Part  IOld and Middle English Periods

(450-1485) 1

1. Therearedifferentdivisionyearsindifferentliteraryhistories.Here,theyear450istheyeararoundwhichAngles,SaxonsandJutescametodrivetheCeltsaway;andwefollowtheNorton Anthologyinchoosing1485astheendyearoftheMiddleEnglishPeriod.

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Chapter 1  Old English Period and Beowulf (450-1066)

Chapter 1O ld English Period and Beowulf (450-1066)

I. Old English Period

1. A Brief Account of the Historical Situation

InaboutBC600Celts,whoinhabitedtheupperRhineland,startedtomigrate to theBritishIsles,andamongthemtheBritons,abranchof theCelts,cameto theIsles inBC400toBC300,fromwhomBritaingot itsname.At thetimeofmigration, theCelticsweretribalpeopleat theearlystageoftheIronAge.Later,troopsledbyJuliusCaesaroftheRomanEmpireinvadedtheBritishIsles,defeatedtheCeltsandruledtherefromBC55toAD407,bringingwiththemtheslavesystem.TheRomanreignoverBritainwentonforfourandahalfcenturies,buttheBritonsneverceasedfightingagainst them.At thebeginningof the5th century, theRomanEmpiredeclinedand inAD410 all their troopswerewithdrawn.TheRomanshadbuilt towns,roads,walls,andmilitaryfortressesduringtheirrule,butbecausetheydidnotreallysettledownormixupwiththeCelts, theyleftlittleinfluenceonthenativepeople.

After theRomans, theTeutonicorGermanictribesofAngles,SaxonsandJutesmovedtoliveintheBritishIsles.ThishappenedinaboutAD450.TheydrovetheCeltstoWales,ScotlandandIreland,settleddownthemselvesandnamedthecentralpartoftheislandEngland,thatisthelandofAngles.These tribeswereaseafaringpeoplewhooriginally livedalongthecoastofDenmarkandGermany.Theybecame themastersofEnglandand theancestorsoftheEnglishpeople.Bytheendofthe6thcenturytherehadbeenestablishedsevenSaxonkingdomsinEngland,andafeudalsocietygraduallyreplacedtheprimitivetriballife.

InthemodernEnglishlanguage,almostnotracesoftheCelticlanguage

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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) oftheancientBritonscanbefound.Despitethefactthatinthecourseofitsdevelopment theEnglishlanguagehasgraduallychanged,suchas thelossofmostoftheflexionsoftheoldAnglo-Saxon,boththegrammaticalrulesandthebodyoftheshortwordsthatformsthebasicword-stockofModernEnglishareofAnglo-Saxonorigin.

Startingfromthelate8thcentury, theDanesfromScandinaviacameplunderingtheIsles.Theywereastrongseapeopleknownas theVikingsandatfirsttheymainlyinvadedtheeasterncoastofEngland.Butsoontheypushedinlandtoplunderthewholecountry.Itwasinthesecondhalfofthe9thcenturyandunitedundertheWessexKing,AlfredtheGreat(849-c.899),thattheEnglishpeopledrovetheVikingDanesoff.KingAlfredalsomadecontributionsother thanmilitary.Heencouragededucationandliterature.ThefirstAnglo-Saxonchroniclewaswrittenduringhisreign,whichwasalandmarkof theOldEnglishPeriod.Afterhisdeath, theDanesovercametheSaxonsagainin1013.Itwasnotuntil23yearslaterinearly11thcenturythatthepiratingoftheVikingswasfinallybroughttoastop.AlthoughsomeDanesmadepermanentsettlementsintheBritishIsles,yetliketheRomansbeforethem,theyfailedtoleavemuchinfluencebehind.

Thegreatesthistoricalevent thatfollowedwas theNormanConquestof 1066. The Normans came from Normandy in northern France toattackEnglandandwonadecisivevictoryat thebattleofHastingsunderthe leadershipof theDukeofNormandy,usuallyknownasWilliam theConqueror.William thenclaimed theEnglish throne,promising the lastSaxon king Harold that he would protect England from the Vikings’invasions.Franceat that timewasmoreadvancedinthesocialsystemandeconomy.TheNormanConquestnotonlyhurriedEnglandtowardamoredevelopedfeudalsociety,but its influence in theevolutionof theEnglishlanguage,lifestyleandculturewasalsoverysignificant.Theyear1066wasthenmarkedasadividingpointintheEnglishhistory.AlthoughtheNormanrulers spokeFrench,English survived. In1349Englishwasofficiallyintroducedinschoolsandin1362incourtsoflaw.AndgraduallytheEnglishlanguageenteredanewperiodofitshistory,whichisknownastheMiddleEnglish.

Before finishing this brief historical account, we must also saysomethingabout thebeginningofChristianityinBritain.BoththeearliestCelticsettlersandtheAngles,SaxonsandJutescametoEnglandasheathens.Theyworshipped theirowngods thatwere related to themythologyofNorthernEurope.Itwasintheyearof597thatPopeGregorytheGreatofthe

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Chapter 1  Old English Period and Beowulf (450-1066)RomanCatholicChurchsentSt.AugustinetoEnglandtoconverttheAnglo-Saxons.KingEthelbertofKentwasthefirsttobeconvertedandhefoundedinKenttheCanterburyAbbey.Inthenorth,theearlierChristianisedIrelandwasengagedinsendingmissionaries to theAngles.ThemonasteriesbuiltbytheminNorthumbriaweretheearliestcivilisinginfluences,andthewell-knownNorthumbrianSchoolinliteraryhistoryreferstothelearnedmonksinthesemonasteries.FromCanterburyandNorthumbria,Christianityspreadthroughoutthecountry.However,it tooktheRomanCatholicChurchaboutacentury toChristianiseallEngland.Moremonasteriesweresetupand,likethesituationinEurope,monkswhoweretrainedinLatinbecamethemostlearnedpeopleofEngland.ThegreatLatinistofNorthumbrianSchoolwastheVenerableBede(c.673-735),alearnedtheologianandhistorianwithworkssuchasanaturalhistoryandachronologyof theChristianera.HismostoutstandingworkisThe Ecclesiastical History of the Angles,whichisstill thechiefauthorityforknowingtheOldEnglishPeriod,includingitsearliestpoetry,poetsandliteraryachievements.

2. Chief Literary Achievements of the Period

Old English Poetry:Theearliest formsofEnglish literaturehaveperished.Weknowvery little of theOldEnglishpoetry in its rudestshape.ThefirstEnglishpoetknowntous isWidsith,meaningthe“WideWanderer”,whowasascoporitinerantminstrelofthe6thcentury.WidsithleftusapoemnamedafterhimselfcalledWidsith,whichisaround150lineslongabouthisownlife,hisjoyandgrief.ThenthereisamovingelegyThe

Wandererof115lines,alamentofamanwhohaslosthisprotectinglord,andwandersafterwardsoverthewaterstofindarestingplace.AnotherpieceThe Seafarer isusuallyreadasadialoguebetweenanoldmanwhoknowsthejoylesslifeoftheseaandayoungmanwhowillnotbepersuadedawayfromtheseaadventures.ThereareotherfragmentarypoemssuchasThe

Wife’s Complaint andThe Husband’s Message,etc.But thepoorshapeofthemanuscriptmakesallofthepoemsdifficulttoread.Beowulfisthemostreadableandcompleteoneofthem.Ittellsthehard,joylessyetheroiclivesoftheoldEnglishforefathers,andisregardedastheirgreatnationalepicpoem.

Christian Poetry:Christianpoetryoccupiesanimportantplaceintheliteratureofthisperiodtoo.AugustineandtheRomanmonkswhocametoconvertEnglandchangedmuchofthesubjectmatterandfeelingofEnglish

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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) poetry,but left its formandartistic features unaltered.For instance, the subjectchanged from descr ibingpeople’shardandmelancholylife to the story of Christand the deeds of sa int lyheroes,but the formof theverse lineand theshapeofthepoem remain the sameas thoseofBeowulf.Also,St.Augustine’s theologicalinfluencestayed,butmainlyinthesouth.Inthenorth,themonasteriesweresometimesheadedbyCelticChristians,and thus northern Englishliteraturewas touchedbyaCelticinfluence,theeffectofwhichwas tomakeEnglishpo e t r y more subje c t iveand lyric.Among theearlyAnglo-SaxonpoetsCaedmon(fl.670) fromNorthumbria

mustbementioned.HegrewupandlivedinamonasteryruledbyaCelticAbbessandwasrememberedforhisChristianpoetry.According tohim,hewastoldinavisiontosingofGod.Whenhewokeup,herememberedthelinesandwrotethemdown.Andthiseventstartedhimontheroadofcomposingpoetry.HewroteinAnglo-SaxonapoeticparaphraseoftheBible.Another importantpoetwhoappearedacentury laterafterCaedmonwasCynewulf(fl.750).Hewastheauthorofpoemsonreligioussubjects.

II. Anglo-Saxon Epic Poem Beowulf

The Anglo-Saxons came to England with their own folklore andtheirearlypoetrymostlytellsofeventswhichtookplaceontheEuropeanContinent.AftertheirsettlementinEnglandthetribalformofsociallifegave

A page of Old English verse

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Chapter 1  Old English Period and Beowulf (450-1066)waytotherisingfeudalsystem,whichwasaccompaniedbytheconsolidationofChristianfaiththatfinallyreplacedthepaganbeliefsinthe7thcentury.ButevenafterChristianitywasofficiallyadoptedbytherulingclassesandLatinwas taught inmonastic schools, thecommonpeoplecontinued tokeepintheirmemorythesongsandepicscreatedbytheancientscops.Andin thiswaysomeof theancientAnglo-Saxonpoetrywerepreserved.ThewrittenAnglo-SaxonlaterdevelopedonthebasisoftheLatinalphabetandwaspractisedbyscribesandscholarswhowereoftenof“lowbirth”.Thesemonastery-trainedwritersknewLatinandwere influencedby theLatinlanguageandChristianculture.Theyrecordedandpasseddownancientpoemsofwhich The Song of Beowulfwasthemostimportant.

1. The Story of Beowulf

Part One:The storybeginswithadescriptionof the reignof theDanishkingHrothgarwhohadbuiltagreatfeast-hallHeorottoentertainhiskinsmenandwarriors.Butthefeastsattractedahugesea-monsterGrendel,whowasaman-eaterandlivedin theneighbouringswamps.HeregularlyappearedinHeorotatnight-timeandatesomewarriors.Thehallwassoondeserted.ThenewsofthedisasterreachedBeowulf,Hrothgar’snephewandayoungandmightywarriorofGeats(Jutes)whohadwonfameandrespecteverywhereforhisbraveryandself-sacrificespirit.HeimmediatelysailedforthwithasmallbandofwarriorstoDenmark.Hrothgarwelcomedthemandgaveabanquet. In thedeadof thenight themonstercameandkilledawarrior.BeowulffoughtGrendelandcaughtthemonsterinanirongrip.Theirfightwassofiercethatthewallsofthehallshook.AtlastGrendeltorehimselfaway,but lefthisarminBeowulf’shand.Heescapedandcrawledbacktohislairtodie.

ThenextnightagreatfeastwasthrowntocelebrateBeowulf’svictory.ButGrendel’smother,awater-witch,cametoavengehersonandkilledoneofthewarriors.BeowulfandhiswarriorssetouttothelairofGrendel’smotheratthebottomofastagnantpoolfullofsea-serpentsandfrothingwithblood.Beowulfplungedintothepool.InthecastleofGrendel’smother,hefoundamagicsword.Withthispowerfulweaponhekilledtheoldmonster.ThenhesawGrendel’sdeadbodyandcutoffhishead.Hrothgarheapedvaluablegiftson theheroandhisfollowers,butBeowulfbroughthisshareof treasuresbacktoJutland(thelandofJutes)andgaveallofittoHygelac,hisking.

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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) Part Two:AfterHygelac’sdeath,Beowulfwaselectedkingby the

peopleofJutlandandruledfor fiftyyears,duringwhich timehispeopleenjoyedpeaceandprosperity.Butat theendof these fiftyyears,agreatdisasterbefell the country.A firedrake,whoguardeda cavewhereanenormoustreasurewashidden,foundoutthatatravelerhadstolenajeweledcupwhenhewasasleep.HethenrevengedhimselfbydestroyingandkillingmanyofBeowulf’speople.Beowulf,whowasnowveryold,decidedtogoandfightthemonster.Heallowedonlyoneyoungwarrior,Wiglaf,tofollowhimtothecave.ThisdragonwiththreeheadsattackedBeowulf,belchingforthfireandsmoke.Theirfightwasterrible.Beowulfstruckofftwoofthedragon’sheads.ThedragonswunghishugetailtostrikeatBeowulfwhilehislastheadbreathedfireatthehero’sface.BeowulffinallywonwiththehelpofWiglaf,buthewasseriouslywoundedanddied.Wiglafsucceededhimtobetheking.

AccordingtoBeowulf’swill,thepeopleofJutlandbuiltalargebonfireandcrematedhisbody.Thentheylaidall the treasuresfromthedragon’scavewithBeowulf’sashestoshowthatgoldcouldnotcompensatefortheirgreatloss.

2. The Artistic Features of Beowulf

TheonlyexistingmanuscriptofThe Song of Beowulfwaswrittenbyanunknownscribeatthebeginningofthe10thcenturyandwasnotdiscovereduntil1705, thoughitwascomposedmuchearlier. It reflectseventswhichtookplaceontheContinentaroundthebeginningofthe6thcenturywhentheJuteslivedintheScandinavianpeninsulaandkeptcloserelationswiththeirkindredDanes.ThepoemiscomposedinthemanneroftheNorth-EuropeanSagasandcloselyresemblestheScandinavianepics.Thepoemisessentiallypaganinspiritandmatterandits3182linesaredividedintotwopartswithaninterpolationbetweenthem,whichwasaddedtothepoembytheChristianscribeswhocopied it.Although thespiritsof two traditions, theheathenandtheChristian,arebothshowninthisAnglo-Saxonpoem,theyarenotcontradictory,butmutuallycompensating.Thepagantraditionemphasisesthe loveofwar, thevirtuesofcourageand loyalty,and thenecessity forfeud.Italsofavourssupernaturalelements, likemonstersanddragons,andtheworkingsoffate.TheChristiantradition,withitsnewmorality,teachesobediencetoGodandtheobservanceofHislaws.Therefore,thelatterhelpstogive thepoemagoodbalance.Asaresult, theheroBeowulfpossesses

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Chapter 1  Old English Period and Beowulf (450-1066)Christ-likequalitiesaswellascourageandphysicalstrengthofasuperman.But,infact, likeallgoodliterature,Beowulfdealswiththemesbeyondanyparticularreligiousinterests.Itisapoemthattellstheuniversaltruthofgoodfightingagainstandtriumphingovertheevil.

Themostnoticeableartisticfeatureof Beowulfisalliteration.Thepoemiswritteninalliterativeversewithacaesurainthemiddleandtwostresses(oraccents) ineachhalf.Thenumberofunstressedsyllables in the twohalvesmayvary.Yet,thesameconsonantisrepeatedatthebeginningoftheaccentedsyllables,eithertwiceinthefirsthalfoftheverselineandonceinthesecondhalf,orviceversa.AlliterationmakesAnglo-Saxonpoetryverymusical insoundandactsalmost thesamepart that rhymeplays in laterpoetry.Englishpoetstilltodaystilllovetousealliteration.

Anotherpeculiar featurecharacteristicofAnglo-Saxonpoetry is thefrequentuseofkennings, topoeticallypresent themeaningofonesinglewordthroughacompoundsimileoftwoelements.Forexamples,wefindinBeowulfthesuniscalled“theworld’sgreatcandle”,swordisoftensubstitutedby“brain-biter”and“life-destroyer”,andtheword“harp”isnamed“wood-of-delight”.

Finally,thegeneralmoodandspiritofAnglo-Saxonepicpoetryisbothsolemnandanimated, themovementofactionoreventsvigorous,andthedescriptionswithkenningsverypicturesqueandexact.

TherearemanyotherstylisticpointstonoticeinBeowulfsuchastheuseofsimiles, theelevateddiction,andthegreatdealofvariationinthestyle,especially throughthesisandantithesis.Wealsofindgooduseofbalanceandparallelism.Butalliteration isnodoubt thehallmarkof theAnglo-Saxonpoetry.Thefollowingisapassage,atranslationfromtheOldEnglish,describinghowGrendelenterstheHeorotatnight.1

Down off the moorlands’ misting fells2 came

Grendel stalking; God’s brand was on him.3

The spoiler4 meant to snatch away

from the high hall some of human race.

1. Because it isa translation, itdoesnotshowtheregularadoptionofalliterationandotherfeaturesoftheOldEnglishverses.Butwestillcanfindsomeexamplesinthisselectedpassage.

2. fell:hill3. God’sbrandwasonhim:Thisisametaphoricalwayofsayinghewasevil.4. thespoiler:Grendelwhocametorobandkill

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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) He came on under the clouds, clearly saw at last1

the gold-hall of men, the mead2-drinking place

nailed with gold plates. That was not the first visit

he had paid to the hall of Hrothgar the Dane:

he never before and never after

harder luck nor hall-guards found.

Review Questions1. GiveanaccountofthehistoryofEnglandfromtheCelticsettlementtothe

NormanConquest.2. How did Christianity came to England? Name the most important

monasteriesofthisperiod.3. NamesomerepresentativepiecesoftheOldEnglishpoetry.4. NamethetwomostimportantChristianpoetsofthisperiod.5. Analyse theartistic featuresofBeowulf,using thequotedpassage to

illustrateyourpoints.

1. Noticethealliterationformedby“came”,“clouds”and“clearly”.Anotherveryobviousalliterationexample is twoverse lines taken from theSeafarer: “True is the tale(caesura)Itellofmytravels,/Singofmyseafaring(caesura)sorrowsandwoes.”

2. mead:adrinkofalcoholmixedwithhoney

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Chapter 2  Middle English Period and Chaucer (1066-1485)

Chapter 2M iddle English Period and Chaucer(1066-1485)

I. Middle English Period

1. A Brief Account of the Historical Situation

After1066,theAnglo-Normanperiodbegan.TheNormans,whocamefromthenorthernpartofFrance,wereinoriginScandinavian.TheybroughtwiththemtheFrenchlanguage,customsandculturetoEngland,wheretheyprotected their feudalmonarchybyastrongmilitarypower.WilliamtheConquerordivided the landofEnglandamonghis followerswhobecamebarons,while thedefeatedAnglo-Saxonsworkedasserfsandpeasantsforthemandwerecruellyexploitedandoppressed.Besides thekingand thelords,onethirdofthelandinthecountrywasownedbytheChurch.Also,Norman-Frenchwasmadetheofficial languageof thestate,whileEnglishwas ignored.But therewasnoway to imposea foreign languageuponawholenationwithoutwipingoutthegreaterpartofthepopulation.Thelowlypeoplekept toEnglishandgradually the invaderswereassimilated.TheEnglishlanguagesurvived,andbecamearicherandmorematurelanguageafterabsorbingagreatmanyFrenchwords into itsvocabulary.ThemosttellingandoftencitedexampleoftheFrenchinfluenceshownintheEnglishvocabulary is thedifferentwordsusedfor thefarmanimalsandthemeattheyproduce,suchaspigandpork,sheepandmutton,andox/cowandbeef.Theexplanationissimpleandinteresting.Becausetheanimalswereraisedbytheserfsandpeasants, theykepttheirAnglo-Saxonnames,whereasthemeatwasbroughttothetableoftheFrenchlordsanditwasgivenaFrenchname.Togetherwiththechangeinvocabulary,itwasalsoatthistimethattheEnglishlanguagelostmostofitsoldAnglo-Saxonflexions.

Infact, thesecondhalfof the14thcenturywasveryeventful.Great

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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) changestookplaceinEngland’ssocial,economicandculturallife.Peasantshadtopayrentinservice,grainorcashtothefeudallordsandtheChurchwhoheldmostoftheland.Theyeomenwerealsodeprivedoftheirlands,andtradersandhandicraftsmencouldnotgoonwiththeirnormalbusiness.Asaresult,feudalisminEnglandwasonthevergeofaseriouscrisis.JohnBall(c.1330-1381),apoorpriest fromCanterburyAbbey,spokebravely in theinterestsofthecommonpeople.InhissermonsJohnBallpreachedequality,andthewell-knowncouplet:“WhenAdamdelvedandEvespan,/Whowasthenthegentlemen?”wasabrilliantexampleofprotestagainst inequality,which summoned many people under the banner of the 1381 peasantuprising.Atile-makerWatTyler,whohadservedin thecontinentalwars,ledthepeasantarmyandwonmanyvictories.Yetsadly,theydirectedtheirhatredchieflyatthebaronsandstillplacedhopesonthejusticeoftheking.ThepeasantsbelievedinthepromisesofRichardII,whowasthenonly15yearsoldandapuppetinthehandsofthefeudallords.NaturallytheywerebetrayedandTylerwasexecuted.

Besides thecontradictionsbetween theexploitingand theexploitedclasses, the feudal lords foughtoverpowerand land.When theconflictsgrewsharper,acivilwarcalled theWarof theRoses (1455-1485)brokeoutbetween twobig feudalhouses, theHouseofYorkand theHouseofLancaster,onewearingtheredroseswhenfightingandtheotherthewhite.ThiswartogetherwiththeHundredYearsWar1(1337-1453)againstFranceextinguishedthegreaterpartofEngland’sancientaristocraticfamiliesandpavedthewayforthegrowingtownstodeveloptradeandcommercemorequickly.AccordingtoMarx, thedefeatof theFrencharmyat thebattleofAgincourt(1415)rangthedeath-knelloffeudalism.

After the wars, the English language went through a process ofunification.Londondialectbecame thebasisof thisnewEnglish,whichlinguists identifyasMiddleEnglish.Notonly itsvocabularywasgreatlyenrichedbywordsborrowedfromFrenchandLatin,butchangesalsotookplace ingrammarandpronunciation. In fact, the formingprocessof theMiddleEnglishstartedasearlyas1066,yettheMiddleEnglishasaperiodbeganfromthemiddleofthe13thcentury.

1. The“HundredYearsWar”isspeltasthe“HundredYears’War”insometextbooks.Wedecideontheonewithoutapostropheaftertheword“years”accordingtothe3rdeditionoftheColumbia Encyclopedia(1963).

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Chapter 2  Middle English Period and Chaucer (1066-1485)

2. Chief Literary Achievements of the Period

Romances:TheAnglo-NormanPeriodsawtheflourishingoffeudalculture.Whiletherulingclasseschosetheirownliterarytrendsandformsand inventednewpoeticaldevices, thecommonpeoplepreserved theirnational traditionsandcontinuedtodevelopthemin theformsofpopularsongsandballads.Trouvers,whocamefromFrancewithNormans,broughtromancetoEngland.ItwasthemostprevalentliterarygenreinfeudalEuropeand inEngland,whichwerewritten for thenoblesand told theirstories.Thepoetswhocomposedthemweremostlypatronisedbytherichandthepowerful.

InanattempttojustifytheirclaimstoEngland,theNormanlordstriedtoprove that theywere lawfulheirsof theBritons.Therefore, todigouttheancientCeltic folkloreanddevelopromanticstoriesoutof itbecameverypopularunder theNormanreign.TheearlyEnglish romanceswerecomposed in rhymedverse,and the languageusedwasNorman-French.Butatthebeginningofthe13thcentury,minstrelsandchroniclersstartedto

A page of Middle English verse

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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) writeromancesinOldEnglish.Althoughromancesaretalesofadventuresofknights, or legendaryheroesof the ancient times to celebrate theirheroism,courage,uprightnessandothervirtues,andtoservethepurposeofstrengtheningthefeudalsystem,yetminstrelswhowroteandspreadthemwereoften fromthecommonstock.When travelingfromplace toplace,theyspenta lotof timewithordinarypeople,andasaresult theyusuallydepictedpoorpeasantsand townsfolk in the storieswith sympathyandwarmth.

Romancescanbedividedaccordingtotheirsubjectsintothreegroups:MatterofFrance, e.g. the romanceaboutaFrenchnationalherocalledChanson de Roland;MatterofRome,e.g.romancestellingaboutAlexandertheGreatorthesiegeofTroy;andMatterofBritain,e.g.theArthuriancyclewhichhasitsoriginintheCelticlegendsandconsistsofadventuresofKingArthurandhisRound-TableKnights, suchasSirGawainandLauncelot,MerlintheMagician,thequestoftheHolyGrail,etc.

KingArthurwasfromrealhistory.HewasthenationalherooftheCelts.Intheromancesheisshownasanidealking,whohasmanyfaithfulknightsorvassalstoservehim.ThroughtheArthuriancycletheEnglishpeopletriedtoprovethatthefounderofBritainwasrelatedinbloodtotheancientRomannobilities,sothatEnglandcouldsecureaplaceofhonouramongEuropeannations.Oneof itsmostwell-knownstories isSir Gawain and the Green

Knight,apiecewritteninabout1375-1400byanunknownpoet.SirGawain,oneofKingArthur’sRound-TableKnights,tookupagreenknight’schallengeattheking’sNewYearcelebrationparty,andwentintoaseriesofadventures,duringwhichhemetwithdangers,overcamedifficulties,andalsolearnedmorallessons.Thepoemreflectsprinciplesofknighthood,suchascourage,fidelity,chastityanddedicationtothechurch,etc.AnotherimportantpieceofArthuriantalesisThomasMalory’s(c.1405-1471)Mort d’Arthur,whichwascomposedmuchlaterinEnglishprose.

Other Literary Productions:Inadditiontoromances,thetimesawavarietyofotherliteraryproductionstoo.Takethepoeticgenresforexample.Therewerehymns, legendsandvisions.Among thedramaticgenreswefindmysteries,miracles andmoralityplays.What ismore,devoted tomoralteachings, thechurchwritersat thetimemostlyturnedtoallegories.However,somebold,independentthinkersusedreligiousmatterstoconveytheirfreethoughttothepeople.JohnBall,JohnWyclif(c.1320-1384)andWilliamLangland (c.1332-1400)weresuchwriters. JohnBall,aswe’ve

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Chapter 2  Middle English Period and Chaucer (1066-1485)shownpreviouslyinthischapter,wasmainlyrememberedforhispreachingofequality.WycliftranslatedtheBibleintoEnglishagainsttherulesofthechurchtobenefitthecommonpeople.Histranslationwasagreatcontributionandmanylater translationsconsultedhisversion. InhisallegoricalpoemThe Vision of Piers Plowman,apoemintheformofdreamvisionofmorethan7,000lines,Langlandprotestsagainstfeudaltyrannyandcriticisesthecorruptionof thechurch.TheprotagonistPiers (i.e.Peter) represents thecommonpeopleand isdepictedwithsympathyandadmiration.Langlandglorifieslaborandpointsoutthatallpeoplemustwork.

Ballads:Besidesworksofpoets,peopleneverceasedtocreatetalesandsongsintheirownmanner.Newkindsofsongsintheformofpopularballadsthatcontainbothnarrativeandlyricalelementsappearedinthe14thcentury.Oneofthecharacteristicfeaturesofballadsisthedramaticdevelopmentofitsplot,withvividepisodesfollowingoneanother.Therearebothnarrativeandlyricalcomponents,briefdialoguesandexpressivedescriptions.Repetitionisadoptedtohelpformtheunityofaballad,andalliterationsuggests thelinksofballadswiththeAnglo-Saxonepictradition.Balladshaveavarietyof themes,suchas thestruggleofyoung loversagainst theirparents, theborderwarsbetweenEnglandandScotland,classoppressionandconflicts,andsoon.Balladscanalsobegroupedaccordingtotheirsub-genres,suchashistorical,legendary,fantastical,lyricalandhumourous.Inthenumerous“borderballads”theage-longstrugglesoftheScotsandtheEnglisharetold.Amongall theEnglishballads, theballadsofRobinHoodmusthaveourspecialattention.

RobinHoodandhisfriendLittleJohnlivedduringthereignofKingRichardtheLion-Heart.RobinwasbornaSaxon.Hewasforcedtorebelandbecamearobberandoutlaw,butheonlyrobbedtherichandoftenhelpedthepoorand theneedy.Shakespeare,BenJonson,Scott,Keats, etc. allmentionedRobinHoodintheirworks.TheRobinHoodballadswereunitedintoacycleat thebeginningofthe16thcentury,calledA Merry Geste1of

Robin Hood, inwhichthehero’swhole life isportrayed.ThecharacterofRobinHoodisrichlydepicted.Heisstrong,braveandcleverwithatenderheartandasenseofhumour.Hehatesthecrueloppressorsandlovesthepoorandthedowntrodden.RobinHood’sfriendsincludetheseven-feet-tallLittleJohn,MidgetheMiller’sSon,theJollyFriarTuckandmanyothers.Allof

1. Geste:deed,exploit

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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) themarevividlydrawn.Otherwell-likedballadsareSir Patrick Spens, The

Wife of Usher’s Well, The Three Ravens, Get up and Bar the Door,etc.

II. Geoffrey Chaucer

1. His Life & Literary Career

Geoffrey Chaucer (c.1343-1400), a greatnarrativepoet,isthoughtofas“FatherofEnglishPoetry”. He was born in a well-to-do winemerchant’sfamilyinLondonandstudiedatOxfordandCambridge.Afterwardshebecameapageboytoacountessandcameintoclosecontactwiththecourt.In1359hejoinedintheHundredYearsWarandwentwiththeEnglisharmytoFrance,andin1367hebegantoserve in thegovernment.KingEdwardIIIsenthimonseveraldiplomatictripstoEuropeandstayedforsometimeinFranceandItaly.In1373ChaucertookthepostofControllerofCustomsintheportofLondon.Heworkedduringthedayandintheeveninghewrotepoems.In1386hewaselectedmemberofParliament,butlostthatpostsoon,duetothemaneuversofhisenemies.Hehadsomedifficult time,but in1389hewasmadeClerkof theKing’sWorksatWestminsterandWindsor,andEdward’ssuccessorHenryIVissuedhimapension.AfterChaucerdied,hewasburiedintheWestminsterAbbey.TheplacewherehewasputlaterbecamethefamousPoets’Corner.

Chaucer’screativeworkreflectsthechangeswhichhadtakenplaceinEnglishculturesincethesecondhalfof the14thcentury,a timewhenthefoundationofthefeudalsystemwaschallengedbypeople’sinsurrectionslikethe1381peasantuprising.Inreligion,thegloryoftheCatholicChurchwasalsoonthewane.Chaucer’screativecareerisusuallydividedintothreephases:

a)ThephaseofFrench influence, inwhichhedid translations fromFrenchauthors,e.g.thefamousRomance of the Rose,andexperimentedwithrhythmandstructurethoughmostlyfollowingtheconventionalimagesandideas.Hefavouredandwroteallegoricalvisionsandsatires inthemanneroftheMiddleAges.Themostsignificantworkofthisperiodis The Book of

Duchess(1370),anelegyinwhichChaucerusesthevisioninadreamashisvehicletolamentthedeathofBlanche,DuchessofLancaster,andtoconsole

Geoffrey Chaucer

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Chapter 2  Middle English Period and Chaucer (1066-1485)herhusbandandChaucer’spatron,JohnofGaunt, theDuke. In thepoemChaucerpretendstodreamaboutamaninblack,whoislostingrief.Chaucermakesthemantellthereasonsofhisgriefandinthiswayhelpshimtocomeoutofsorrow.

b)Thephaseof Italian influence, inwhichhe showedaneffort tolearnfromtheItaliangreatpoetssuchasDante.But theItalianpoetwhoinfluencedhimmostisBoccaccio,theauthorofDecameron. The House of

Fame, The Parliament of Fowls and Troilus and Criseyde(c.1385)arepoemsofthisphase.Amongthem,Troilus and Criseydeisthemostrepresentative,whichisa5-bookpoemtellingthetragedyofayoungTrojanheroTroilus,whofellinlovewithCriseyde.Butshortlyaftertheybecamelovers,CriseydewasreturnedbytheTrojanstoherfather,atraitorwhohadleftTroyforthecampoftheGreeks.Criseydefell inlovewiththeGreekwarriorDiomedeandTroilusdiedinafightwiththeGreeks.

c)TheEnglishphase,orthephaseofrealism,inwhichhismasterpieceThe Canterbury Taleswascreated.Weshallgiveamoredetailedintroductiontothisimportantpoembelow.

2. His Major Work—The Canterbury Tales (1386-1400)

In The Canterbury Tales ChaucerpresentsapicturesquepanoramaofhiscontemporaryEnglandandshowshis realistic tendency,subtle ironyandfreedomofviews,allofwhichhadnoequal in theEnglish literaturebeforethe16thcentury.AlthoughChaucerisnotentirelyfreefrommedievalprejudices,theytakeaveryinconsiderableplaceinthetales.Chaucerbelievesintherightofmantoearthlyhappinessandisopposedtosuperstitionsandablindbelief infate.Hepraisesman’senergy, intellect,quickwitandthelovefor life,andmocksat theRomanCatholicauthoritieswhoexploit theEnglishpeople.Allthesemarkhimasanavant-gardeofthecomingAgeofRenaissanceinEngland.

1) The Dramatic Structure of The Canterbury Tales

The General Prologue:ThebookwasplannedasacollectionofstoriesheardbyChaucerasaparticipantofapilgrimage.There is theGeneralPrologueat thebeginning tobrief the readerabout the time,place,andwhathappenedthatledtotellingtalesamongagroupofpilgrims.ButwhatintereststhereadermostandhasalwaysbeenconsideredasChaucer’sgreatsuccessisthevividandrealisticdescriptionsintheGeneralPrologueofall

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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485)

thepilgrims, theirappearances,mannersandpersonalities.TheywereagroupontheirwaytoCanterburytopayrespecttotheshrineofSt.ThomasàBecket.Itwasspringtime.Theauthorstoppedforthenightat theTabardInnofSouthwark,asuburbofLondon,wherehemetthisgroupof29peoplefromallwalksof life, includingaknight, a squire,aprioress,a friar, amerchant,aclerk,asergeantofthelaw,aFranklin,adoctor,thewifeofBath,aplowman,amiller,asummoner,apardoner,andsoon.TheyhadmetattheinnandplannedtogotogethertoCanterbury.Chaucerandtheinnhostjoinedthem.Thehost,amerryman,madehimselfheadofthegroupandproposedthateachpilgrimtelltwostoriesonthewaytoCanterburyandtwoonthewayback.Hewouldthenjudgeandgiveaprizetotheonewhotoldthebeststory.

The Tales:AftertheGeneralPrologue,thestory-tellingbegins.Here,Chaucerplacesaprologuebeforeeachtale tofurther introducethepersonwhotellsthatparticularstory,andtheoccasionthatleadstothetellingofit.

Pilgrims leaving Canterbury from a manuscript of The Siege of Thebes, attached to the unfinished Canterbury Tales.

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Chapter 2  Middle English Period and Chaucer (1066-1485)InthiswaythetalesareneatlyorganisedintoawholeandfromtimetotimeChaucer, theauthor/narrator,putsinhispoignant,orironicalremarksbothonthestory-tellerandonthetale,whichgreatlyenhancesthedramaticeffectofthework.

ButwhenChaucerdied, thepoemwas leftunfinished,withonly24stories inall.Althoughtheworkis incomplete,whatwehaveisalreadyapieceofgreatcreationthatmarksaveryimportantstageinthedevelopmentoftheEnglishpoetry.

2) The Artistic Features of The Canterbury Tales

Realistic Presentation of Characters and Contemporary Life:FirstofallwemustmentionChaucer’srealisticpresentationofcharacters.ThepoettriestogiveacomprehensivepictureoftheEnglishsocietyofhistimeandarrangestopresentacolorfulgalleryofpilgrimsthatcoversagreatrangeofsocial life.Notonlytheyrepresenttheclassestheycomefrom,buteachalsopossessesanindividualpersonality.Ineachprologueleadingtoatale,Chaucergivesavividportrayalofthestory-teller’sappearance,manners,wayofspeaking,andpersonality.Thus,thecharactersbecomeasimportantapartofthepoemasthetalestoldbythem.Amongthemostoftencitedexamplesare,forinstance,theWifeofBathandtheMiller,andtheirtales.

Alice,awifefromBathbelongedtotheplebeianclasswhohadmarriedfivehusbands.Shewasashrewdwoman,alwaysholdingthedomineeringposition inherhouse,whichshebelieved tobe themost important foramarriedwoman.Herfirst threehusbandswereallold,richandphysicallyweak.OnceAlicegottheirlandsandwealth,shenolongermadeanyefforttopleasethem,but treatedthemlikeanaggingshrew.Herfourthhusbandwasaplayboy.Shesufferedsomebadtreatmentinhishands,butsheinturngavehimthehellby lettinghimbelieveshehadbeenunfaithful tohim.Herpresenthusband, thefifthone,wasanOxfordclerk,whowasslyanddomineering.Shewastwicehisage,andwasgreatlyattractedtothisman.Butevenintheirhoney-moon,shefoundhedespisedwomenandreadonlyanti-womenliterature.Tomockather,heevendeliberatelyreadtohertalesofmurderessesandoffemaleswithloosemoralsandbehaviour.Naturally,theyquarreledandfell toblows.Duringonedomesticfightshepretendedtobestrucktodeath,whichfrightenedherhusbandandthusshegainedforherselfthesovereigntyshedesiredintheirhouse.

Thetaleshetoldisanechoofthisideologyofhers.Itisaboutaknightwhocommittedthecrimeofrape,andasaconditiontoescapepunishment

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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) hewasforcedtolookforwhatawomandesiredmost.Hewashelpedtotherightanswerbyanoldanduglyhagandpromisedmarriageinreturn.Theweddingwasallagonytotheknightandheopenlytoldhisspouseso.Butassoonasheadmittedhisdebttohiswifeandreadytosubmittoher,shechangedintoafairandgoodwomanandtheylivedinperfectjoyeverafter.

TheMillerwasaverycoarse character.His tale comes after theKnight’s very refinedstory.Whenall thegentlefolkpraised theKnighthighly, theMiller,whowasverydrunk at the time, announced in analcoholicstutterthathewasgoingtotellastory.Histaleisafabliau,astoryofcommoncharacters involved ingrossand indecentevents.AricholdcarpenterJohnwascuckoldedbyhisyoungandprettywifeAlisoun,whowasseducedbyaclerknamedNicholasandhadcarriedonthisillicitrelationshipwithhim.AnotherclerkAbsalomalsodesiredAlisounandwent toherbedroomwindoweachnighttosingsongs.Johnwassokindthathefoundnothingwrongaboutthissingingofsongs.SoAbsalomcontinuedhiswooingofAlisounoutsideof thewindow.OneeveningwhenJohnwasawayandNicholaswasinbedroomwiththewife,AbsalomcameandbeggedAlisounforakiss.Alisounputherrearsideoutof thewindowfor thekiss.Upondiscoveringtheinsult,Absalomreturnedwithared-hotpokertotakerevenge.Heasked foranotherkiss, and this timeNicholasputouthisbuttocks.Absalombrandedhisbuttockswiththehotiron.Nicholasscreamedinpain.This tale isverymuch in thefashionofBoccaccio’s tales inDecameron,inwhicharecomiceventsshowinghowtherichfoolisholdhusbandsaredeceivedbythecleveryounglovers.But,hereChauceremphasisesthepoeticjusticeandthedeceiversarejustlypunished.

TheMillerwasabull-likeman,big-bonedandmuscular.Hewasugly-lookingwithabroad,redbeard,ahairywartonhisnose,andhisnostrilswerewideandblack.Hewasalsoverycoarse.Wheneverheopenedhismouth,itwasalwaystotelldirtystories.Naturallythetalehetoldwassuchanindecentone,whichshowsthegrosssideofthelifeofthecommonpeople.However, thetaleisfullofenergyandvitalitythatrepresentstypicallytheRenaissancespiritagainst thereligiousbondagesetuponhumanpursuitofearthlyhappiness.But,one thingwemustadd toourreadingof this taleandall theother talesbyChaucer.Namelysuch talesbyChaucerarenotobscenethoughveryearthyintheirhumour.TheMiller’stale,infact,makesanentertainingcontrast to thechivalricromanceof theKnight’sbeforeit.Chaucerdealswiththe“factsoflife”insuchanunembarrassedandhealthyfashionthatonlythemostPuritanicalmindcanfindfaultwiththestory.

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Chapter 2  Middle English Period and Chaucer (1066-1485)Chaucer’s Humour:The Canterbury Tales wins readerswith its

humour.ManyEnglishnovelistsandplaywrightsaredistinguishedbythehumour theyshowin theirworks.Chaucer isoneof themostprominenthumouristsamongthem.Heiswell-skilledinmildandsubtleironytocreatehumourouseffects.Althoughhe lived incloseassociationwith thecourtofficialsandtheupperclasspeople,hewasabroad-mindedhumanistandhadsympathyforpeopleatlarge.Therefore,hetreatshischaracterskindlyonthewhole,usinggentlesatireandironytocriticisevanity,ill-manners,deceptivetricksandallsortsoffolliesandhumanweaknesses.IndepictingthewifeofBath,Chaucerusessatireopenlytoexposehercoarse,pragmaticandshrewdnature.Hecanalsorisetoverybittersatireagainsttherealevilpeoplesuchashisportrayalofthepardonerandthesummoner.Butwhenitcomestotheprioress,Chaucerchoosessubtleironytoimplythatthoughanun,shealsohasearthlydesiresandisa littlehypocriticalwhenover-actinghercharityandsympathytowardinjuredanimals.Shewasanextremelysensitiveperson,hersmilewascoy,andshespokedaintilyinFrench,followingtheschoolofStratford-atte-BoweinEngland,and“Frenchin theParisstyleshedidnotknow”.Whensheate,shewascarefulnottodipherfingerstoodeepinthesauceortodropevenamorselonherbreast.Andshewouldcryoveramousecaughtinatraporweepifherdogshoulddieorbebeatenbysomeone.Nunasshewas,shepaidgreatattentiontoher looks,especiallyherheaddressandclothes.TofinishhisdescriptionofherChaucerwrote:“Sheworeacoraltrinketonherarm,/Asetofbeads,thegaudiestrickedingreen,/Whencehungagoldenbroochofbrightestsheen/OnwhichtherefirstwasgravenacrownedA,/Andlower,Amor vincit omnia.”TheLatinheremeans:“Loveconquersall.”Thismottoinscribedonherbroochbringstheportrayingtoaclimax.Asanun,sheshouldloveGodandreceiveLovefromGod,whichiscalled thedivine love.But thereader isneversurewhetherbywearingsuchamottoonherbrooch,theprioressisthinkingofsecularordivinelove.Onepossibleimplicationisthatshealsodesiressecularlove,includinglovebetweenmanandwoman.TheregoesChaucer’ssubtleironyandsatireofthehypocrisyoftheCatholicchurchanditsclergy.

Unity Through a Framed Story:The Canterbury Tales isaframedstory.Althoughthestory-tellersareverydifferentandthestoriesarediverse,aunityisachievedthroughthedeviceoftheframedstory,thatisChaucer’sinventionofapilgrimageas theoccasionofall thestory-tellingand thusmakes it realistic.Also, thepilgrimage frameoffers thepossibility for

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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) comparisonandcontrastofcharactersandtheir interplay.In thisway, thepoempresentsbothvividcharactersandamultiple-viewedrealisticpictureoftheEnglishsocietyofChaucer’stime.ThisframeconsistsoftheGeneralPrologue,shortsectionstellingthingswhichhappenedontheway,prologuestoindividualtales,andafewinterruptionsbyonecharacteroranotherinthemiddleofatale.

Metrical Scheme:ThemetricalschemeofThe Canterbury Tales isChaucer’schiefcontributiontoEnglishpoetry.HeisthepoetwhointroducedtoEnglandtherhymedstanzasofmanykindsfromFrenchpoetry,especiallytherhymedcoupletof iambicpentameter,which isalsocalled theheroiccouplet.Asaresult,hechangedthealliterativeverseoftheAnglo-SaxonstometricalversewhichhassincebeenusedanddevelopedbygenerationaftergenerationofEnglishpoetstilltoday.

3. Chaucer’s Contributions

Chaucer learnedfrombothFrenchandLatinpoetryandthenworkedoutauniquestylefor theEnglishpoetry thathadabsorbednourishmentsfromthemoreadvancedEuropeanpoetryofthetimeandatthesametimereserveditsAnglo-Saxonpoeticfeatures.AndtherealismandhumanisticconcernsdemonstratedinhisworkslookedforwardtothecomingEnglishRenaissance.

Chaucer’sliterarycareerwasalsocloselyrelatedwiththedevelopmentofEnglish.TherewereseveraldialectsinthespokenEnglishofChaucer’stime.ButbecauseheusedtheEnglishoftheLondondialecttocomposepoetry,itbecamealiterarylanguage,thatisalanguagerichandexpressiveenoughtouseforliterarypurposes.Today,wecalltheEnglishusedanddevelopedbyChaucerandhiscontemporariesMiddleEnglish,whichwasthefoundationofmodernEnglish.

Review Questions1. WhatwasthesocialandclassrealityoftheAnglo-NormanPeriod?2. Tellthethreedivisionsofromancesaccordingtosubjectmatterandgive

anexampleoftheMatterofBritain.3. Nametwomorewell-knownwritersofthisperiodandtheirachievements

besidesChaucerandhisliteraryworks.

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Chapter 2  Middle English Period and Chaucer (1066-1485)4. SayasmuchasyouknowaboutChaucer’slifeandworks.5. CommentontheartisticfeaturesofThe Canterbury Tales.6. SumupChaucer’sachievementsandcontributions.

Quiz

I. Fill in the blanks: (30%)

1. ThefirstsettlersoftheBritishIsleswere ,andBritaingotitsnamefromabranchofthispeoplecalled .Butlatertheyweredriventolivein , and .

2. The , and were tribesoriginallylivingontheContinent.TheymovedtotheBritishIslesandbecametheancestorsofthe people.

3. Themost importanteventof theOldEnglishPeriodwas ,whichtookplaceintheyear .

4. The Roman Catholic Church sent to England in 597theEnglishpeopletoCatholicism.

5. Name twopoemsof thisperiodapart from Beowulf: ,and.

6. Beowulf isanepicof lines,andit tells theevents that tookplaceon beforetheymovedtotheBritishIsles.

7. AftertheAnglo-SaxonEnglishtookinloanwordsfrom andandlostmostofits andmanyofitsgrammarrules,

itwascalled . 8. Romancecanbedividedinto threekindsaccordingtosubjectmatter.

Theyare , and . 9. Romancesof theEnglish subject are talesabout andhis

.10. JohnWyclifwasa translatorof ,WilliamLanglandwrote

and the most famous English ballads are those about.

II. Mark the following statements as true (T) or false (F): (10%)

1. ThetwocentersofChristiancultureintheOldEnglishPeriodwasinCanterburyandNorthumbria.

2. Caedmon belonged to Northumbrian School, whereas the

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Part I Old and Middle English Periods (450-1485) VenerableBedewasamemberoftheCanterburyAbbeyinsouthEngland.

3. ThefirstEnglishnationalepicpoemisWidsith. 4.OldEnglishpoetryisdistinguishedbyitsuseofalliterationand

kennings.

5. ChauceristhegreatestlyricalpoetoftheMiddleEnglishPeriod. 6. The Canterbury TalesisChaucer’smasterpiece,butitisunfinished

withonly24taleswritten.

7. ModernEnglish isdevelopedfromtheLondondialectof theMiddleEnglishPeriod,which isagreatcontributionmadebyChaucertotheEnglishlanguage.

8. Mostof theEnglishpopularballadshave theirorigin in theFrenchfolklore.

9. TheNormanswere interested in theCycleofKingArthurbecausetheywantedtoprovetheywerelawfulheirstotheCelticancestorsofBritain.

10. Chaucer’shumanisticideasanticipatetheEnglishRenaissance.

III. Explain the following literary terms: (15%)

1. epic2. alliteration3. iambicpentameter4. romance5. ballad

IV. Choose one from each of the following two groups of questions and write a short essay of about 300 words to the first and about 500 words to the second: (45%)

Group One: (20%)

1. GiveahistoricalreviewoftheOldEnglishPeriod.2. SaysomethingaboutthetransitionfromOldEnglish

toMiddleEnglishandthehistoricalelementsthathadbroughtaboutthistransition.

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Chapter 2  Middle English Period and Chaucer (1066-1485)

Group Two: (25%)

1. Analysethetheme(s)andartisticfeaturesofBeowulf.2. C o m m e n t o n C h a u c e r ’s a c h i eve m e n t s a n d

contributionswithexamplesfromhisworks.

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