Pb isotopic domains from the Indian Ocean sector of Antarctica: implications for past Antarctica-India connections

Geological Society, London, Special Publications

doi: 10.1144/SP383.3p59-72.

2013, v.383;Geological Society, London, Special Publications L. Harley, E. V. Mikhalsky and A. P. M. VaughanM. J. Flowerdew, S. Tyrrell, S. D. Boger, I. C. W. Fitzsimons, S. connections

India−Antarctica: implications for past Antarctica Pb isotopic domains from the Indian Ocean sector of

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Pb isotopic domains from the Indian Ocean sector of Antarctica:

implications for past Antarctica–India connections

M. J. FLOWERDEW1,7*, S. TYRRELL2, S. D. BOGER3, I. C. W. FITZSIMONS4,

S. L. HARLEY5, E. V. MIKHALSKY6 & A. P. M. VAUGHAN1

1British Antarctic Survey, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ET, UK2Earth & Ocean Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland,

Galway, Ireland3School of Earth Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia

4Department of Applied Geology, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth,

WA 6845, Australia5School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Grant Institute, The King’s Buildings,

West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JW, UK6VNIIOkeangeologia, Angliisky pr. 1, 190121 St. Petersburg, Russia

7Present address: CASP, University of Cambridge, West Building, 181A Huntingdon Road,

Cambridge CB3 0DH, UK

*Corresponding author (e-mail: [email protected])

Abstract: New feldspar lead isotope compositions of crystalline rocks from the Indian Oceansector of East Antarctica, in conjunction with the review of data from elsewhere within the conti-nent and from continents formerly adjacent within Gondwana, refine boundaries and evolutionaryhistories of terranes previously inferred from geological mapping and complementary isotopestudies. Coastal Archaean Vestfold and Napier complexes have overlapping compositions andhad Pb isotopes homogenized at 2.5 Ga sourced from or within already fractionated protolithswith high and variable U–Pb. Identical compositions from the Dharwar Craton of India support acorrelation with these Antarctic terranes. The Proterozoic–Palaeozoic Rayner Complex and PrydzBelt yield more radiogenic compositions and are broadly similar and strongly suggest these unitscorrelate with parts of the Eastern Ghats Belt of India. A strikingly different signature is evidentfrom the inboard Ruker Complex, which yielded unradiogenic compositions. This complex isunlike any unit within India or Australia, suggesting that these rocks represent exposures of anAntarctic (Crohn) Craton. Compositions from the enigmatic Rauer Terrane are consistent with ashared early history with the Ruker Complex but with a different post-Archaean evolution.

Supplementary material: Feldspar LA-ICP-MS Pb isotope data are available at www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18622

Over its 4.5 billion year history, tectonic andmagmatic evolution have ensured that part of theEarth’s continental crust has been lost to exhu-mation and erosion while other parts are buriedbeneath sedimentary cover or, more recently, ice.In many cases, the only way of learning about theseparts of the continental crust is by studying thematerial eroded from them. Identifying signals inthe geochemical or isotope compositions of erodedsediments from parts of the continental crust thathave been lost or are hidden is made more compli-cated in some parts of the world, such as Antarctica,by a lack of information about existing exposuresof ancient crust. If we wish to maximize our

understanding of the evolution of the continentalcrust, it is necessary first to fully characterizethose parts that we can see.

The Pb isotope composition of feldspar reflectsthe petrogenesis, crustal age and evolutionary his-tory of its host crystalline rocks and can be utilizedto map distinct tectonothermal terranes. Classicexample studies come from Precambrian gneissesin the Arabian Shield and the SW USA (Stacey &Stoeser 1983; Wooden & Mueller 1988). In Antarc-tica, few feldspar Pb studies exist and these aremostly confined to West Antarctica and the Wed-dell Sea margin of East Antarctica (Wareham et al.1998; Mukasa & Dalziel 2000; Millar et al. 2001;

From: Harley, S. L., Fitzsimons, I. C. W. & Zhao, Y. (eds) 2013. Antarctica and Supercontinent Evolution.Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 383, 59–72.First published online May 20, 2013, http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP383.3# The Geological Society of London 2013. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics

at University of Michigan on October 29, 2014http://sp.lyellcollection.org/Downloaded from

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Loewy et al. 2011; Flowerdew et al. 2012, 2013).These studies showed uniformity in the feldsparPb isotope compositions from West Antarctica, irre-spective of rock age, composition or location. InEast Antarctica, feldspar Pb isotope composi-tions are strikingly different. Indeed, Loewyet al. (2011) infer past Laurentia–Antarcticaconnections in Coats Land, in the first study fromEast Antarctica to produce tectonically significantconclusions utilizing Pb isotopic data.

Demand for a more rigorous and completecharacterization of Pb isotope compositions of feld-spar from potential source rocks also originates fromthe rejuvenation of the application of Pb compo-sitions of detrital K-feldspar as a provenance tool(Tyrrell et al. 2009, 2010). Being a relativelylabile phase, K-feldspar is susceptible to breakdown(particularly from chemical weathering), so is lesslikely to survive more than a single sedimentarycycle of erosion, transport, deposition and diagen-esis (Gwiazda et al. 1996a, b; Tyrrell et al. 2009).K-feldspar provenance studies are therefore effec-tive, because they can identify that component ofdetritus that has probably been derived directlyfrom the source and not via an intermediate sedi-mentary rock (Tyrrell et al. 2012). The age andchemistry of detrital zircons are commonly used toinfer sedimentary provenance, yet, unlike feldspar,this resistant mineral is prone to recycling fromexisting (meta)sedimentary rocks in the sourceregion. Zircon recycling is recognized in Antarctica(Goodge et al. 2010), and feldspar provenancestudies have been used here to identify the recycledzircon component (Flowerdew et al. 2012).

This paper extends knowledge of the Pb isoto-pic characterization of East Antarctica, by present-ing feldspar data from crystalline rocks exposed inthe Indian Ocean sector of East Antarctica betweenapproximately 508E and 808E (Fig. 1). The newand existing (Grew & Manton 1979; Yakovlevet al. 1986; Manton et al. 1992; Mikhalsky et al.2006a) feldspar Pb isotope data are discussed inthe context of the tectonic development of theIndian Ocean sector and are compared with datafrom other regions of Antarctica and from conti-nents formerly adjacent within Gondwana. Thecomparison constitutes a review that illustrates therole feldspar Pb data may have in resolving someof the outstanding tectonic questions that surroundthe identification of exotic terranes and the relativeimportance of ‘Grenville’ (1.3–0.9 Ga) v. ‘PanAfrican’ (0.6–0.5 Ga) events in the geological his-tory of Antarctica (Fitzsimons 2000, 2003; Harley2003; Goodge et al. 2008; Will et al. 2009; Boger2011). These new data further help constrainongoing detrital feldspar provenance studies thataim to improve our understanding of the subglacialAntarctic geology.

Geological evolution of Antarctica between

Enderby Land and Queen Mary Land

The intermittently exposed geology betweenEnderby Land and Queen Mary Land comprisesa complex collage of Precambrian terranes (seereview of Boger 2011; Fig. 1). Three terranes(Napier and Ruker complexes and Vestfold Hills)preserve extensive pristine Archaean protolithsand a further two (Lambert and Rauer terranes)contain minor relics of Archaean crust.

Terranes comprising predominantly pristine

Archaean protoliths

The Napier Complex comprises predominantly3.80–2.80 Ga tonalitic and granitic orthogneisses(Harley & Black 1997; Kelly & Harley 2005), whichexperienced extreme high-temperature granulite-facies metamorphism (Ellis et al. 1980; Harley &Motoyoshi 2000) at c. 2.5 Ga (Kelly & Harley2005; Carson et al. 2002). This was the last perva-sive deformation event to affect the terrane. A sim-ilarity between the Napier Complex with Archaeanrocks in southern India was first suggested by Grew& Manton (1979) and Grew & Manton (1986). Morespecific correlation with the Dharwar Craton ofIndia (e.g. Veevers 2009) is supported by recentpalaeomagnetic results by Mohanty (2011). Otherworkers (e.g. Rao & Santosh 2011) highlighted thepossibility that the Napier and Dharwar were sep-arated in the Late Archaean and are thereforeunrelated.

The Vestfold Hills predominantly comprise 2.5Ga protoliths, which underwent high-temperaturemetamorphism shortly after their formation (Blacket al. 1991; Harley 1993) and, like the Napier Com-plex, have also largely evaded later tectonism. TheVestfold Hills are also correlated with the gneissesof Peninsular India, although a correlation withthe Singhbhum Craton (Veevers 2009) and regionsto the NE of India (e.g. Bangladesh region) is alsopossible.

The Ruker Complex consists mostly of Archaeanprotoliths emplaced at c. 3.1–3.2 Ga and 2.8 Ga,and deformed and metamorphosed and amphi-bolite facies at 2.8 Ga (Mikhalsky et al. 2006b,2010; Boger et al. 2006). These middle Archaeanbasement rocks are overlain, and now tectonicallyinterleaved with, Late Archaean metasedimentary(≤2.5 Ga) and metavolcanic rocks (Mikhalskyet al. 2001; Phillips et al. 2006). Both the base-ment and the sedimentary cover rocks were thendeformed during the Cambrian, associated withthe intrusion of minor granitoids (Mikhalsky et al.2010). The grade of metamorphism during theCambrian reworking of the Ruker Complex was not

M. J. FLOWERDEW ET AL.60



high – mostly greenschist- or lower amphibolite-facies (Phillips et al. 2007a, 2007b). The affinityof the Ruker Complex is unclear. Mikhalsky et al.(2010) correlated the terrane with the Vestfold Hillsand, by inference, also the Indian cratons. Phillipset al. (2006) inferred that both the Rauer Terrane(below) and the Vestfold Hills were proximal tothe Ruker Complex on the basis of detrital zir-con patterns from the Archaean metasediments,whereas Boger (2011) inferred that no correlative

rocks exist outside Antarctica, instead suggestingthat the Ruker Complex represents part of a poorlyexposed Antarctic Craton (Crohn Craton), whichlies towards the centre of the modern conti-nent. Boger’s (2011) interpretation is consistentwith that of Harley (2003) and Harley & Kelly(2007), who termed the Ruker Complex as an‘inboard’ terrane unrelated in formation and eventhistory to the ‘outboard’ terranes including the dis-tinct Napier Complex and Vestfold Hills.

Fig. 1. Sketch geological terrane map for the Indian Ocean sector of East Antarctica. Inset shows the location of themain map. Abbreviations: CL, Coats Land; DML, Dronning Maud Land; QML, Queen Mary Land; WL, Wilkes Land.Grey dashed line indicates the geographical boundary between East and West Antarctica. White stars show the localitiesof samples for which feldspar Pb isotope compositions were determined as part of this study. The black dashed lineseparates the Beaver Terrane from the undifferentiated parts of the Rayner Complex.

Pb ISOTOPE DOMAINS IN ANTARCTICA 61



Terranes with minor relics of

Archaean crust

The Lambert Complex is in sheared contact withthe Ruker Complex (Boger et al. 2001). It alsohas a long geological history and consists of ortho-gneissic protoliths that date from c. 3.52 Ga (Bogeret al. 2008). However, these are volumetricallyminor, with the bulk of the terrane defined byPalaeoproterozoic orthogneisses (2.45–2.10 Ga)and paragneisses (Mikhalsky et al. 2006b, 2010;Boger et al. 2008; Corvino et al. 2008). Both werepossibly affected by deformation and metamor-phism sometime in the Palaeo-Mesoproterozoic,although episodes at c. 0.95 Ga and c. 0.53 Ga aremore clearly manifested in the geological record(Corvino et al. 2008, 2011).

Archaean protoliths of the Rauer Terrane includesubstantial c. 2.84–2.80 Ga, and 3.45 Ga compo-nents (Harley et al. 1998; Harley & Kelly 2007).Interleaved with Mesoproterozoic supracrustalunits are 1.3–1.0 Ga felsic and mafic units (Kinnyet al. 1993) that intruded during high-temperaturemetamorphism (Harley 1988, 2003). A subsequentand unrelated phase of Cambrian deformation andmetamorphism has interleaved possible Neopro-terozoic supracrustal rocks (Kelsey et al. 2008)within the Archaean and Mesoproterozoic gneisses(Harley 2003).

Proterozoic terranes

The Rayner Complex in the northern Prince Char-les Mountains includes the Beaver and Fisherterranes (Mikhalsky et al. 2006a, and referencestherein). The Fisher Terrane is a c. 1.40–1.20 Gapredominantly mafic volcanic and plutonic com-plex (Beliatsky et al. 1994; Kinny et al. 1997) inter-preted to represent a calc-alkaline arc (Mikhalskyet al. 2001 and references therein). Amphibolite-facies metamorphism, coeval with minor granitoidintrusion, occurred between 1.2 Ga and 0.95 Ga.The adjacent Beaver Terrane of the North PrinceCharles Mountains comprises mainly felsic ortho-gneisses (McKelvey & Stephenson 1990; Fitzsimons& Harley 1992) that intruded Mesoproterozoicprotoliths of uncertain age and origin between c.1.07 Ga and 0.91 Ga (Boger et al. 2000; Carsonet al. 2000; Mikhalsky et al. this volume, in press),during high-grade metamorphism. Other RaynerComplex rocks exposed along Mawson Coastof Kemp Land (Fig. 1) have experienced a moreextreme high-temperature granulite-facies meta-morphism (Harley 2003) that occurred between1.15 Ga and 0.92 Ga (Carson et al. 2000; Kellyet al. 2002; Halpin et al. 2012) during extensivecharnockite intrusion. Later Palaeozoic eventsaffecting the Rayner Complex are manifested as

minor shear zones and pegmatite emplacement(Grew 1978; Black et al. 1983; Clarke 1988; Car-son et al. 2000; Boger et al. 2002). The complexis widely correlated with the Eastern Ghats Beltof east India (e.g. Grew & Manton 1986; Grewet al. 1988; Fitzsimons 2000; Bose et al. 2011).

Excluding the Vestfold Hills and Rauer Terrane(above), most of eastern Prydz Bay comprises felsicand mafic orthogneiss and migmatitic paragneiss,which preserve a basement (Søstrene Orthogneiss)and cover (Brattstrand Paragneiss) relationship(Fitzsimons & Harley 1991; Zhao et al. 1995; Kelseyet al. 2008; Grew et al. 2012). Both sequences,here collectively termed the Prydz Belt, wereintensely deformed during high-grade Palaeozoicmetamorphism (Fitzsimons 1997). The orthogneis-sic basement rocks, with protolith ages between1.38 Ga and 1.02 Ga (Wang et al. 2008; Liu et al.2009), also experienced an earlier period of high-grade deformation and metamorphism between0.97 and 0.91 Ga (Liu et al. 2009), whereas the para-gneiss cover sequences have a maximum deposi-tional age of c. 1.02 Ga (Grew et al. 2012). Rocksfrom the Grove Mountains have a similar Palaeo-zoic metamorphic evolution to the coastal PrydzBelt, but Proterozoic protoliths are c. 0.92 Ga (Liuet al. 2007) and younger than those from thecoastal Prydz Belt. Although late orogenic Palaeo-zoic granites are an important component through-out the Prydz Belt (e.g. Liu et al. 2006), its earlyhistory has led many authors to suggest an originin common with elements of the Rayner Complex(for more details see Mikhalsky et al. this volume,in press). It is unclear how far the Prydz Beltextends beneath the ice. Glacial erratics recoveredfrom the Vestfold Hills and Grove Mountains(Zhao et al. 2007) indicate that rocks, whichinclude Archaean protoliths and sedimentary rockspredominantly derived from Archaean sources,have variably been metamorphosed up to eclogite-facies conditions in the Early Palaeozoic. Exposuresat the Queen Mary Coast are either equivalents ofthose exposed in west Australia or are exotic(Black et al. 1992; Sheraton et al. 1993; Fitzsimons2003; Boger 2011). Protoliths from the westernmostof the Queen Mary Coast exposures are, however,cut by Palaeozoic intrusions, and these intrusionscould potentially provide a link with the evolution-ary history of the Prydz Belt.

Feldspar Pb isotope data

Pb isotopes in feldspar and their behaviour

during metamorphism

In the following sections we discuss the 206Pb/204Pband 207Pb/204Pb feldspar compositions from




crystalline East Antarctic rocks. With time, theseratios increase through the radioactive decay of238U and 235U to 206Pb and 207Pb, respectively,because the 204Pb isotope is stable. Episodes ofcrustal differentiation through magmatism andmetamorphism fractionate between parent anddaughter (measured by the 238U/204Pb ratio m andthe 232Th/206Pb ratio k) such that terranes of differ-ent age and tectonothermal histories evolve dif-ferently in Pb/Pb space. Feldspars normally havevery low m and k values (e.g. Wooden & Mueller1988; Bodet & Sharer 2001) and so there islimited radiogenic in growth once Pb is locked intothe crystal at c. 700 8C (Cherniak 1995) during mag-matic or metamorphic crystallization. Feldsparcompositions therefore not only provide a snap-shot of a particular terrane’s evolution in Pb/Pbspace, but also have the ability to reveal aspects ofits early history before the last equilibration event.

There is some uncertainty regarding the behav-iour, and particularly the mobility, of Pb isotopesduring high-grade metamorphism and anatexis,which may hinder the interpretation of data fromsuch rocks. The Pb isotopic composition of anat-ectic melts, and thus the feldspar that crystallizesfrom it, is controlled by the relative contributionsof Pb from low-m and -k minerals (e.g. feldspar)and high-m and -k accessory phases (e.g. zircon),and their Pb content (Hogan & Sinha 1991; Finger& Schiller 2012). Complete Pb isotope equilib-rium is not always achieved (e.g. Chavagnac et al.2001). Pb isotope heterogeneities can result (e.g.Waight & Lesher 2010), and such studies highlightthe need for further research in high-grade meta-morphic terranes. However, extreme disequilibriumis not commonly reported, in keeping with the con-cept of broad U enrichment of the upper crustthrough differentiation processes such as meta-morphism and magmatism (Zartman & Doe 1981).This suggests that Pb isotopic tracers can beapplied, with caution, in terrane analysis.

Comparison of feldspar Pb isotope composi-tions from similarly aged rocks can thus highlightsimilar or contrasting evolution histories and helprefine terrane models identified from other geo-chemical and isotopic techniques. Radioactivedecay of 232Th to 208Pb evolution is manifested inthe 208Pb/204Pb ratio. Th and U can often fraction-ate during crustal differentiation and episodes ofmetamorphism, and consequently record differ-ent evolutionary aspects (e.g. Moller et al. 1998).Examples of such fractionation are evident in thisstudy; however, for the majority of rocks the twosystems appear to broadly cognate, so we do notdiscuss the thorogenic Pb system further. Further-more, distinction between feldspar types is notmade from here on, because in this study Pb iso-topic compositions do not significantly vary

between plagioclase and K-feldspar within thesame sample.

Samples and methodology

A total of 55 samples were selected for feldspar Pbisotope analysis (Fig. 1). The chosen samples rep-resent the main lithological units that encompassthe main intrusive and metamorphic events withineach of the terranes from the Indian Ocean sectorof Antarctica. Sample details are given in the Sup-plementary Data. Samples were, where possible,also selected with the greatest geographical spread.

Pb isotopic analyses were carried out using aNew Wave 193 nm excimer laser attached to aThermo Scientific Neptune multicollector ICP-MS(inductively coupled mass spectrometer) housedat the National Centre for Isotope Geochemistry(NCIG), School of Geological Sciences, UniversityCollege Dublin, following the analytical proce-dure outlined by Flowerdew et al. (2012). Datawere collected using a Faraday cup collector con-figuration. Corrections for gas blank and isobaricinterference of 204Hg on 204Pb were made offline.Sample-standard bracketing was used to monitorand correct offline for mass bias-induced fraction-ation using 203Tl/205Tl measured in NIST 612glass, assuming a stepped fractionation betweeneach standard, and using the exponential fraction-ation laws. Polished sections from each samplewere imaged under a scanning electron microscope(SEM) before ablation, and the Pb compositionsof both K-feldspar and plagioclase were analysed(totalling 298 ablations from the 55 samples).Results and further analytical details are given inthe Supplementary Data.

Results

Pb isotope composition of feldspar from

the Indian Ocean sector of Antarctica

Feldspar compositions from orthogneisses withinthe Napier Complex and Vestfold Hills are simi-lar (Fig. 2). 206Pb/204Pb values are typically 15–16, and 207Pb/204Pb values plot well above theaverage terrestrial Pb isotope growth curve (Stacey& Kramers 1975), suggesting the terranes were var-iably enriched in uranium early in their histories.Most samples lie along the 2.5 Ga geochron, indi-cating that the Pb isotopes were homogenizedduring high-grade metamorphic events at that timeand have remained largely undisturbed since.While there is substantial overlap, the Vestfoldand Napier feldspar populations are not identical.Orthogneiss samples from both terranes are mostlyindistinguishable; however, some samples from




the Crooked Lake gneiss and Grace Lake Grano-diorite units in the Vestfold Hills have lower mvalues than any from the Napier Complex, result-ing in lower 207Pb/204Pb values. Paragneiss sam-ples from the Napier Complex yield much moreradiogenic compositions (sample 49606 yielding206Pb/204Pb values of c. 31) that are unique amongall the Antarctic terranes studied. Grew & Manton(1979) report feldspar with high 206Pb/204Pb butlow U content, suggesting these ratios are unlikelyto have resulted from Pb in-growth. These anoma-lous Pb compositions were shown by DePaolo

et al. (1982) to reflect a long pre-metamorphichistory prior to granulite facies metamorphism atc. 2.5 Ga.

Subtle variations in the Pb isotope data withinthe Prydz Belt seemingly correlate with lithologyand geographical location (Fig. 3). Surprisingly,the orthogneiss basement sample from the SteinnesPeninsula (sample SH0698), which has a c. 1.1 Gaprotolith age (Wang et al. 2008), yielded higher206Pb/204Pb values than feldspar hosted in adja-cent paragneiss cover (samples SH06115, SH0693and SH0648), which in turn has slightly lower

Fig. 2. Feldspar Pb compositions from the Indian Ocean sector of Antarctica. Colour schemes represent craton affinityand correlations. Fields for feldspar compositions from the Dharwar and Singhbhum cratons of India (pale grey labelledwith black text) and the Yilgarn craton of Australia (grey labelled with black text) are shown for comparison (data fromMeen et al. 1992; Krogstad et al. 1995; Qiu & McNaughton 1999; Rickers et al. 2001; Negrel et al. 2010). Fieldswithout shading represent feldspar compositions from the Eastern Ghats belt of India (data from Mezger & Cosca 1999;Rickers et al. 2001; Upadhyay et al. 2006a, 2006b, labelled with grey text with abbreviation as follows: D1, Domain 1;D2, Domain 2; D3, Domain 3; WA, western alkaline rocks) with the exception of Domain 3 of the Eastern Ghats, definedby Rickers et al. (2001), which is shaded yellow. Compositions from Domain 4 (Rickers et al. 2001) are not shown. Blueevolution curve is the terrestrial crustal curve of Stacey & Kramers (1975). Grey lines show geochrons for 2500 Ma,1000 Ma and 500 Ma. Dashed line is the reference line for compositions from the Ruker Terrane. Inset, top right: detailof compositions with 206Pb/204Pb between 17 and 19. Inset, top left: a Gondwana reconstruction after Powell et al.(1988) showing the proximity of the Antarctic terranes with those in India.




206Pb/204Pb values than late granitic rocks (sam-ples IF88242 and NRL147). The unradiogenic com-positions of the younger cover sequence, comparedwith the older basement orthogneiss, could beexplained by contributions to the Brattstrand Para-gneiss from older crustal sources, as Grew et al.(2012) suggested for a quartzite unit in the Bratt-strand Paragneiss on the basis of zircon Hf–Luand whole-rock Sm–Nd data. With this rationale,the Pb isotope data would seem to suggest that theundated ‘basement’ from Hovde Island couldbelong to the younger cover sequence. The QueenMary coastal samples and the Grove Mountainssamples have 206Pb/204Pb values that plot betweenthe basement and cover groups obtained from thePrydz Bay coastal rocks. The Pb isotope signaturefor these regions, together with the Prydz Bay lategranitc rocks may represent mixtures of basementand cover Pb isotope reservoirs, and tentatively sug-gest compositionally similar sequences are exten-sive across the Prydz Belt.

Feldspars from the Beaver Terrane, part ofthe Rayner Complex, have Pb compositions thatare (just) distinct from the Prydz Belt, with theRayner Complex rocks having generally higher207Pb/204Pb for similar 206Pb/204Pb values (Fig. 2).Additionally, variation in the Pb isotope composi-tions is observed between the different orthogneisssamples. Sample IF8988 of orthopyroxene-bearingbanded orthogneiss yielded the highest 206Pb/204Pbvalues of c. 21. Orthogneiss from Amery Peaks(sample IF89326) and Mount Bunt (IF89122)yielded lower 206Pb/204Pb values of c. 18. Theremaining three orthogneiss samples are least radio-genic and form a cluster with 206Pb/204Pb values

of c. 17.9. The significance of these variations isunclear but a scenario like that from the PrydzBelt is possible, where the Pb isotope compositionsof the c. 980–990 Ma orthogneisses are derivedfrom mixtures of orthogneiss and paragneiss units.

Samples from the Rauer Terrane fall into twodistinct groups. Archaean orthopyroxene-bearingfelsic gneiss sample SH88191 forms the first group;although the gneiss is reworked in Palaeozoicevents (Harley & Kelly 2007) it preserves anArchaean Pb composition with low 206Pb/204Pbvalues of ,14. The second group comes frommapped units with late Mesoproterozoic protolithages, with populations that broadly overlap thosefrom the Rayner Complex and the Prydz Belt. TheRauer Terrane compositions, like those from theRayner Complex, yield subtly higher 207Pb/204Pbfor similar 206Pb/204Pb values than the Prydz Beltrocks. This pattern is consistent with a derivationfrom a higher-m Pb isotopic reservoir. Variationsin 206Pb/204Pb do not correlate with any map-ped unit, so the significance of the array of com-positions within the second compositional groupis uncertain.

Feldspars from rocks within the Ruker Complex,which have yielded Archaean U–Pb zircon ages,yielded a wide range of Pb isotope compositions,with the majority plotting below or on the Stacey& Kramers (1975) growth curve. Feldspars fromgranite sample 9828-210 are least radiogenic, with206Pb/204Pb values of c. 13. Feldspar from granitesample 9828-190 yields slightly more radiogeniccompositions, which lie just below the growthcurve with 206Pb/204Pb values of c. 13.5. Excludingthe least radiogenic sample (9828-210), the remain-ing data form a best-fit errorchron that yields an ageof 2.9 +0.1 Ga (Fig. 2). This age overlaps the lastmajor phase of magmatism and metamorphism toaffect the complex, and why the feldspars form theerrorchron can be explained as a consequence ofin-growth from a starting composition similar tosample 9828-190.

Archaean granite gneiss from the LambertComplex (sample 9828-337) has feldspar com-positions indistinguishable from those from theRuker Complex, and also lies on the c. 2.9 Ga error-chron. The Palaeoprotoerozoic rocks, which aremore representative of the Lambert, differ from theRuker because they plot above the Stacey &Kramers (1975) and the errorchron and so musthave been derived from a higher-m reservoir. ThePalaeoproterozoic sample analysed from MountNewton (granite sample 48145-2) is a good exam-ple of such rocks and confirms the presence of theLambert Complex west of the Mawson Escarpment.The high 206Pb/204Pb values of between 19 and 20have corresponding 207Pb/204Pb values that lieclose to the 500 Ma geochron and indicate that Pb

Fig. 3. Feldspar Pb compositions from the Prydz Belt.Solid diamonds, Steinnes basement; grey diamonds,Hovde possible basement; grey circles, Brattstrandparagneiss cover; open triangles, late granites; crosses,Grove mountains; pluses, Mirnyi Station.




isotope equilibration during Palaeozoic metamor-phism affected the Palaeoproterozoic rocks fromthe Mawson Escarpment.

Discussion and comparison within

Gondwana

In Figure 2, the Pb compositions of Antarctic feld-spar are compared with those from the majorcrustal terranes of India and Australia. Althoughdata are lacking from large tracts of the ArchaeanIndian terranes, compositions from the VestfoldHills and Napier Complex match those from theDharwar Craton in India and therefore tentativelysupport connections for these terranes with cratonicpeninsular India (Mohanty 2011). The differencesin the Pb isotope compositions indicate that theVestfold Hills and Napier Complex come from dif-ferent parts of the craton. Archaean rocks from theRauer Terrane have feldspar Pb isotope compo-sitions that do not match any known rocks fromIndia and hence reinforce evidence that the RauerTerrane had a very different evolutionary historyto the neighbouring Vestfold Hills (Harley 2003;Harley & Kelly 2007).

The re-equilibration of Pb isotope composi-tions within the Ruker Complex at c. 2.9 Ma is con-sistent with zircon geochronology (Boger et al.2006), which suggests metamorphism in the lateArchaean was the last pervasive high-grade eventto affect the terrane. The sample that has no appar-ent Pb in-growth after this late Archaean equilibra-tion (sample 9828-190) has feldspar compositionsthat are indistinguishable from the pristine Arc-haean rock within the Rauer Terrane. Although pos-sibly co-incidental, this similarity could also beused to further tectonic models inferring pastRuker–Rauer connections (Mikhalsky et al. 2010).More speculatively, but perhaps more importantly,on the basis of the dissimilarity of feldspar com-positions with those from the Yilgarn Craton ofwest Australia (Qiu & McNaughton 1999), it canbe argued that the Ruker Complex is not a fragmentof Australia left behind during its separation fromIndia in the earliest Proterozoic. Instead, the feld-spars from the Ruker Complex that have low Ucontents, and so have not suffered from isotopicin-growth, have unique Pb compositions, providingevidence that these rocks represent part of anArchaean or Crohn craton, as proposed by Boger(2011). Although the Rauer Terrane has some feld-spar with compositions that overlap with thosefrom the Yilgarn Craton (Fig. 2), any Australiancorrelation remains highly speculative until moredata are available both from pristine ArchaeanRauer Terrane rocks and from possible Indiancorrelatives.

Despite re-equilibration of the Palaeoprotero-zoic Lambert Complex samples during the Palaeo-zoic, their derivation from high-m reservoirs lendssupport for models that indicate the Lambert Com-plex has a different evolutionary history to theRuker Complex (Boger et al. 2001, 2008; Corvino& Henjes-Kunst 2007; Corvino et al. 2008). Thevolumetrically small Archaean elements within theLambert Complex may indicate that the Ruker andLambert complexes were interleaved, either in thePalaeozoic or in the Proterozoic.

The rocks from the Rayner Complex mostlyhave feldspar Pb compositions that overlap thosefrom Domain 3 from the Eastern Ghats Belt of India(Rickers et al. 2001). We view such a strong simi-larity as verification that these two regions sharesimilar protoliths and have a common evolutionaryhistory, as has previously been suggested on thebasis of field and petrographic observations, andfrom other isotope and geochemical indicators(Fitzsimons 2000). Samples that overlap Domain 2from the Eastern Ghats Belt of India (Fig. 2) couldresult from a combination of small degrees ofin-growth or from re-homogenization during thePalaeozoic. Direct correlations of Domain 2 of theEastern Ghats Belt with rocks from the Pyrdz Bayregion could, therefore, be misleading and we donot pursue this argument further.

Compositions from the Prydz Belt are just dis-tinguishable from the Beaver Terrane of the Ray-ner Complex (generally less radiogenic and lowerm in the Prydz Belt), so the proposed simple modelthat the Prydz Belt represents protoliths of theRayner Complex more strongly reworked duringCambrian orogeny (Grew et al. 2012) is not, ingeneral, compatible with the Pb isotope data. Forthe Fisher Terrane, feldspar Pb isotopic values plotbelow the Stacey & Kramers (1975) curve. This isconsistent with models for their origin within ajuvenile intra-oceanic to continental margin arc(Mikhalsky et al. 2001, this volume, in press).

Terranes from elsewhere in Antarctica have, ingeneral, Pb isotope compositions that are broadlydifferent to those from the Indian Ocean sector(Fig. 4). Compositions outside the Indian Oceansector tend to plot on or below the Stacey & Kra-mers (1975) terrestrial Pb evolution curve, whereasthose within the region, with the exception of theFisher Terrane and Ruker Complex, plot above it.Markedly different are the feldspar compositionsfrom West Antarctica, which have 206Pb/204Pb val-ues of c. 18.7 and lie close to the evolution curve(Mukasa & Dalziel 2000; Millar et al. 2001; Flower-dew et al. 2012). This is a reflection of the youngerprotolith ages for the majority of the West Antarcticaccreted terranes and makes them readily distin-guishable from all the East Antarctica terranes(Flowerdew et al. 2012). Mesoproterozoic and




Neoproterozoic to early Palaeozoic comparisonsare more relevant because of the potential insightsthey may provide to East Antarctic evolution. LateMesoproterozoic protoliths in the Maud Belt(Jacobs et al. 1998) of central and western DronningMaud Land (Fig. 1) formed in an Andean-style arcthat developed along the margin of the KaapvaalCraton of Africa (e.g. Bisnath et al. 2006) and itsextension into Antarctica as the Grunehogna ter-rane (Marschall et al. 2010). The Maud Belt hasfeldspar compositions from western DronningMaud Land (Flowerdew et al. 2012) and the SørRondane Mountains (Grew et al. 1992), which havelower 207Pb/204Pb values at a similar 206Pb/ 204Pb

ratio when compared to feldspar from late Mesopro-terozoic to early Neoproterozoic rocks from theIndian Ocean sector (Fig. 4). A similar pattern inthe feldspar composition from these two regions isevident from rocks that have independently beendetermined as Cambrian in age. Until feldsparPb data are available from this area, it can beassumed that the rocks from central DronningMaud Land will have similar feldspar composi-tions as recorded at either side. Such a distinctionbetween the African–Antarctic rocks (DronningMaud Land) and Indian–Antarctic (Indian Oceansector) could be used as further evidence for a sep-arate origin and evolution of these two regions,

Fig. 4. Sketch map of Antarctica showing gross feldspar Pb isotope domains. The extents of the fields are guided byother geological, geochemical and geophysical data, as well as feldspar Pb isotope data. Bottom left: fields for Archaeanto Mid Mesoproterozoic rocks. Bottom right: fields for Late Mesoproterozoic and younger rocks. Colour schemesrepresent craton affinity and correlations: blue, India; yellow, Africa; pink, Australia; red/purple/grey, (?)Laurentia;green, domains unique to Antarctica. Hatched pattern undifferentiated West Antarctic terranes; cross-hatched pattern,Maud Province largely reworked during the East African–Antarctic orogeny (Jacobs & Thomas 2004). Data outside theIndian Ocean sector: West Antarctica from Flowerdew et al. (2012), Millar et al. (2001), Mukasa & Dalziel (2000);Coats Land from Flowerdew et al. (2012, 2013), Loewy et al. (2011), Wareham et al. (1998); Read and PensacolaMountains from Flowerdew et al. (2012); Maud Belt from Flowerdew et al. (2012) and Grew et al. (1992).Abbreviations: CL, Coats Land; FT, Fisher Terrane; GC, Grunehogna Craton; LT, Lambert Terrane; MP, MaudProvince; NC, Napier Complex; PB, Prydz Belt; PM, Pensacola Mountains; RC, Rayner Complex; RT, Rauer Terrane;RM, Read Mountains; RU, Ruker Complex; VH, Vestfold Hills; WA, West Antarctica.




and could in the future be used as a method forrecognizing and constraining any extensions of theorogenic belts through the centre of Antarctica(Boger 2011).

The Pb isotope compositions of feldspar fromthe Maud Belt (Wareham et al. 1998; Flowerdewet al. 2012) are indistinguishable from those fromthe late Mesoproterozoic volcanic rocks fromCoats Land reported by Loewy et al. (2011) andFlowerdew et al. (2012). Superficially, this suggeststhat the Pb data cannot be used to distinguishbetween the African–Antarctic Maud Belt and thepossible Laurentian Coats Land rocks, as was orig-inally suggested by Loewy et al. (2011). A Lauren-tian connection for part of Coats Land may still bevalid because ice rafted feldspars inferred to haveeroded crystalline basement to the volcanic rockshave Pb isotopic compositions that are distinctfrom the Maud Province (Flowerdew et al. 2013).As a note of caution, the low-m values of the poss-ible Laurentian Coats Land Block, the Maud Beltand the low-m feldspar from exposures of the Ant-arctic Crohn Craton in the Indian Ocean sector arenot distinct but are inferred to reflect different Pbevolution histories that converged on the sameend-point.

The possibility that the Gawler Craton extendsfrom Australia through Antarctica to the ShackletonRange (Will et al. 2009; Goodge & Finn 2010) mayalso be assessed by feldspar Pb isotope compo-sitions when further data are collected. Palaeopro-terozoic gneisses from the Read Mountains in theShackleton Range plot on the Stacey & Kramers(1975) curve (Will et al. 2010; Flowerdew et al.2012). Thus, comparison with compositions fromLaurentia could be used to test the models forpast connections of East Antarctica with Laurentiain the central Transantarctic Mountains (Goodgeet al. 2008, 2010) when feldspar Pb isotope datafrom the central Transantarctic Mountains becomeavailable.

Concluding remarks

Pb isotope compositions of feldspar from thein-board Archaean Ruker Complex are distinctfrom those from the coastal Archaean terranes ofthe Vestfold Hills and Napier Complex. The Vest-fold and Napier compositions overlap those fromthe Dharwar craton of India and allow for theseAntarctic terranes to have shared evolutionary his-tories with different parts of cratonic India. Thecompositions from Archaean components of theRauer Terrane are consistent with a shared earlyhistory with the Ruker Complex, and have feldsparPb isotope compositions unlike any from continentsformerly adjacent within Gondwana. Both regions,

the Ruker and the Rauer, may represent exposuresof an Antarctic craton that has greater, currentlyunexposed, extent beneath the East Antarctic IceSheet.

The Beaver Terrane of the Rayner Complex,the Prydz Belt and elements of the Rauer Terranehave subtly different feldspar compositions, but allof them broadly overlap those from Domain 3(Rickers et al. 2001) within the Eastern Ghats ofIndia. It is possible, therefore, that these regionsbroadly share common protoliths and a commonevolutionary history and thus are correlatives. TheFisher Terrane, however, has very different compo-sitions, in line with an origin as a juvenile oceanicarc, which highlights the complex tectonic andterrane amalgamation history that is preserved inthis region of Antarctica.

The varied isotopic compositions of feldsparfrom the terranes in the Indian Ocean sector high-light the potential effectiveness of Pb isotopes indetrital feldspar as a provenance tool from thissector of Antarctica.

This study is part of the British Antarctic Survey PolarScience for Planet Earth programme, funded by the Nat-ural Environmental Research Council. Dedicated effortsof many geologists who collected specimens in the fieldare greatly acknowledged. Shane Tyrrell acknowledgesfunding from a Griffiths Geoscience Award while basedat University College Dublin. The National Centre forIsotope Geochemistry (NCIG) is mainly funded by Sci-ence Foundation Ireland. Constructive reviews by E. S.Grew, M. Satish-Kumar and volume editor Y. Zhao havegreatly improved the clarity of this paper and theirefforts are much appreciated.

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Pb isotopic domains from the Indian Ocean sector of Antarctica: implications for past Antarctica-India connections