetrate its ancient and somewhat

ossified curriculum. Little is known of Newton's formal studies as an

undergraduate, but he likely received large doses of Aristotle as well as other

classical authors. And by all appearances his academic performance was

undistinguished. In 1664 Isaac Barrow, Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at

Cambridge, examined Newton's understanding of Euclid and found it sorely

lacking. We now know that during his undergraduate years Newton was

deeply engrossed in private study, that he privately mastered the works of

Ren Descartes, Pierre Gassendi, Thomas Hobbes, and other major figures of

the scientific revolution. A series of extant notebooks shows that by 1664

Newton had begun to master Descartes' Gomtrie and other forms of

mathematics far in advance of Euclid's Elements. Barrow, himself a gifted

mathematician, had yet to appreciate Newton's genius.

In 1665 Newton took his bachelor's degree at Cambridge without

honors or distinction. Since the university was closed for the next two years

because of plague, Newton returned to Woolsthorpe in midyear. There, in the

following 18 months, he made a series of original contributions to science. As

he later recalled, 'All this was in the two plague years of 1665 and 1666, for in

those days I was in my prime of age for invention, and minded mathematicsand philosophy more than at any time since.' In mathematics Newton

conceived his 'method of fluxions' (infinitesimal calculus), laid the

foundations for his theory of light and color, and achieved significant insight

into the problem of planetary motion, insights that eventually led to the

publication of his Principia (1687).

In April 1667, Newton returned to Cambridge and, against stiff odds,

was elected a minor fellow at Trinity. Success followed good fortune. In the


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next year he became a senior fellow upon taking his master of arts degree, and

in 1669, before he had reached his 27th birthday, he succeeded Isaac Barrow

as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. The duties of this appointment offered

Newton the opportunity to organize the results of his earlier optical researches,

and in 1672, shortly after his election to the Royal Society, he communicated

his first public paper, a brilliant but no less controversial study on the nature

of color.

In the first of a series of bitter disputes, Newton locked horns with the

society's celebrated curator of experiments, the bright but brittle Robert

Hooke. The ensuing controversy, which continued until 1678, established a

pattern in Newton's behavior. After an initial skirmish, he quietly retreated.

Nonetheless, in 1675 Newton ventured another yet another paper, which again

drew lightning, this time charged with claims that he had plagiarized from

Hooke. The charges were entirely ungrounded. Twice burned, Newton

withdrew.

In 1678, Newton suffered a serious emotional breakdown, and in the

following year his mother died. Newton's response was to cut off contact with

others and engross himself in alchemical research. These studies, once an

embarrassment to Newton scholars, were not misguided musings but rigorous

investigations into the hidden forces of nature. Newton's alchemical studies

opened theoretical avenues not found in the mechanical philosophy, the world

view that sustained his early work. While the mechanical philosophy reduced

all phenomena to the impact of matter in motion, the alchemical tradition

upheld the possibility of attraction and repulsion at the particulate level.Newton's later insights in celestial mechanics can be traced in part to his

alchemical interests. By combining action-at-a-distance and mathematics,

Newton transformed the mechanical philosophy by adding a mysterious but no

less measurable quantity, gravitational force.

In 1666, as tradition has it, Newton observed the fall of an apple in his

garden at Woolsthorpe, later recalling, 'In the same year I began to think of

gravity extending to the orb of the Moon.' Newton's memory was not accurate.


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In fact, all evidence suggests that the concept of universal gravitation did not

spring full-blown from Newton's head in 1666 but was nearly 20 years in

gestation. Ironically, Robert Hooke helped give it life. In November 1679,

Hooke initiated an exchange of letters that bore on the question of planetary

motion. Although Newton hastily broke off the correspondence, Hooke's

letters provided a conceptual link between central attraction and a force falling

off with the square of distance. Sometime in early 1680, Newton appears to

have quietly drawn his own conclusions.

Meanwhile, in the coffeehouses of London, Hooke, Edmund Halley,

and Christopher Wren struggled unsuccessfully with the problem of planetary

motion. Finally, in August 1684, Halley paid a legendary visit to Newton in

Cambridge, hoping for an answer to his riddle: What type of curve does a

planet describe in its orbit around the sun, assuming an inverse square law of

attraction? When Halley posed the question, Newton's ready response was 'an

ellipse.' When asked how he knew it was an ellipse Newton replied that he had

already calculated it. Although Newton had privately answered one of the

riddles of the universe--and he alone possessed the mathematical ability to do

so--he had characteristically misplaced the calculation. After further

discussion he promised to send Halley a fresh calculation forthwith. In partial

fulfillment of his promise Newton produced his De Motu of 1684. From that

seed, after nearly two years of intense labor, the Philosophiae Naturalis

Principia Mathematica appeared. Arguably, it is the most important book

published in the history of science. But if the Principia was Newton's

brainchild, Hooke and Halley were nothing less than midwives.Although the Principia was well received, its future was cast in doubt

before it appeared. Here again Hooke was center stage, this time claiming (not

without justification) that his letters of 1679-1680 earned him a role in

Newton's discovery. But to no effect. Newton was so furious with Hooke that

he threatened to suppress Book III of the Principia altogether, finally

denouncing science as 'an impertinently litigious lady.' Newton calmed down

and finally consented to publication. But instead of acknowledging Hooke's


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contribution Newton systematically deleted every possible mention of Hooke's

name. Newton's hatred for Hooke was consumptive. Indeed, Newton later

withheld publication of his Opticks (1704) and virtually withdrew from the

Royal Society until Hooke's death in 1703.

After publishing the Principia, Newton became more involved in

public affairs. In 1689 he was elected to represent Cambridge in Parliament,

and during his stay in London he became acquainted with John Locke, the

famous philosopher, and Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, a brilliant young

mathematician who became an intimate friend. In 1693, however, Newton

suffered a severe nervous disorder, not unlike his breakdown of 1677-1678.

The cause is open to interpretation: overwork; the stress of controversy; the

unexplained loss of friendship with Fatio; or perhaps chronic mercury

poisoning, the result of nearly three decades of alchemical research. Each

factor may have played a role. We only know Locke and Samuel Pepys

received strange and seemingly deranged letters that prompted concern for

Newton's 'discomposure in head, or mind, or both.' Whatever the cause,

shortly after his recovery Newton sought a new position in London. In 1696,

with the help of Charles Montague, a fellow of Trinity and later earl of

Halifax, Newton was appointed Warden and then Master of the Mint. His new

position proved 'most proper,' and he left Cambridge for London without

regret.

During his London years Newton enjoyed power and worldly success.

His position at the Mint assured a comfortable social and economic status, and

he was an active and able administrator. After the death of Hooke in 1703,Newton was elected president of the Royal Society and was annually reelected

until his death. In 1704 he published his second major work, the Opticks,

based largely on work completed decades before. He was knighted in 1705.

Although his creative years had passed, Newton continued to exercise

a profound influence on the development of science. In effect, the Royal

Society was Newton's instrument, and he played it to his personal advantage.

His tenure as president has been described as tyrannical and autocratic, and his


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control over the lives and careers of younger disciples was all but absolute.

Newton could not abide contradiction or controversy - his quarrels with

Hooke provide singular examples. But in later disputes, as president of the

Royal Society, Newton marshaled all the forces at his command. For example,

he published Flamsteed's astronomical observations - the labor of a lifetime -

without the author's permission; and in his priority dispute with Leibniz

concerning the calculus, Newton enlisted younger men to fight his war of

words, while behind the lines he secretly directed charge and countercharge.

In the end, the actions of the Society were little more than extensions of

Newton's will, and until his death he dominated the landscape of science

without rival. He died in London on March 20, 1727 (Hatch, Robert A:

1998).

B. SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENTSAccording to Alfred Rupert Hall (1998) deliver scientific achievement

of Newton are:

1. OpticsIn 1664, while still a student, Newton read recent work on optics and

light by the English physicists Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke; he also studied

both the mathematics and the physics of the French philosopher and scientist

Ren Descartes. He investigated the refraction of light by a glass prism;

developing over a few years a series of increasingly elaborate, refined, and

exact experiments, Newton discovered measurable, mathematical patterns in

the phenomenon of colour. He found white light to be a mixture of infinitely

varied colored rays (manifest in the rainbow and the spectrum), each ray

definable by the angle through which it is refracted on entering or leaving a

given transparent medium. He correlated this notion with his study of the

interference colors of thin films (for example, of oil on water, or soap bubbles),

using a simple technique of extreme acuity to measure the thickness of such

films. He held that light consisted of streams of minute particles.


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From his experiments he could infer the magnitudes of the transparent

"corpuscles" forming the surfaces of bodies, which, according to their

dimensions, so interacted with white light as to reflect, selectively, the different

observed colors of those surfaces. The roots of these unconventional ideas were

with Newton by about 1668; when first expressed (tersely and partially) in

public in 1672 and 1675, they provoked hostile criticism, mainly because

colours were thought to be modified forms of homogeneous white light.

Doubts, and Newton's rejoinders, were printed in the learned journals. Notably,

the scepticism of Christiaan Huygens and the failure of the French physicist

Edm Mariotte to duplicate Newton's refraction experiments in 1681 set

scientists on the Continent against him for a generation. The publication of

Opticks, largely written by 1692, was delayed by Newton until the critics were

dead. The book was still imperfect: the colours of diffraction defeated Newton.

Nevertheless, Opticks established itself, from about 1715, as a model of the

interweaving of theory with quantitative experimentation.

2. MathematicsIn mathematics too, early brilliance appeared in Newton's student

notes. He may have learnt geometry at school, though he always spoke of

himself as self-taught; certainly he advanced through studying the writings of

his compatriots William Oughtred and John Wallis, and of Descartes and the

Dutch school. Newton made contributions to all branches of mathematics then

studied, but is especially famous for his solutions to the contemporary

problems in analytical geometry of drawing tangents to curves (differentiation)and defining areas bounded by curves (integration). Not only did Newton

discover that these problems were inverse to each other, but he discovered

general methods of resolving problems of curvature, embraced in his "method

of fluxions" and "inverse method of fluxions", respectively equivalent to

Leibniz's later differential and integral calculus. Newton used the term

"fluxion" (from Latin meaning "flow") because he imagined a quantity

"flowing" from one magnitude to another. Fluxions were expressed


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algebraically, as Leibniz's differentials were, but Newton made extensive use

also (especially in the Principia) of analogous geometrical arguments. Late in

life, Newton expressed regret for the algebraic style of recent mathematical

progress, preferring the geometrical method of the Classical Greeks, which he

regarded as clearer and more rigorous.

Newton's work on pure mathematics was virtually hidden from all but

his correspondents until 1704, when he published, with Optics, a tract on the

quadrature of curves (integration) and another on the classification of the cubic

curves. His Cambridge lectures, delivered from about 1673 to 1683, were

published in 1707.

3. The Calculus Priority DisputeNewton had the essence of the methods of fluxions by 1666. The first

to become known, privately, to other mathematicians, in 1668, was his method

of integration by infinite series. In Paris in 1675 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

independently evolved the first ideas of his differential calculus, outlined to

Newton in 1677. Newton had already described some of his mathematicaldiscoveries to Leibniz, not including his method of fluxions. In 1684 Leibniz

published his first paper on calculus; a small group of mathematicians took up

his ideas.

In the 1690s Newton's friends proclaimed the priority of Newton's

methods of fluxions. Supporters of Leibniz asserted that he had communicated

the differential method to Newton, although Leibniz had claimed no such

thing. Newtonians then asserted, rightly, that Leibniz had seen papers ofNewton's during a London visit in 1676; in reality, Leibniz had taken no notice

of material on fluxions. A violent dispute sprang up, part public, part private,

extended by Leibniz to attacks on Newton's theory of gravitation and his ideas

about God and creation; it was not ended even by Leibniz's death in 1716. The

dispute delayed the reception of Newtonian science on the Continent, and

dissuaded British mathematicians from sharing the researches of Continental

colleagues for a century.


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4. Mechanics And GravitationAccording to the well-known story, it was on seeing an apple fall in his

orchard at some time during 1665 or 1666 that Newton conceived that the same

force governed the motion of the Moon and the apple. He calculated the force

needed to hold the Moon in its orbit, as compared with the force pulling an

object to the ground. He also calculated the centripetal force needed to hold a

stone in a sling, and the relation between the length of a pendulum and the time

of its swing. These early explorations were not soon exploited by Newton,

though he studied astronomy and the problems of planetary motion.Correspondence with Hooke (1679-1680) redirected Newton to the

problem of the path of a body subjected to a centrally directed force that varies

as the inverse square of the distance; he determined it to be an ellipse, so

informing Edmond Halley in August 1684. Halley's interest led Newton to

demonstrate the relationship afresh, to compose a brief tract on mechanics, and

finally to write the Principia.

Book I of the Principia states the foundations of the science ofmechanics, developing upon them the mathematics of orbital motion round

centers of force. Newton identified gravitation as the fundamental force

controlling the motions of the celestial bodies. He never found its cause. To

contemporaries who found the idea of attractions across empty space

unintelligible, he conceded that they might prove to be caused by the impacts

of unseen particles.

Book II inaugurates the theory of fluids: Newton solves problems offluids in movement and of motion through fluids. From the density of air he

calculated the speed of sound waves.

Book III shows the law of gravitation at work in the universe: Newton

demonstrates it from the revolutions of the six known planets, including the

Earth, and their satellites. However, he could never quite perfect the difficult

theory of the Moon's motion. Comets were shown to obey the same law; in

later editions, Newton added conjectures on the possibility of their return. He


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calculated the relative masses of heavenly bodies from their gravitational

forces, and the oblateness of Earth and Jupiter, already observed. He explained

tidal ebb and flow and the precession of the equinoxes from the forces exerted

by the Sun and Moon. All this was done by exact computation.

Newton's work in mechanics was accepted at once in Britain, and

universally after half a century. Since then it has been ranked among

humanity's greatest achievements in abstract thought. It was extended and

perfected by others, notably Pierre Simon de Laplace, without changing its

basis and it survived into the late 19th century before it began to show signs of

failing.

5. Alchemy And ChemistryNewton left a mass of manuscripts on the subjects of alchemy and

chemistry, then closely related topics. Most of these were extracts from books,

bibliographies, dictionaries, and so on, but a few are original. He began

intensive experimentation in 1669, continuing till he left Cambridge, seeking to

unravel the meaning that he hoped was hidden in alchemical obscurity andmysticism. He sought understanding of the nature and structure of all matter,

formed from the "solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles" that he

believed God had created. Most importantly in the "Queries" appended to

"Opticks" and in the essay "On the Nature of Acids" (1710), Newton published

an incomplete theory of chemical force, concealing his exploration of the

alchemists, which became known a century after his death.

6. Historical And Chronological StudiesNewton owned more books on humanistic learning than on

mathematics and science; all his life he studied them deeply. His unpublished

"classical scholia"explanatory notes intended for use in a future edition of

the Principiareveal his knowledge of pre-Socratic philosophy; he read the

Fathers of the Church even more deeply. Newton sought to reconcile Greek

mythology and record with the Bible, considered the prime authority on the

early history of mankind. In his work on chronology he undertook to make


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Jewish and pagan dates compatible, and to fix them absolutely from an

astronomical argument about the earliest constellation figures devised by the

Greeks. He put the fall of Troy at 904 BC, about 500 years later than other

scholars; this was not well received.

7. Religious Convictions And PersonalityNewton also wrote on Judaeo-Christian prophecy, whose decipherment

was essential, he thought, to the understanding of God. His book on the

subject, which was reprinted well into the Victorian Age, represented lifelong

study. Its message was that Christianity went astray in the 4th century AD,when the first Council of Nicaea propounded erroneous doctrines of the nature

of Christ. The full extent of Newton's unorthodoxy was recognized only in the

present century: but although a critic of accepted Trinitarian dogmas and the

Council of Nicaea, he possessed a deep religious sense, venerated the Bible and

accepted its account of creation. In late editions of his scientific works he

expressed a strong sense of God's providential role in nature.

8. PublicationsNewton published an edition ofGeographia generalis by the German

geographer Varenius in 1672. His own letters on optics appeared in print from

1672 to 1676. Then he published nothing until the Principia (published in

Latin in 1687; revised in 1713 and 1726; and translated into English in 1729).

This was followed by Opticks in 1704; a revised edition in Latin appeared in

1706. Posthumously published writings include The Chronology of Ancient

Kingdoms Amended(1728), The System of the World (1728), the first draft of

Book III of the Principia, and Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and

the Apocalypse of St John (1733).

C. DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTUM PHYSICSQuantum physics is one part of the science of physics that studies the

behavior of matter and energy on a scale of atomic and subatomic particles or

waves. In principle the same as in classical physics, but the subject matter in


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quantum physics is the scale and the atomic or subatomic particles moving at

high speed. For particles moving at speeds close to or equal to the speed of

light, his behavior is discussed separately in the theory of special relativity.

Quantum physics was developed in the early 20th century, where the formulas

in Classical Physics is no longer able to explain the phenomena that occur on a

very small matter. Physics Planck quantum hypothesis begins by stating that

the amount of energy an object that oscillate (oscillator) is no longer

continuous, but discrete (quanta), thus came the term Quantum Physics and

the discovery of the concept of wave-particle dualism. The concept of dualism

and magnitude of these quanta are the foundation of Modern Physics.

Concepts, hypotheses and experiments to make the foundation of modern

physics development and application of modern physics, in various fields such

as medicine, telecommunications, and industrial(Amri dan Murdani : 2010).

The dawn of the twentieth century saw the birth of a new era in

physical science. Even as both its practical applications and the number of its

practitioners grew at an enormous rate, its underlying philosophy changed

drastically. The story started with heat radiation, a subject that physicists

thought they understood and had just brought under control. The simplest

entity on which to test this understanding was a so-called black body, an

idealized object that absorbs all the electromagnetic radiation falling on it

from outside without reflecting any of it back. (Such a physical system can

also be realized by a hollow cavity with a small hole as its only opening.) The

way the energy radiated by a black body at a given temperature is distributed

over various frequencies and how that energy distribution changes with thetemperature was known from experimentsfor example, heating up a piece of

iron until it was red-hot and noting how the color changed as the temperature

increased(Newton, Roger G:2007).

An imaginative leap was required to rescue physics, and this leap,

which led to much intellectual ferment, was taken not by a young

revolutionary but by an already well-established German physicist, Max

Planck.


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Max Planck was born in Kiel, Germany, in 1858, the sixth child of a

professor of jurisprudence at the University of Kiel. When he was eight years

old, the family moved to Munich, where he was educated at the Maximilian

Gymnasium and subsequently at the University of Munich. After studying

mathematics and physics with Gustav Kirchhoff and Hermann Helmholtz in

Berlin, he obtained his doctorate at Munich in 1879 with a dissertation on

thermodynamics. His first academic position was at the University of Kiel,

after which he moved to the University of Berlin, where he became professor

of physics in 1892, a position he retained until his retirement in 1926. Married

twicehis first wife died in 1909Planck had four children. His eldest son

died as a soldier in the First World War, both of his twin daughters died

shortly thereafter, during childbirth, and his second son was executed in 1944,

accused of being involved in a conspiracy against Hitler.

A religious and politically conservative man, Max Planck was one of

the signatories of a notorious manifesto of ninety-three intellectuals issued

in 1914 that disclaimed any German responsibility for the war and denied that

the widely reported alleged misconduct by its army in Belgium could possibly

have occurred, but he soon bitterly regretted his rash signature. This lapse

notwithstanding, for the entire first half of the twentieth century Max Planck

would represent what was best in German science at a time when remaining

honorable was difficult and even dangerous in his country. He was

instrumental in persuading Einstein to come to Berlin in 1914, creating a

special position for him there. Appointed president of the Kaiser Wilhelm

Institute in Berlin in 1930, he resigned from this post in 1937 in protestagainst the treatment of Jewish scientists by the Nazi government. After the

Second World War, the Institute was renamed the Max Planck Institute and

moved to Gttingen,with Planck rein-stated as its president. He died in

Gttingen in 1947.

Scientifically, Max Planck embodied the reluctant but willing

transition of the old guard from classical physics to an entirely new

probabilistic paradigm in which iron-clad laws changed to statistical


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regularities. To admit the possibility, even if rare, of a violation of the second

law of thermodynamics by a fluctuation was a wrenching thought for him, and

he only grudgingly accepted atoms, which, after all, were ultimately

responsible for the statistical nature of thermodynamics.Yethe was the

physicist who fired the first shot in a scientific revolution that he did not

welcome. In 1900, without any underlying rational justification other than

strictly mathematical purposes, heapplied Boltzmanns probabilisticreasoning

tocalculate the entropy of the energy distribution in a black body by means of

an unheard-of assumption: that the energy E of electromagnetic radiation of a

given frequency f emitted or absorbed by the walls of a cavity could not take

on any arbitrary value but had to be proportional to that frequency, E = hf, or

integer multiples thereof. The constant of proportionality, h, now considered

one of the most fundamental in nature, came to be known as Plancks

constant. (Actually, Boltzmann himself had used discrete energies for his

calculation of probabilities, but his discretization was nottied to a radiation

frequency as Plancks was.) In that wayand only thatwayPlanck was able

to obtain Wiens displacement law, and eventually even to derive a new

energy-distribution law for black bodies to take the place of the Rayleigh-

Jeans formula. Plancks new radiation law turned out to agree well with

experimental data. This would not be 212 From Clockwork to Crapshootthe

last time in this field that imaginative scientists generated productive new

theoretical ideas thatappeared totally unjustified.

The nextstep in the revolution was taken by Einstein in 1905, but to

understand it we have to retrace our steps a bit. In the course of their researchon electrical conduction through gases, the German physicists Julius Plcker

(18011868) and Johann Wilhelm Hittorf (18241914) had found a new kind

of ray, now called cathode rays, whose presence becomes visible by a glow

either in a gas or on the surface of a glass vessel containing a gas (such as the

CTR monitor of a computer or television picture tube). The nature of these

mysterious rays, which could be deflected by a magnetnow known to be

streams of electrically charged particles called electronswas uncovered in


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1897 by the British physicist J. J. Thomson (18561940). (This discovery was

notuniqueto Thomson.The two German physicists Emil Wiechert [18611928]

and Walter Kaufmann [18711947] both also independently discovered the

nature of cathode rays at about the same time.) 1 In the meantime, Heinrich

Hertz had found in 1887 that electric spark discharges were enhanced by

exposure to bright light.What he had discovered came to be known as the

photoelectric effect. In terms of J. J. Thomsons discovery,Hertz had found

that when lightshines on a metal surface, the surface emits electrons.

Somefifteen years later,when Philipp Lenard investigated the photoelectric

phenomenon in moredetail,his data showed something very puzzling about

this emission: increasing the brightness of the light produced more electrons,

but it did not increase their speed, which was entirely determined by the color

of the light. No one was able to understand this puzzle until Einstein solved it

as part of one of his three groundbreaking papers in the year 1905.

In the last decade of the nineteenth century all sorts of new rays were

found, and the unraveling of their nature added unexpected aspects tothe still

controversial theory of atoms. Firstcame thediscovery of X-rays in 1895 by

the German physicist Wilhelm Konrad Rntgen (18451923). In the course of

studying the properties of cathode rays, which caused luminescence in certain

chemicals, he found that the glow continued to be produced when the cathode-

ray tube was covered by cardboard, and even when the chemical was taken

into the next room. The penetrating rays were obviously not the same as

cathode rays but were produced as cathode rays hit the glass walls of the tube.

He named these previously unknown, mysterious rays X-rays. When he wentpublic with his discovery, showing photographs of his hand with its bone

structure made visible because theX-rays easily penetratedskin and tissues but

were absorbed by bones, he caused a sensation. In 1912, when the German

physicist Max von Laue (18791960) sent X-rays through crystals, he found a

diffraction pattern similar to the one Thomas Young had found when shining

light through slits. He concluded from this experiment that X-rays (which

could not be deflected by electric or magnetic fields) were electromagnetic


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radiation like light but of much shorter wavelength. Von Laues patterns also

demonstrated that crystals were made up of regular arrangements of atoms and

that the observed fringes gave detailed information about the structure of the

diffracting crystalsa fact established by the young British physicist William

Lawrence Bragg (18901971), together with his father William Henry Bragg

(18621942). Some forty years later, this insight would help in the unraveling

of the structure of DNA by Francis Crick and James Watson.

During the same year, 1896, that Rntgen announced his discovery of

X-rays, the French physicist Henri Becquerel (18521908) quite accidentally

found radioactivity. In his investigation to determine if the fluorescence of

certain crystals when exposed to light produced Rntgens X-rays, he had left

some uranium salts wrapped in paper on a photographic plate in a drawer.

Since the salts were in the dark, they could not fluoresce. To his astonishment

he later found that the plate was clouded, which indicated that the uranium salt

must have emitted a new kind of radiation that penetrated the paper and

clouded the plate. His subsequent experiments revealed that the emitted

radiation, later called beta rays, could be deflected by a magnet and seemed to

have the same properties as the particle rays J. J.Thomson had found: they

consisted of electrons. Becquerels serendipitous finding, however, was only

the first step in the discovery of radioactivity; the real heroine of that story was

Marie Curie.

From 1896 on, Marie Curie became intensely interested in the new

discoveries by Rntgen and especially in the rays given off by uranium that

Becquerel had found. What she wanted to investigate, together with Pierre,who abandoned his own work to join her, was whether there mightbe other

substances emitting such radiation. After finding that thorium did too, and that

the mineral pitchblende emitted much more radiation than could beaccounted

for by its uranium content, they discovered two new radioactive elements,

polonium and radium. All these substances produced other radioactive

elements as well as either helium or betarays. ll of this research was done in

a substandard laboratory in the cole de Physique et Chimie, which was the


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only place of work available to them. Many honors followed,but it was not

until the year after their joint Nobel Prize in physics with Becquerel in 1903

that Marie was appointed as Pierres assistant with a salaryshe had been

working without pay until then. In 1904 their second daughter, Eve, was born,

and Pierre was appointed to a newly created chair in physics at the Sorbonne.

Two years later, after Pierre Curie was accidentally killed by a horse-

drawn carriage, Marie was appointed to the chair her husband had occupied,

the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne. In 1910 she declined the Legion of

Honor, as had Pierre in 1903, and she never accepted any royalties for the

lucrative industrial applications of radium. The following year Marie Curie

was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for isolating polonium and radium

as pure metals; it was the first time that a person had won two Nobel Prizes in

science, and would remain the only time for more than half a century. During

the First World War, Marie Curie aided the French armys care for the

wounded by helping to equip ambulances with X-ray apparatus, and the

International Red Cross appointed her head of its Radiological Service.

Assisted by her daughter Irne, she also created new courses in radiology for

medical orderlies. Impressed by Madame Curies generosity and scientific

accomplishments, American women made her a gift of a gram of radium, paid

for by national subscription and presented to her in 1921 by President Harding

while she was on a tour of the United States. By the late 1920s, however, her

health began to deteriorate; she underwent four cataract operations and

developed lesions on her fingers, the result of handling radium without proper

protection. A few months after Irne (18971956) and her husband FrdricJoliot (19001958) announced their discovery of artificial radioactivity, Marie

Curie entered a nursing home and then a sanatorium in Sancellemoz in the

French Alps, where she died in 1934.

The next year,1912, Bohr returned to Copenhagen, unsuccessfully

applied for a professorship in physics at the university, and married Margrethe

Nrlund. Between the years 1916 and 1928 they had six sons. Christian, the

eldest, died tragically at the age of seventeen in a sailing accident, his father


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on board butunable to help. After returning to Manchester, where Bohr

became famous for his model of the atom, heprevailed upon the Danish

government to appointhim to a professorship at theUniversity of Copenhagen.

The government also built the Institute for Theoretical Physics for him, of

which he became the director in 1920, a position he retained until his death in

1962

Quantum mechanics remains, to this day, the framework theory for

our understanding of all physical phenomena. But like Newtonian mechanics,

it had to be supplemented with specific laws for the interactions of the entities

that it is meant to govern. The discovery of these laws and of more

fundamental particles to be governed by them, as well as the extension of the

quantum theory to fields, suchas the electromagnetic field, will be the subject

of the next chapter.

Why are all hydrogen atoms exactly alike? Why does a helium atom

weigh four times as much as a hydrogen atom? Why is the spectrum of the

yellow light emitted by heated sodium made up of its specific frequencies?

One might have expected that quantum mechanics, dealing in probabilities as

it does, could lead only to relatively vague or tenuous predictions compared to

the definite ones coming out of the classical determinism. Instead, it turned out

that the quantum framework, when combined with specific assumptions of

forces, was able to yield many predictions of enormously precise numbers,

which, when compared to equally precise experimental measurements, proved

extremely accurate. While today physicists still harbor various degrees of

doubt about some of the ingredients with which to fill the quantum frame, the

framework itself, with its probabilities, has shown not the slightest inclination

to fail. The Quantum Revolution (Newton, Roger G:2007).


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CHAPTER III

CLOSING

A. ConclusionAccording to problems and discussion above, we can conclude that :

1. Isaac Newton was born prematurely on Christmas day 1642 (4 January1643, New Style) in Woolsthorpe, a hamlet near Grantham in

Lincolnshire and Newton began his career when he left Woolsthorpe

for Cambridge University. Here Newton entered a new world, one he

could eventually call his own. The development of physics is veryimportant is mechanics, which is based on the laws of motion, mass

and style by Sir Isaac Newton

2. Quantum physics was developed in the early 20th century, where theformulas in Classical Physics is no longer able to explain the

phenomena that occur on a very small matter. Physics Planck quantum

hypothesis begins by stating that the amount of energy an object that

oscillate (oscillator) is no longer continuous, but discrete (quanta), thuscame the term Quantum Physics and the discovery of the concept of

wave-particle dualism. The concept of dualism and magnitude of these

quanta are the foundation of Modern Physics.

B. SuggestionSuggestion for the next writer are :

1. We hope that the next writer explain more completely by adding morereference

2. We hope that there are appropriate distribution work in the team.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amri, Ilham dan Murdani, Eka.2010. Sejarah Perkembangan Fisika Kuantum danAplikasinya.(Online)http://lensanet.blogspot.com/2010/06/sejarahperkembangan-fisika-kuantum-dan.html , Accessed 14th Oct. 2011.

Hatch, Robert A. 1998. Sir Isaac Newton. (Online)http://johnlobell.com/publications/QuantumArch.htm , Accessed 14th Oct.2011.

Newton, Roger G.2007.A History Of Physics. United States of America: Libraryof Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data.

Rupert Hall, Alfred.1998.Isaac Newton's Life.(Online).http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/01-courses/current-courses/08sr-newton.htm, Accessed 14th Oct. 2011.
http://lensanet.blogspot.com/2010/06/sejarah%20perkembangan-fisika-kuantum-dan.htmlhttp://lensanet.blogspot.com/2010/06/sejarah%20perkembangan-fisika-kuantum-dan.htmlhttp://lensanet.blogspot.com/2010/06/sejarah%20perkembangan-fisika-kuantum-dan.htmlhttp://lensanet.blogspot.com/2010/06/sejarah%20perkembangan-fisika-kuantum-dan.htmlhttp://johnlobell.com/publications/QuantumArch.htmhttp://johnlobell.com/publications/QuantumArch.htmhttp://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/01-courses/current-courses/08sr-newton.htmhttp://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/01-courses/current-courses/08sr-newton.htmhttp://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/01-courses/current-courses/08sr-newton.htmhttp://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/01-courses/current-courses/08sr-newton.htmhttp://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/01-courses/current-courses/08sr-newton.htmhttp://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/01-courses/current-courses/08sr-newton.htmhttp://johnlobell.com/publications/QuantumArch.htmhttp://lensanet.blogspot.com/2010/06/sejarah%20perkembangan-fisika-kuantum-dan.htmlhttp://lensanet.blogspot.com/2010/06/sejarah%20perkembangan-fisika-kuantum-dan.html

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