Paradigms Paradigms of of

ResearchResearch

ParadigmsParadigms

Frames of reference we use to organize our Frames of reference we use to organize our observations and reasoning. observations and reasoning.

Often implicit, assumed, taken for granted. Often implicit, assumed, taken for granted. Become entrenched, resisting changeBecome entrenched, resisting change

Shift requires revolutionary change in viewShift requires revolutionary change in view New paradigms proposes unique ways of seeing New paradigms proposes unique ways of seeing

and explaining things that then take holdand explaining things that then take hold

Macrotheory and Macrotheory and MicrotheoryMicrotheory

Macrotheory deals with large, aggregate Macrotheory deals with large, aggregate entities of society or even whole societies. entities of society or even whole societies. Struggle between economic classes, Struggle between economic classes,

international relations, interrelations among international relations, interrelations among major institutionsmajor institutions

Microtheory deals with issues of social life Microtheory deals with issues of social life at the level of individuals and small at the level of individuals and small groups.groups. Social interactions, collective deliberation, Social interactions, collective deliberation,

social perceptions, sense-making social perceptions, sense-making

PositivismPositivism

View that science would replace religion View that science would replace religion (belief) and metaphysics (logic) by basing (belief) and metaphysics (logic) by basing knowledge on observation through senses knowledge on observation through senses

All social research descends from Comte’s All social research descends from Comte’s view that society could be studied view that society could be studied scientifically.scientifically. Coined the term “sociologie” - study of societyCoined the term “sociologie” - study of society

Coined the term Coined the term positivismpositivism, in contrast to , in contrast to what he regarded as negative elements of what he regarded as negative elements of his age.his age.

Social DarwinismSocial Darwinism

Influence of Darwin’s Influence of Darwin’s Origin of SpeciesOrigin of Species Process of evolution through natural selectionProcess of evolution through natural selection

Scholars began to apply Darwin’s ideas to Scholars began to apply Darwin’s ideas to changes in the structure of human society. changes in the structure of human society.

Shift to progressively “fitter” forms of Shift to progressively “fitter” forms of society.society.

““Survival of the fittest” - Herbert SpencerSurvival of the fittest” - Herbert Spencer Arguably a misapplication of biological theoryArguably a misapplication of biological theory

Conflict TheoryConflict Theory

Karl Marx asserted social behavior Karl Marx asserted social behavior could be seen as the process of could be seen as the process of conflictconflict To dominate and avoid being dominated.To dominate and avoid being dominated.

Focus on struggle among classesFocus on struggle among classes Social Relations of Production Social Relations of Production Capitalism and Alienation Capitalism and Alienation Class Struggle and Hegemony Class Struggle and Hegemony

Symbolic Symbolic Interactionism Interactionism

Interactions revolve around the process of Interactions revolve around the process of individuals reaching understanding individuals reaching understanding through language and other systems - through language and other systems - Mead & CooleyMead & Cooley Meaning - DefinitionMeaning - Definition Language - Symbol SystemLanguage - Symbol System Thought - NegotiationThought - Negotiation

Can lend insights into the nature of Can lend insights into the nature of interactions in ordinary social life, and interactions in ordinary social life, and help understand unusual forms of help understand unusual forms of interaction.interaction.

Structural Structural FunctionalismFunctionalism

A social entity, such as an organization A social entity, such as an organization or a whole society, can be viewed as an or a whole society, can be viewed as an organism.organism.

A social system is made up of parts, each A social system is made up of parts, each of which contributes to the functioning of which contributes to the functioning of the whole, each serves a purpose.of the whole, each serves a purpose.

This view looks for the “functions” This view looks for the “functions” served by the various components of served by the various components of society.society.

FeminismFeminism

Focuses on gender differences and Focuses on gender differences and how they relate to social organizationhow they relate to social organization

Attend to women’s oppression in Attend to women’s oppression in societies, as well as other kinds of societies, as well as other kinds of oppressionoppression Critique of patriarchal structureCritique of patriarchal structure Critique of dominant social order and Critique of dominant social order and

normsnorms

Social CognitionSocial Cognition

Study of mental processes underlying Study of mental processes underlying social perception, judgment, and social perception, judgment, and influenceinfluence

Human perception and judgment prone Human perception and judgment prone to systematic biases and distortionsto systematic biases and distortions

Conceive of the social world based on Conceive of the social world based on “what is at the top of our heads” “what is at the top of our heads” Schemata - categories of knowledgeSchemata - categories of knowledge These categories structure understandingThese categories structure understanding

Group Exercise Group Exercise

Get in groups of three and discuss what Get in groups of three and discuss what paradigm you would use to study the paradigm you would use to study the relationships between news media and relationships between news media and advertisers…advertisers… Be sure to explain what insights this Be sure to explain what insights this

paradigm would provideparadigm would provide Five minutes and then collective discussionFive minutes and then collective discussion

Traditional Model of Traditional Model of ScienceScience

Four elements: theory, conceptualization Four elements: theory, conceptualization operationalization, and observation.operationalization, and observation. Develop a Theory.Develop a Theory. Conceptualize it componentsConceptualize it components Develop operational definitions that specify Develop operational definitions that specify

the process involved in measuring a variable.the process involved in measuring a variable. Observe and measure of what is seen.Observe and measure of what is seen.

Generating TheoriesGenerating Theories

Theory:Theory: A “generalizable” explanationA “generalizable” explanation An organized framework of knowledgeAn organized framework of knowledge

Identifying:Identifying: Antecedent factors and processesAntecedent factors and processes Consequent factors and processesConsequent factors and processes Contingent conditionsContingent conditions

HypothesesHypotheses

Testable statements derived from theoriesTestable statements derived from theories Observations used to test hypothesesObservations used to test hypotheses Hypotheses “supported” or “not supported”Hypotheses “supported” or “not supported”

Not “proven” or “disproven”Not “proven” or “disproven”

When hypotheses are not supported:When hypotheses are not supported: Theory is considered falsified (not useful)Theory is considered falsified (not useful)

Purpose of Purpose of SystematiziationSystematiziation

Designed to yield “objective” knowledgeDesigned to yield “objective” knowledge Different researchers using the same Different researchers using the same

procedures would produce:procedures would produce: A. Similar resultsA. Similar results B. Similar conclusionsB. Similar conclusions

Known as “inter-subjectivity”Known as “inter-subjectivity”

Importance of Importance of “Control” “Control”

Control in scientific observation:Control in scientific observation: Isolating cause and effectIsolating cause and effect

Controlling for extraneous factorsControlling for extraneous factors Removing the biases of the observerRemoving the biases of the observer Clear conceptual and operational definitionsClear conceptual and operational definitions

Knowledge Knowledge AccumulationAccumulation

Identifying, defining, refining concepts:Identifying, defining, refining concepts: Operating on two levels:Operating on two levels:

1. Concrete empirical observations1. Concrete empirical observations 2. Abstract, generalizable terms:2. Abstract, generalizable terms:

E.g., “social conflict,” “social capital,” or “social E.g., “social conflict,” “social capital,” or “social status”status”

E.g., “attitudes,” “motivations,” or “perceptions”E.g., “attitudes,” “motivations,” or “perceptions”

Integration of the concrete and abstractIntegration of the concrete and abstract

Nature of Scientific Nature of Scientific EvidenceEvidence

1. Gathered under controlled conditions1. Gathered under controlled conditions Specified conditions of observation, proceduresSpecified conditions of observation, procedures

Permits replication by other scientistsPermits replication by other scientists

2. Evidence considered tentative2. Evidence considered tentative Results could have occurred by chanceResults could have occurred by chance Statistics used to estimate probability that results Statistics used to estimate probability that results

occurred by chanceoccurred by chance Margin of error and confidence intervalsMargin of error and confidence intervals

3. Evidence describes patterns that are 3. Evidence describes patterns that are generalizablegeneralizable Evidence yields inferences to other situationsEvidence yields inferences to other situations

Frankfurt School Critique of Frankfurt School Critique of Social ScienceSocial Science

1. Inappropriateness of mechanistic 1. Inappropriateness of mechanistic approachesapproaches ““Hard” science approach adapted to human behaviorHard” science approach adapted to human behavior Humans not as predictable as moleculesHumans not as predictable as molecules

2. Some important concepts hard to measure:2. Some important concepts hard to measure: E.g., intelligence, social class, class struggleE.g., intelligence, social class, class struggle

3. Focuses only on what currently exists3. Focuses only on what currently exists Ignores possibilities of what could beIgnores possibilities of what could be

4. Instrumental nature of knowledge collected4. Instrumental nature of knowledge collected Knowledge may reinforce rather than critique Knowledge may reinforce rather than critique

existing relations of power in societyexisting relations of power in society