A Framework for Marketing A Framework for Marketing

ManagementManagement

A Framework for Marketing A Framework for Marketing

ManagementManagement

by Philip Kotler

Prepared by Jimidene Murphey

Clarendon College

2001 年教育部在《关于加强高等学校本科教学工作提高教学质量的若干意见》中提出“按照‘教育面向现代化、面向世界、面向未来’的要求，为适应经济全球化和科技革命的挑战，本科教育要创造条件使用英语等外语进行公共课和专业课教学”。“力争三年内，外语教学课程达到所开设课程的 5%--10%” 。使用原版教材教学已成为高等学校教学改革的一项重要内容。国内许多重点大学已经在部分学科的课程中采用原版教材教学，作为普通高等院校，我们 “市场营销”课程中采用菲利普 科特勒著的《营销管理架构》（ A Framework for Marketing Management ）”原版英文教材教学。

菲利普．科特勒教授长期执教于美国美国西北大学凯洛格管理研究生院，该学院曾被《商业周刊》 6 次评为全美最佳商学院。科特勒有关市场营销的著作早在 90 年代就被教育部全国 MBA 教学指导委员会指定为市场营销课程的首选参考书。《 A Framework for marketing Management 》是科特勒营销管理教材的基础部分，是全美 MBA 经典教材，被北京大学光华管理学院列为 IMBA 、 MBA 系列教材。

在“市场营销”课的多媒体课件中，对重要的定义、概念，用中、英文双语表示，个别单词标注英语同义词或中文，课堂授课基本使用英文。

根据授课内容，准备了相应的词汇表，这些词汇包括：市场营销专业词汇；超出四级英语范围的词汇；属于四级英语范围，但在本课程有不同含义且使用较频繁的词汇。可以在我这里拷贝课件和词汇表。

My telephone number: 6960260 (H)

My e-mail address: wtn.jnnc.com

If you have any question or need my assistance, call me or email me.

Course Description

Aims It is to give students an overview of marketing theories and a framewor

k of the marketing strategy, planning and management including marketing mix （营销组合 ):product, promotion, distribution, pricing, and marketing communication strategies.

It is to help students to develop and strengthen the makings and qualities necessary for a professional, knowledgeable and ethical business person.

Objectives To build an understanding of fundamental marketing conceptsTo provide a framework within which marketing concepts can be

linked with other functional areas and disciplinesTo combine theory with practice in marketing case studies to

better grasp the knowledge learned from this course. 4 To acquaint students with the English vocabularies in the

course and expressing marketing concepts in English.5 To develop students' ability in applying marketing concepts to analyze and solve marketing problems, and understanding the

international business environment.

Total Hours and Weekly Schedule

 Total hours: 32 hours Weekly schedule: 2 hours Class time 2--4 hours/chapter Reading and study 2--4 hours Assignment 2 --4hours

TextbooksA framework for Marketing Management, 1th Edition

By Philip Kotler, Prentice Hall, 2002

Reference BooksMarketing Management, 9th editionPrinciples of Marketing, 10th edition

Chapter 1

Marketing in the Twenty-First Century

21 世纪的营销

Objectives

• What are the tasks of marketing?

• What are the major concepts and tools of marketing?

• What orientations do companies exhibit in the marketplace?

• How are companies and marketers responding to new challenges?

Changing is occurring at an accelerating rate; today is not like yesterday, and tomorrow will be different from today. Continuing today’s strategy is risky; so is turning to a new strategy. Therefore the Successful companies will have to heed ( 注意 ) three certainties:

Global forces will continue to affect everyone’s business and personal life----globalization 全球化  Technology will continue to advance and amaze us----technological advance 技术革命  There will be a continuing push toward deregulation of the economic sector----deregulation 放松政府管制

1 Marketing Task 市场营销的任务 1.1 The scope of marketing 营销学的范围

Marketing people are involved in marketing 10 types of entities 十种本质 :

1) Goods 商品 ---- Physical goods ( 物质商品 ) constitute the bulk of more countries’ production and marketing effort. Each year, U.S. companies alone market billion of canned and frozen food products, millions of tons of steel, and other mainstays of a modern economy.

2) Services 服务 ----As economies advance, a growing proportion of their activities are focused on the production of services. The U.S. economy today consists of a 70-30 services-to-goods mix ( 当今美国经济构成中服务和商品的比例为 7 ： 3). Services include the work of airlines, hotel, maintenance, services provided by accountants, lawyers, programmers, engineers, doctors etc.

3) Experiences 经历 ----By orchestrating goods and services （经过协调各种商品和服务） , one can create, stage( 策划 ) and market experiences. Disney world’s Magic Kingdom is an experience （沃尔特 - 迪斯尼世界的魔幻王国就是一种体验） .

4) Events 事件 ----Marketers promote time-based events （营销者常常推广基于时间的活动） , such as Olympics, trade shows （贸易展览会） , sports events, artistic performance etc.

5) Persons 个人 ---- Celebrity marketing has become a major business （创造名人效应的营销已成为一种重要的商业活动） . Artists, musicians, CEOs, physicians, financiers and other professional draw （获得） help from celebrity marketers...

6) Places 地点 ----Cities, stages, regions, nations compete to attract tourists, factories, company headquarters and new residents. Place marketers include real estate agents, commercial bank, advertising and public relations etc.

7) Properties 财产权 ---- Properties are intangible rights of ownership of either real property （实物资产） -- (real estate 房地产 )) or financial property （金融资产） -- (stocks and bonds股票和债券 ). Properties are bought and sold through the marketing efforts of real estate agents (for real estate) and investment companies and banks (for securities— 有价证券 )

8) Organizations 组织 ----Organizations actively work to build a strong, favorable image （形象） in the mind of their publics （公众） . Philips, the Dutch electronics company, advertises with the rag line, “Let’s Make Things Better.”

9) Information ( 信息） ---Among the marketers of information are schools and universities, schools, publishers( 出版商 ), makers of CDs and Internet Web sites. The production, packaging and distribution of information are one of the society’s major industries.

10) Ideas （观念） ----Every market offering includes a basic idea. In essence, products and services are platforms for delivering some ideas or benefit to satisfy a core need ( 本质上，产品和服务都是传递以满足某一核心需求的历年或利益的平台 ) 。

1.2 The decisions that marketers make 营销人员要做出的决策

How can we spot and choose the right market segment(s)? 如何识别和选择正确的细分市场？

 How can we differentiate our offering? 如何区分我们的提供物？

 How should we respond to customers who press for a lower price? 如何应答要求低价的顾客？

 How can we compete against lower-cost, lower-price rivals? 如何与低成本、低价格的竞争者竞争？

  How far can we go in customizing our offering for each customer? 如何为每一个顾客定制供应品？

 How can we grow our business? 如何发展我们的业务？

How can we build stronger brands? 如何建设更强的品牌？

How can we reduce cost of customer acquisition and keep customers

loyal? 如何减少顾客需求的成本并使顾客保持长期的忠诚？

 How can we tell which customers are more important? 如何辨认哪些顾客是更重要的？

 How can we measure the payback from marketing communications? 如何衡量来自营销沟通的回报率？

 How can we improve sale-force productivity? 如何提高销售队伍的生产率？

 How can we get other departments to be more customer-oriented? 如何使公司的其他部门更注意顾客导向？

1.3  Marketing concepts and tools 营销观念与工具

Marketing boasts a rich array of concepts and tools to help marketers address the decisions they must make. We will start by defining marketing and then describing its major concepts and tools.

1.4 Defining marketing

Marketing is a societal process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating, offering, and exchanging products and services or value freely with others.

营销是个人和集体通过创造，提供出售，并同别人自由交换产品和价值，以获得其所需、所欲之物的一种社会的过程

As a managerial definition, marketing has often been described as “the art of selling product.” But Peter Drucker (彼德 德鲁克 ), a leading management theorist, says that “the aim of selling is to make selling superfluous( 营销的目的就是使推销成为多余 ). The aim of marketing is to know and understand the customer so well that the product or service fits him and sells itself.

Coping with (从事 ) exchange processes—part of this definition—calls for ( 要求 ) a considerable amount of work and skill. We see marketing management as the art and science of applying core marketing concepts to choose target markets and get, keep, and grow customer through creating, delivering, and communicating superior customer value.

从事交换活动要求大量的工作和技巧。我们把看作一门运用营销核心概念，通过创造、传递和沟通优质的顾客价值来选择目标市场，获得、保持和增加顾客的艺术和科学。

Target Markets & Segmentation Target Markets & Segmentation

Needs, Wants, and DemandsNeeds, Wants, and Demands

Product or Offering Product or Offering

Value and Satisfaction Value and Satisfaction

Exchange and Transactions Exchange and Transactions

Relationships and Networks Relationships and Networks

Marketing Channels Marketing Channels

Supply Chain Supply Chain

Competition Competition

Marketing Environment Marketing Environment

Core Concepts of MarketingCore Concepts of Marketing

1.6 Core marketing concepts 核心营销观念 （ 12 concepts ）

(12 important marketing concepts)

1) Target marketing and segmentation 目标市场和细分

Every product or service contains features which a marketer must translate into benefit. It is these benefits the customer perceives to be available in a product and directly impacts the perceived ability to meet the customer need(s) or want(s).

Marketers can rarely satisfy everyone in a market. Not everyone like the same soft drink, automobile, college, and movie. Therefore marketers start with market segmentation( 市场细分 ). They identify and profile distinct group of buyers who might prefer or require varying products and marketing mixes( 市场组合 ) . The firm then decide which segments present the greatest opportunity.

For each chosen target buyers, the firm develops a market offering( 市场提供物 ) . The offering is positioned in the minds of the target buyers as delivering some central benefit(s).

For example, Volvo (a Swedish Car maker 沃尔沃 ) develops its cars for the target market of buyers for whom automobile safety is a major concern. Volvo, therefore , positioned its car as the safest a customer can buy.

Volvo: Target buyers—safety as the major concern--Offering--safest car

Simple Marketing SystemSimple Marketing System

Industry(a collection

of sellers)

Market(a collection

of Buyers)

Communication

Goods/services

Money

Markets and Prospects 营销者和预期顾客

A marketer is someone who is seeking a response (attitude, a purchase, a vote, a donation) from another party called the prospects. 营销者从被称为预期顾客的另一方寻求响应（注意、态度、购买、选票、捐赠）。

So, a marketer is someone actively seeking one or more prospects for an exchange of values. A prospect has been identified as willing and able to engage in the exchange.

If two parties are seeking to sell something to each other, we call them both marketers.

2) Needs, wants, and demands 需要、欲望和需求

  Needs需要Needs describe basic human requirements such as food, air, water, clothing, and shelter. People also have strong needs for recreation, education, and entertainment.需要描述了基本的人类要求 , 如食品、空气、水、衣服和住。人们还对休闲、教育和娱乐有着强烈要求。

l   Want 欲望

These needs become wants when they are directed to specific objectives that might satisfy the need. 当需要与可以满足这一需要的特定物品联系时，需要变成了欲望。

An American needs food but wants hamburger, French fires, and a soft drink. A person in China needs food but wants fried rice, egg soup, and tea. Wants are shaped by one’s society.

   Demand 需求

Demands are wants for specific products backed by an ability to pay. 需求是指有能力购买的某个具体产品的欲望。

Many people want to a Mercedes, only a few are able to and willing to buy one. Companies must measure not only how many people want their product, but also how many would actually be willing and be able to buy it.

However, marketers do not create needs. Needs preexist marketers. Marketers along with other societal influences, influence wants. Marketers might promote the idea that Mercedes would satisfy a person’s need for social status. They do not, however, create the need for social status.

3) Products ， offering and brand 产品、供应品和品牌

Companies address needs by putting forth a value proposition, a set of benefits they offer to customers to satisfy their needs. The intangible value proposition is made physical by an offering, which can be a combination of products, services, information and experience. Brand is an offering from a known source 公司提出价值主张来应对需要，这是公司提供给消费者满足其需要的一系列利益。无形的价值主张通过供应品表现为实物，着可以是产品、服务、信息和体验的组合。当提供产品和服务的来源众所周知时，就形成了品牌。

A brand name such as McDonald’s carries many associations(联想 ) in the minds of people: hamburgers, fun, children, fast food, golden arches. These associations make up the brand image(形象 ). All companies strive to build a strong, favorable brand image.

e.g, Compaq, Microsoft, Legend; AT&T, AOL, Amazon(亚马逊书店 ), Motorola, Nokia; Panasonic, Sony, Philips, Hisense; GM, Ford, Chrysler, Daimler Benz, BMW, Audi, Toyota, Nissan, Honda; GE, ABB, 3M, UT, BASF, Bayer; Pepsi, Coca-Cola, McDonald’s, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Tsingtao Beer; Nike, Reebok; Harvard, Stanford, MIT, Princeton, Cambridge, Oxford, Peking Univ., SDAI.>SJZU

4) Value and satisfaction 价值和满意 Value is a ration between what the customer gets and what he gives.

benefit functional benefits + emotional benefits

value= ---- = ---------------------------------------------------------------------

cost Monetary cost + time cost + energy costs + psychic costs

利益 功能利益 + 情感利益

价值 = ------- = ------------------------------------------------------

成本 金钱成本 + 时间成本 + 体力成本 + 精力成本

 

5) Exchange and transaction 交换和交易

  Exchange 交换

Exchange, the core of marketing, involves obtaining a desired product from someone by offering something in return. 交换就是通过提供某种东西作为回报，从某人那里取得所想要东西的行为。

    Transaction 交易Transaction involves at least two things of value, as agreed-upon conditions, a time of agreement, and a place of agreement.交易是双方或更多主体之间价值的交换，包括的要素有至少两个有价值的事物，买卖双方同意的条件、协议时间和协议地点。

Note that transaction is different from transfer(转让 ). In transfer, A gives a gift, a subsidy(补助金 ), or a charitable(仁慈的 ) contribution to B but receives nothing tangible in return.

Marketing consists of actions undertaken to elicit( 诱发 )desired responses from a target audience( 目标受众 ) . To affect successful exchanges, marketers analyze what each party expects from the transaction.

6 ） Relationships and networks 关系和网络

  Relationship marketing 关系营销

Relationship marketing aims to build long-term mutually satisfying (win-win) regulations with key parties—customers, suppliers, distributors—in order to earn and retain their long--term preference and business. 关系营销是与关键成员（顾客、供应商、分销商）建立长期满意关系的实践，目的是保持营销者长期的业绩和业务

Effective marketers accomplish (carry out) this by promising and delivering high-quality products and services at fair prices to the other parties over time. Relationship marketing builds strong economic, technical and social ties among the parties. It cuts down on transaction costs and time.

7 ） Marketing channels 营销渠道

To reach a target market, the marketer uses 3 kinds of marketing channels:

 Communication channel( 信息传播渠道 ) can deliver messages to and receive messages from buyers.

Dialogue channel 双向交流渠道— e.g. e-mail, and toll-free numbers

Monologue channel 单向渠道— e.g. ads

 Distribution channel( 分销渠道 )can display or deliver the physical product or services to the buyers or users, which include warehouses, transportation vehicles, and various trade channels such as distributors, wholesalers and retailer. The marketers use distribution channels to display or deliver the physical product or service(s) to the buyer or user.

  Selling channel( 销售渠道 )

The marketers use selling channels to effect transaction with potential buyers. Selling channels include not only the distributors ( 分销商 ) and retailers(零售商 ) but also the bank and insurance companies that facilitate transaction.

Marketers clearly face a design problem in choosing the best mix of communication, distribution, and selling channels for their offering.

Marketing Channels

Communication channelsCommunication channels

Distribution channelsDistribution channels

Selling channelsSelling channelsBANK

8 ） Supply chain 供应链

Supply chain describes a longer channel stretching from raw materials to components to final products that are carried out for final buyers. 供应连描述了从原材料、零部件到传递给最终买主的最终产品的一个更长的延伸。

The supply chain for women’s purses starts with hides(皮革 ), tannin

g ( 制革 )operation, cutting operation, manufacturing, and the mar

keting channels bringing production to customers. The supply chain

represents a value delivery (价值让渡 ) system. .

Competition• Think of examples of each type of

competition:

Brandcompetition

Brandcompetition

Industrycompetition

Industrycompetition

Formcompetition

Formcompetition

Genericcompetition

Genericcompetition

9) Competition 竞争

 Brand competition 品牌竞争— a company sees its competitors as other companies that offer similar products and services to the same customers at similar prices. 公司把以类似价格提供类似产品和服务给相同顾客的其他公司视为竞争者。

Volkswagen might see its major competitors as Toyota, Honda, and other manufacturer of medium-price automobile, rather than Mercedes.

 Industry competition 行业竞争— a company sees its competitors as all companies that make the same products or class of products. 公司把制造同样或同类产品的公司广义地视为竞争者。

Thus, Volkswagen would be competing against all other car manufacturers.

  Form competition 形式竞争 ---a company sees its competitors as

all companies that supply the same products. 公司把所有生产相同功能的其他公司视为竞争者。 Volkswagen would see itself competing against manufacturers of

all vehicles, such as motorcycles, bicycles, and trucks.  Generic competition 通常竞争 --- a company sees its competitors

as all companies that compete for the same consumer dollars. 公司把所有争取相同消费者支出的其他公司视为竞争者。 Volkswagen would see itself competing with companies that sell m

ajor consumer durables, foreign vacations and new homes.

10 ） Marketing environment

  Task environment 工作环境

  Broad environment 大环境

   Demographic environment 人文环境

   Economic Environmental 经济环境

   Natural environment 自然环境

   Technological environment 技术环境

   Political-legal environment 政治 -法制环境

Social-cultural environment 社会 - 文化环境

Marketing mix is the set of marketing tools that the firm uses to pursue its marketing objectives in the target market. 营销组合就是公司用来从目标市场寻找其营销目标的一整套营销工具。

The sellers’ 4 Ps corresponds to the customers’ 4 Cs

4 Ps------------------------------ 4 Cs

Product 产品 ---------- customer solution顾客问题解决

Price 价格 ------------- customer cost cost 顾客的成本

Place 地点 ------------- convenience便利

Promotion 促销 ------- communication传播

The Four Ps The Four Cs The Four Ps The Four Cs

ProductProduct

MarketingMix

PlacePlace

PricePrice PromotionPromotionCustomerSolution

CustomerCost

Communication

Conven-ience

2 Company Orientations toward the Marketplace 公司对待市场的导向

There are five concepts under which organizations conduct marketing activities: production concept, product concepts, selling concept, marketing concept and societal marketing concept.

Company Orientations Towards the Marketplace

Company Orientations Towards the Marketplace

Production ConceptProduction Concept

Product ConceptProduct Concept

Selling ConceptSelling Concept

Marketing ConceptMarketing ConceptMarketing ConceptMarketing Concept

Consumers prefer products that are widely available and inexpensive

Consumers favor products that offer the most quality, performance,

or innovative features

Consumers will buy products only ifthe company aggressively

promotes/sells these products

Focuses on needs/ wants of target markets & delivering value

better than competitors

2.1 Production concept 生产观念

Production concept, one of the oldest in business, holds that consumers prefer products that are widely available and inexpensive.

生产观念认为，消费者喜欢那些可以随处得到的、价格低廉的产品。

Managers of production-oriented ( 生产导向型 ) business concentrate on (集中 , 全神贯注于 ) achieving high production efficiency, low cost, and mass distribution. This orientation makes sense ( 有意义 ) in developing countries, where consumers are more interested in obtaining the product than in its features. It is also used when a company wants to expand the market.

Texas Instrument ( 美国的得克萨斯仪器公司） is a leading exponent of this concept. It concentrates on building production volume and upgrading technology in order to bring costs down, leading to lower prices and expansion of the market. This orientation has also been a key strategy of many Japanese companies.

2.2 Product concept 产品观念

Product concept holds that consumers favor those products that of

fer most quality, performance, or innovative features.

产品观念认为，消费者最喜欢高质量、多功能和具有某些创新特色的产品。

Managers in these organizations focus on making superior products an

d improving them over time, assuming that buyers can appraise quality a

nd performance.

Product-oriented (产品导向） companies often design their produc

ts with little or no customer input ( 参与 ), trusting that their engineers

can design exceptional products ( 出众的产品 ). A General Motor exe

cutive ( 经理） said years ago: “How can the public know what kind o

f car they want until they see what is available.”( 在我们的设计没有出来以前，公众怎么会知道他们需要什么样的汽车呢？ ). GM tod

ay asks what they value in a car and includes marketing people in the v

ery beginning stages of design.

2.3 Selling concept 推销观念

Selling concept holds that consumers and businesses, if left alone, will ordinarily not buy enough of the organization’s products. The organization must, therefore, undertake an aggressive selling and promotion effort.

推销观念认为，如果让消费者和企业自行抉择，他们不会足量购买某一组织的产品。因此，该组织必须主动推销和积极促销。

This concept assumes that consumers typically show buying inertia or resistance and must be coaxed into(劝诱 ) buying, so the company has a battery of ( 一系列 ) selling and promotion tools to stimulate(诱导 ) buying.

The selling concept is practiced most aggressively with unsought goods (非渴望商品 )----goods that buyers normally do not think of buying, such as insurance. The selling concept is also practiced in the nonprofit area by fund-raisers(资金筹措者 ), college administration offices, and political parties.

Most firms practice the selling concept when they have overcapacity ( 过剩的生产能力 ). Their aim is to sell what they make rather than make what the market wants. In modern industrial economies, productive capacity has been built up to a point where most markets are buyer markets (the buyer are dominant- 支配的 ) and seller have to scramble for ( 争夺 )customers. Prospects are bombarded ( 围攻 )with sales messages.

As a result, the public often identifies marketing with hard selling ( 强力推销 ) and advertising. But marketing based on hard selling carries high risks. It assumes that customers who are coaxed into buying it will like it; and if they do not, whey would not bad-mouth(说坏话 ) it or complain to consumer organization and will forget their disappointment and buy it again. These are indefensible(站不住脚的 ) assumptions. In fact, one study shoed that dissatisfied customers may bad-mouth the product to 10 or more acquaintances(熟人 ); bad news travels fast, something marketers that use hard selling should bear in mind.

2.4  Marketing concept 营销观念

Marketing concept holds that the key to achieving organization

al goals consist of the company being more effective than its competi

tors in creating, delivering, and communicating customer value to its

chosen target market.

营销观念认为，实现组织诸目的的关键在于正确确定目标市场的需要和欲望，并且比竞争对手更有效、更有利的传送目标市场所期望满足的东西。

The marking concept has been expressed in many ways:

“Meeting needs profitably.”

“Find wants and fill them.”

“Love the customer, not the product.”

“Have it your way.” (Burger King)

“You’re the boss.” (United Airline)

“Putting people first.” (British Airline)

“Partners for profit.” (Milliken $ Company)

A Harvard professor makes a contrast( 对比 ) between the selling and

marketing concepts: “Selling focus on the needs of the seller; marketing

on the needs of the buyer. Selling is preoccupied with the seller’s need to

convert this product into cash; marketing with the idea of satisfying the n

eeds of the customer by means of the product and the whole cluster of thi

ngs(所有事情 ) associated with creating, delivering and finally consumi

ng it.”

The marketing concept rests on four pillars: target market, customer n

eeds, integrated marketing, and profitability. The selling concept takes a

n inside-out perspective( 推销观念采取从里到外的顺序 ). It starts with

the factory, focus on existing products, and calls for heavy selling and pr

omoting to produce profitable sales. The marketing concept takes an outs

ide-in perspective. It starts with a well-defined market, focuses on custo

mer needs, coordinates activities that affect customers, and produces pro

fits by satisfying customers.

Contrasts Between Selling and Marketing Concepts(a) The selling concept

FactoryExistingproducts

Selling andpromotion

Profits throughsales volumeFactory

Existingproducts

Selling andpromotion

Profits throughsales volume

Startingpoint Focus Means Ends

MarketCustomer

needsIntegratedmarketing

Profits throughcustomer

satisfaction

(b) The marketing concept

营销观念的 4 个支柱：

1) Target market 目标市场

2) Customer needs 顾客需要

3) Integrated marketing 整合营销

4) Profitability 赢利能力

Marketing Concept

The Marketing Concept stands on four pillars:

Tar

get

mar

ket

Cu

sto

mer

nee

ds

Inte

gra

ted

mar

keti

ng

Pro

fita

bil

ity

1) Target market 目标市场 Companies do best when they choose their target market(s) carefully and prepare tailored ( 适当的 ) marketing programs.

2) Customer needs 顾客需要 A company can carefully define its target market yet fail to correctly understand the customer’s needs. Understanding customer needs and wants is not always simple. Some customers have needs of which they are not fully conscious; some cannot articulate (清晰地说明 ) these needs or use words that require some interpretation.

Sony exemplifies ( 例证 ) a creative market because it has introduced

many successful new products that customer never asked for or even tho

ught were possible: Walkmans, VCRs(录象机 ), and so on. Sony goes b

eyond customer-led marketing: it is a market-driving firm, not just a mar

ket-driven firm (索尼是一个引导市场的公司，而不仅仅是市场驱动的公司 )..

3) Integrated marketing 整合营销Integrated marketing takes place on two levels: First, the various mark

et functions—sales force, advertising, customer service, product management, marketing research ( 营销调研 )—must work together. All of these functions must be coordinated from the customers’ point of view. Second, marketing must be included by other departments. Xerox, for example, goes so far as to include in every job to explain how each job affects the customer. Xerox factory managers know that visits to the factory can help sell to a potential customer if the factory is clean and efficient. Xerox accountants know that customer attitudes are affected by Xerox’s billing accuracy.

To foster(激励 ) teamwork among all departments, the company must carry out internal marketing( 内部营销 ) as well as external marketing. External marketing is marketing directed at people outside the company. Internal marketing is the task of hiring, training, and motivating able employees who want to serve customers well. In fact, internal marketing must precede external marketing. It makes no sense to promise excellent service before the company’s staff is ready to provide it.

4) Profitability 赢利能力

The ultimate （最终的） purpose of the marketing concept is to help organization achieve their objectives. In the case of private firms, the major objective is profit; in the case of non-profit and public organizations, it is surviving and attracting enough funds to perform useful work.

How many companies actually practice the marketing concept? Unfortunately, too few. Only a handful of companies stand out as master marketers: Procter & Gamble, Disney, Wal-Mart, McDonald’s, Marriott Hotels(万豪酒店 ), American Airlines, and several Japanese (Sony, Toyota, Canon) and European companies (IKEA, Nokia, ABB).

These companies focus on the customer and are organized to respond effectively to changing customer needs. they all have well-staffed ( 素质良好的 ) marketing departments, and all of their other departments—manufacturing, finance, research and development, personnel, purchasing---accept the customer as king. Several scholars have found that by embracing ( 采用 ) the marketing concept, companies can achieve superior performance( 业绩 ).

Despite the benefits, firms face three hurdles in converting to a marketing orientation: organized resistance, slow learning and fast forgetting. Some company departments (often manufacturing, finance, and research and development) believe a strong marketing function threatens their power in organization. Despite efforts by management, learning comes slow. Resistance (阻力 ) is particularly strong in industry ( 行业 ) in which marketing is being introduced for the first time—for instance, colleges and government agencies..

2.5 Societal marketing concept 社会营销观念

Some have questioned whether the marketing concept is an appropriat

e philosophy in an age of environmental deterioration, resource shortage

s, explosive population growth, world hunger and poverty, and neglected

social services. They think the marketing concept sidesteps (回避 ) the p

otential conflict among consumer wants, consumer interests and long-ru

n societal welfare.

The societal marketing concept calls upon marketers to build social and ethical(与伦理有关 ) consideration into their marketing practices. They see it as affording an opportunity for companies to enhance their corporate reputation, raise brand awareness, increase customer loyalty, build sales, and increase press coverage( 加强新闻舆论影响 ).

Social marketing concept holds that the organization’s task is to determine the needs, wants, and interests of target market and to deliver the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors in a way that preserves or enhances the customer’s and the society’s well-being.

社会营销观念认为，组织的任务是确定诸目标市场的需要、欲望和利益，并以保护或提高消费者及社会福利的方式，比竞争者更有效、更有利地提供目标市场所期待的满足。

Building Customer Satisfaction, Value, and Retention

建立顾客满意、价值和关系

Chapter 3

Chapter 3 Objectives

• Define value and satisfaction and understand how to deliver them.

• Describe the nature of high-performance businesses.

• Explain how to attract and retain customers.• Understand ways of improving customer

profitability.• Define total quality management.

 

 

1  Defining Customer Value and Satisfaction 定义顾客价值和满意 1.1 Customer value 顾客价值 　 Customer perceived value is the difference between total customer value and total customer cost. Total customer value is the bundle of benefits that customers expect from a given product or service. Total customer cost is the bundle of cost that customer expect to incur in evaluating, obtaining, using, and disposing of the product or service.

　顾客感知价值是指总顾客价值与总顾客成本之差。顾客总价值就是顾客从某一特定产品或服务中获得的一系列利益；而总顾客成本是在评估、获得和使用和处置该产品或服务时而引起的顾客预计费用。

Customer Value

• Customers estimate which offer will deliver the most value.

• They then form an expectation of value and act upon it.

• Customer delivered value = total customer value minus total customer cost.

Determinants of Customer Delivered Value

Image valueImage value

Personnel valuePersonnel value

Services valueServices value

Product valueProduct value

Monetary costMonetary cost

Time costTime cost

Energy costEnergy cost

Psychic costPsychic cost

Totalcustomer

value

Totalcustomer

value

Totalcustomer

cost

Totalcustomer

cost

Customerdelivered

value

Customerdelivered

value

As an example, suppose the buyer for a residential construction comp

any wants to buy a tractor from either Caterpillar (卡特皮勒 --the larges

t engineering machinery supplier of America) or Komatsu(小松 --the lar

gest engineering machinery supplier of Japan). After evaluating the two t

ractors, he decides that Caterpillar has a higher product value, based on p

erceived (感知的 ) reliability( 可靠性） , durability, performance （性能） , and resale value. He also decides that Caterpillar’s personnel are

more knowledgeable, and perceives that the company will provide better

services, such as maintenance （维护保养） . Finally, he places higher

value on Caterpillar’s corporate image （形象） . He adds all of the val

ues from these four sources—product, service, personnel, and image—a

nd perceives Caterpillar as offering more total customer value.

The buyer also examines his total cost of transacting （交易） with

Caterpillar versus Komatsu. In addition to the monetary cost, the total cu

stomer cost includes the buyer’s time, energy, and psychic (精力的 )

cost. Then the buyer compares Caterpillar’s total cost to its customer val

ue. In the end, the buyer will buy from the company that he perceives is

offering the highest delivered value.

1.2 Customer satisfaction 顾客满意

Satisfaction is a person’s feeling of pleasure or disappointment resulti

ng from comparing a product’s perceived performance (or outcome) in r

elation to his or her expectations.

满意是指一个人通过对一种产品的可感知效果（或结果）与他或她的期望值相比较后，所形成的愉悦或失望的感觉状态。

As this definition makes clear, satisfaction is a function of perceived performance( 可感知效果 ) and expectations ( 期望值 ). If the performance falls short of expectations, the customer is disappointed. If performance matches expectations, the customer is satisfied; if it exceeds expectations, the customer is highly satisfied or delighted.

Many companies aim for high customer satisfaction, which creates an emotional bond with the brand, not just a rational ( 理性的 ) preference. The result is high customer loyalty. The most successful companies go a step further, aiming for total customer satisfaction. Xerox’s （施乐） senior management believes that a very satisfied or delighted customer is worth 10 times as much to the company as a satisfied customer. A very satisfied customer is likely to stay with Xerox many more years and buy more than a satisfied customer will. This is why Xerox guarantees “total satisfaction”( 全面顾客满意 ) and will replace, at its expense, any dissatisfied customer’s equipment within three years after purchase. And one of Honda’s ads says: “one reason our customers are so satisfied is that we are not (satisfied).”

2 Delivering Customer Value and Satisfaction 让渡顾客价值和满意

Given the importance of customer value and satisfaction, what doe

s it take to produce and deliver them? To answer this question, we ne

ed to discuss the concept of a value chain and value-delivery system.

2.1 Value chain 价值链

Value chain----used as a tool for identifying ways to create more value. Every firm is a collection of activities that are performed to design, produce, market, deliver, and support its products.价值链，用作一种工具，用以识别创造更多的顾客价值的各种

途径。每一个公司集合了设计、生产、销售、送货和支持产品等 采取的一系列活动。

2.2 Value delivery network 价值让渡网络

To be successful, the firm also needs to look for competitive advantages beyond its own operations, into the value chains of its suppliers, distributors, and customers. Many companies today have partnered with specific suppliers and distributors to create a superior value-delivery network.

One example of value-delivery network is the one that connects Levis Strauss & Company, the famous maker of blue jeans, with its suppliers and distributors, including Sears. Every night, Levi’s receives electronic notification of the sizes and styles of its blue jeans sold through Sears. Levi’s then electronically orders more fabric(布料 ) for next-day delivery from Miliken, its fabric supplier. Miliken, in turn, orders more fiber ( 纤维 ) from DuPont, its fiber supplier. In this quick response system, the goods are pulled by demand rather than pushed by supply( 商品是需求拉动的，而不是供应推动的 ). Thus, Levi’s performance depends upon the quality of its marketing network, not just its own operations.

Levi Strauss’ Value-Delivery Network

Du Pont(Fibers)Du Pont(Fibers)

Order Order

Milliken(Fabric)Milliken(Fabric)

Levi’s(Apparel)

Levi’s(Apparel)

Order Order

Sears(Retail)Sears

(Retail) CustomerCustomer

Delivery

Competition is between networks,not companies. The winner isthe company with the betternetwork.

Delivery Delivery Delivery

3 Attracting and Retaining Customers 吸引和维系顾客

 In addition to improving relations with supply-chain partners, many co

mpanies are developing stronger bonds and loyalty with their ultimate cu

stomers. Today’s customers are smarter, more price conscious （更具有价格意识） , more demanding, less forgiving （较少的宽容心） , and

approached by more competitors with equal or better offers. The challen

ge now is not to produce satisfied customers, but to produce loyal custo

mers.

3.1 Attracting customers 吸引顾客

Companies seeking to grow their sales and profits must spend considerable time and resources searching for new customers. Too many companies suffer from high customer churn (搅动 ) —they gain new customers only to lose many of them. Today companies must pay closer attention to their customer defection rate(顾客背叛率 ). Cellular carrier （蜂窝电话） , for instance, loses 25 percent of their subscribers(订户 ) each year at a cost of estimated at $2 billion to $4 billion.

3.2 The need for customer retention 维系顾客的需要

The key to customer retention is customer satisfaction. A highly satisfied customer stays loyal longer, buys more, talks favorably about the company and its products, pays less attention to competitors, is less price-sensitive, offers product or service ideas, and costs less to serve than new customers because transactions are routinized. ( 使惯例化 , 使成常规 ) .

Companies can strengthen customer retention in two ways. One way is to erect high switching barriers (转换壁垒 ). The better approach is to deliver high customer satisfaction. This makes it harder for competitors to overcome switching barriers by simply offering lower prices or switching inducements (诱导 ). The task of creating strong customer loyalty is called relationship marketing.

Some companies think they are getting a sense of customer satisfaction by tallying (计算 ) customer complaints. However, 95% of dissatisfied customers do not complain; many just stop buying. The best thing a firm can do is to make it easy for customers to complain via toll-free phone numbers, suggestion forms, and e-mail---and then listen. 3M, for example, encourages customers to submit suggestions, inquiries, and complaints. The company says that over two thirds of its product-improvement ideas come from listening to customer complaints.

Listening is not enough, however. The company must respond quickly and constructively to the complaints. As Albertand and Zemk observe: “The company must respond quickly and constructively to the complaints. Of the customers who register a complaint, between 54 and 70% will buy again if their complaint is resolved (解决 ). The figure goes up to staggering (surprising) 95% if the customer feels the complaint was resolved quickly. And customer whose complaints were satisfactorily resolved tell an average of five people about the good treatment they received.”

3.4 Relationship marketing: The key 关系营销：关键

To understand customer relationship marketing, we must review the pr

ocess involved in attracting and keeping customers.

Customer development process 顾客发展过程

The starting point is suspects(猜想顾客 ), everyone who might concei

vably(令人信服地 )buy the product or service. The company examines

suspects to determine who are its most likely prospects (预期顾客 )—th

e people who have a strong potential interests and ability to pay for the p

roduct. Disqualified prospects ( 不合格预期顾客 ) are those.

the company rejects because they have poor credit or would be unprofitable The company hopes to convert many qualified customers ( 合格预期顾客 ) into first-time customer ( 首次购买顾客 ), and then to convert those qualified first-time customers into repeat customer ( 重复购买顾客 ). Once the company acts to convert repeat customers into clients( 客户 )—people whom the company treats very specially—the next challenge is to turn clients into members （成员）， by starting a membership program( 成员计划方案 ) offering benefits to customers who join. The goal here is turn members into advocates (拥护者 ) who recommend the company and its offerings to others. The ultimate challenge is to turn advocates into partners( 合伙人 ), where the customer and the company work together actively.

Customer Development

SuspectsSuspects

ProspectsProspects

Disqualifiedprospects

Disqualifiedprospects

First-timecustomers

Repeatcustomers

Clients

Advocates

Partners

Inactive orex-customers

Inactive orex-customers

Chapter 5

Understanding Markets, Market Demand, and the Marketing Environment 理解市场、

市场需求和市场环境

Chapter 5 Objectives

Identify the components of a marketing information system.

Describe how marketers can improve marketing decisions through intelligence systems, marketing research, and marketing decision support systems.

Determine how demand can be accurately measured and forecasted.

Explain key demographic, economic, natural, technological, political, and cultural developments in a macroenvironment.

1 Supporting Marketing Decision with Information, Intelligence, and Research 用信息、情报和市场调研支持影销决策

The marketing environment is changing at an accelerating rate, and the need for real-time market information( 对市场实时信息需要 ) is greater than at any time the past. Companies are expanding from local to national to global marketing; consumers are gaining buying power and becoming more selective in their choices; and sellers are shifting from price to nonprice(非价格 ) competition. At the same time,information technologies are emerging: powerful computers, DVD players, the Internet, and more . Yet many companies fail to see change as opportunity and ignore or resist changes until it is too late. Their strategies, structures, systems, and organizational culture grow increasingly obsolete and dysfunctional as the environment changes.

Corporation as mighty ( 强大的 ) as General Motor, IBM, and Sears passed through difficult times because they ignored macro-environmental changes for too long. The major responsibility for identifying marketplace changes falls to marketers. More than More than any other group in the company, they must be the trend trackers (追踪者 ) and opportunity seekers (搜索者 ).

Marketing information system (MIS) 营销信息系统 ---consists of people, equipment, and procedures that gather, sort, analyze, evaluate, and distribute needed, timely, and accurate information to marketing decision makers.

营销信息系统由人、设备和程序组成，它为营销决策者收集、挑选、分析、评估和分配重要的、及时的和准确的信息。

This information is developed through internal company records （内部报告） , marketing intelligence( 营销情报 ), marketing research( 市场调研 ), and marketing decision support analysis （营销决策支持分析） .

1.1 Marketing intelligence system 营销情报系统

Marketing intelligence system is a set of procedures and sources used by managers to obtain everyday information about developments in the marketing environment.

营销情报系统是使公司经理获得日常的关于营销环境发展的恰当信息的一整套程序和来源。

Improving a Marketing Intelligence System

Train and motivate sales force for developmentTrain and motivate sales force for development

Have distributors and retailers pass informationHave distributors and retailers pass information

Purchase and study competitors’ productsPurchase and study competitors’ products

Set up customer advisory panelSet up customer advisory panel

Establish marketing information centerEstablish marketing information center

Purchase information from outside suppliersPurchase information from outside suppliers

1.2 Marketing research 市场调研

Marketing research 市场调研

We define marketing research as the systematic design, collection, analysis, and reporting of data and findings that are relevant to a specific marketing situation facing the company.

市场调研是系统地设计、收集、分析和提出数据资料以及提出跟公司所面临的特定的营销状况有关的调查研究结果

Most companies can obtain marketing research in a number of ways. Most large companies have their own marketing research departments. At Procter & Gamble, one marketing research group I in charge of overall company advertising research, while another is in charge of marketing testing. Each group’s staff consists of marketing research managers, supporting specialists (survey designers, statisticians, behavioral scientists), and in-house field representatives who conduct and supervise( 监督 ) interviewing. Each year P&G contacts over 1 million people in connection with about 1,000 research projects.

1.3 The Marketing Research Process

Effective marketing research involves the five steps:

Define problem

andresearch

objectives

Define problem

andresearch

objectives

Developresearch

plan

Developresearch

planCollect

informationCollect

information

PresentfindingsPresentfindings

Analyzeinformation

Analyzeinformation

Step 1: Defining the problem and research objectives 步骤 1 ：确定问题和调研目标

In the first step of the marketing research process, management must carefully define the problem to be studied.

Step 2: Develop the research plan 步骤 2 ：制定调研计划

The second step of the marketing research process is to design an efficient, affordable research plan. This step calls for decisions on the data source, research approaches, research instruments, sampling plan, and contact methods.

Research approaches 调研方法

Observation research 观察法 ----fresh data can be gathered by observing the relevant actors and settings. The American Airlines

researchers might meander( 漫步 ) around the airport and airline offices to hear travelers talk about different carriers, or they can fly on American and competitor’s planes to observe in-flight services.

Focus-group research 焦点（小组）访谈法

Survey research 调查法

Behavioral data 行为数据

Experimental research 实验法

Research Approaches

ObservationalObservational

Focus-groupFocus-group SurveySurvey

BehavioralBehavioral ExperimentalExperimental

 Research instrument 调研工具

 Closed-end questions封闭式问题

Open-end questions 开放式问题

  Sampling plan 抽样计划

Sampling unit 抽样单位—Who is to be surveyed?

  Sampling size 抽样大小— How many people should be surveyed?

Sampling procedure 抽样程序— How should therespondents be chosen?

Sampling Plan

After deciding on the research approachand instruments, the researcher must

design a sampling plan.

Samplingunit

Sample size

Sampling procedure

Sampling Plan

    Contact methods 接触方式

Mail questionnaire 邮寄调查表

Telephone 电话

Personal interviewing 人员面谈访问

On-line interviewing 在线访问

Step 3: Collect information 步骤 3 ： 收集信息

　 In marketing research, data collection is generally the most expensive and the most prone(易于…的 ) to error. Four major problems may arise:

1) Respondents( 被调查人 ) who are not at home must be recontacted or replaced;

2)   Some respondents will not cooperate;

3)   Some will give biased ( 有偏见的 ) or dishonest answers;

4) Some interviews will be biased or dishonest.

Step 4: Analyze the information 步骤 4 ：分析信息

The forth step in the marketing research process is to extract findings from the collected data. The researcher first tabulates( 列表 ) the data and then applies various statistical(统计学的 )techniques and decision model to analyze the results.

Step 5: Present the findings 步骤 5 ：陈述研究发现

In the last step of the marketing research process, the researcher presents the major findings that are relevant to the key decisions facing management.

1.4 Marketing decision support system 营销决策支持系统

A marketing decision support system is a coordinated collection of

date, systems, tools, and techniques with supporting software and har

dware by which an organization gathers and interprets information fr

om business and the environment and turns it into a basis for marketi

ng action.

营销决策支持系统是一个组织，它通过软件与硬件支持，协调数据收集、系统、工具和技术，解释企业内部和外部环境的有关信息，并把它转化为营销活动的基础。

2 Identifying and Responding to Macroenvironmental Trend and Forces. 对宏观环境趋势和因素的辨认和反应  

Marketers find many opportunities by identifying trends in the macroenvirment. Trend is a direction or sequence of events that have some momentum and durability.( 趋势是具有某些势头和持久性的事件 ) 。Within the rapid changing global picture, the firm must monitor six major forces: demographic(人文的 ), economic( 经济的 ), natural(自然的 ), technological( 技术的 ), political-legal( 政治 -法律的 ), and social-cultural(社会 - 文化的 ).

Although these forces will be described separately, marketers must pay attention to their interactions, because these set the stage for new opportunities as well as threats. For example, population growth (demographic environment) leads to resource depletion(贫化 ) and pollution (natural environment), which leads consumers to call for more laws (political-legal). The restrictions stimulate new technological solutions and products (technology); if the solution and products are affordable?( 供应得起的 economic forces); they may actually change attitudes and behavior (social-cultural).

2.1 Demographic environment 人文环境

1) Worldwide population growth 世界人口增长

The world population totaled 5.4 billion in 1991, by 1999 it topped 6 billion, and estimated 8 billion by 2025. The less developed regions of the world currently account for 76% of the world population and are growing at 2% per year, whereas the population in the most developed countries is growing at only 0.6% per year. Feeding, clothing, and

educating children while also providing a rising standard of living is nearly impossible in the less developed areas. The explosive world population growth has major implications for business. For example, the Chinese government limits families to one child per family. Toy marketers, in particular, see that these “little emperors” ( 小皇帝 ) are showered( 大量地给与 ) with everything from candy to computers by parents, grandparents, aunts and uncles. This trend has encouraged Japan’s Bandai Company(班德尔公司 ), Denmark’s Lego Group(莱哥集团 ), and Mattel (马特尔公司 ) to enter the Chinese market.

2) Population age mix 人口年龄结构

A population can be subdivided into six age groups: preschool, school-age, teens, young adults age 25—40, middle-age adults age 40—65, and older adults age 65 and up.

3) A better-educated and more white collar population更多的受教育和更多的白领人口

The rising number of educated people(36% of the US population is college-educated) will increase the demand for quality products, books, magazines, travel, personal computers and Internet services. It suggests a decline in television viewing because college-educated consumers watch less TV than population at large. The workforce also is becoming more white collar. These trends have continued into the new millennium.

4) Household patterns 家庭类型

5) Geographical shifts in population 人口居住区域的变化

Location makes a difference in goods and service preferences. Peo

ple who live in large cities such as New York, Chicago and San Fran

cisco need more expensive furs, perfumes, luggage and work of art.

These cities also support the opera, ballet and other forms of culture.

Americans living in the suburbs have more casual lives. They buy m

ore vans, home workshop equipment, lawn and gardening tools. Ther

e are also regional differences:

For example, people in Seattle buy more toothbrushes than other cities; p

eople in Salt Lake City eat more candy bars; people from New Orleans u

se more ketchup( 调味蕃茄酱 ); and people in Miami drink more prune j

uice(李子汁 ). Besides, there is great migratory movements between an

d within countries. Americans, for instance, are a mobile people with abo

ut 12 million U.S. households moving each year. Over the past two deca

des, the U.S.’s population has shifted toward the Sunbelt （阳光地带）states. The West and South have grown while the Midwest and Northeast

states have lost population. The movement to the Sunbelt states has lesse

ned the demand for warm clothing and home heating equipment and incr

eased the demand for air conditioning.

2.2 Economic environment 经济环境 Successful companies realize that markets require purchasing powe

r as well as people. The available purchasing power in an economy depends on current income, prices, savings debt, and credit availability. For this reason, marketers must track the trends in income and consumer spending patterns. Marketers should pay attention to income distribution as well as average income. At the top are upper class consumers, whose spending patterns are not affected by current economic events and are the major market for luxury goods. There is a comfortable middle class that is somewhat careful about its spending but can still afford the good life some of the time. The working class must stick close to the basic food, clothing and shelter, and must try hard to save. Finally, the underclass (persons on welfare and many retired people) must count their pennies when making even the most basic purchase.

 

2.3 Natural environment 自然环境

The deterioration of the natural environment is a major global concern. In many cities, air and water pollution have reached dangerous levels. In Western Europe, “green” parties have pressed for public action to reduce industrial pollution. Legislation(立法 ) protecting the natural environment has hit certain industries very hard. Steel companies have to invest in expensive pollution-control equipment and earth-friendly( 对地球无害的 ) fuels, while automakers have to install expensive emission （排放） controls in their vehicles. In general, marketers need to monitor these four trends closely: the shortage of materials, the increased cost of energy, increased pollution levels, and the changing role of government.

 Shortage of raw materials 原料短缺

　　 The earth’s raw materials consist of the infinite　 (无限资源 ), the finite renewable( 有限可再生资源 ), and the finite nonrenewable　 (有限不可再生资源 ). Infinite resources, such as air and water, pose　 (引起 ) no immediate problem, although some groups see a long-rum danger. Finite renewable resources, such as forests and food, must be used wisely. Forestry companies are required to reforest timberland. Finite nonrenewable resources such as oil, coal, copper, silver will pose serious problems as the point of depletion approaches. Firms that make products with these resources face substantial cost increase that they may be unable to pass along　 (转移 ) to customers.

Increased energy costs 能源成本的增加

　 One finite nonrenewable resource, oil, has created serious problems for the world economy. Oil prices shot up(达到 ) from &2.23 a barrel in 1972 to $34 a barrel in 1982, creating a frantic(疯狂的 )search for practical alternative(替代 ) energy form. Coal became popular again, and companies searched for practical means to harness ( 利用 ) solar, nuclear, wind, and other forms of energy.

 Increased pollution levels 污染程度的增加

　 Research has shown that about 42% of US customers are willing to pay higher prices for “green” products. There is a large market for pollution-control solutions such as recycling centers and landfill systems. Smart companies are initiating environment-friendly moves to show their concern. For instance, 3M’s Pollution Prevention Pays program substantially reduces pollution and cost. AT&T uses a special software package to choose the least harmful materials, cut hazardous (危害的 ) waste, reduce energy use, and improve product recycling( 重复利用 ) in its operations. McDonald’s and Burger King eliminated their polystyrene cartons(苯乙烯盒 ) and now use smaller, recyclable( 可回收的 ) paper wrappings( 包装 ) and paper napkins(纸巾 ).

 Changing role of government 政府职能的变化

　 The German government is vigorous in its pursuit of environmental quality, partly because of the strong green movement in Germany and partly because of the ecological devastation ( 生态破坏 ) in the former East Germany. Many nations are doing little about pollution because they lack the funds or the political will.

Changing Roleof GovernmentChanging Roleof Government

Higher PollutionLevels

Higher PollutionLevels

NaturalEnvironment

Shortage of Raw MaterialsShortage of

Raw Materials

Increased Costsof Energy

Increased Costsof Energy

2.4 Technological environment 技术环境

One of the most dramatic forces shaping people’s lives is technology. However, every new technology is a force for “creative destruction.”( 创造性破坏 ) For instance, autos hurt the railroads, and television hurts the newspapers. Instead of moving into the new technologies, many old industries fought (压制 ) or ignored (轻视 ) them, and their businesses declined (衰落 ).

Accelerating pace of technological change

　　　 Many of today’s common products, such as personal computers and fax machines, were not available 40 year ago. The time lag( 滞后 ) between new ideas and their successful implementation is decreasing rapidly, and the time between introduction and peak production is much shorter. These technological changes are changing marketers and needs. For instance, technology enabling people to telecommute(在家通计算机终端远距离工作 )----work at home instead of traveling to offices----may reduce auto pollution, bring families closer, and create more home centered activities, affecting shopping behaviors as well as marketing performance.

Unlimited opportunities for innovation 无限的革新机会

　 Scientists today are working on a starling(惊人的 ) range of new technologies (such as biotechnology, solid-state electronics, robotics) that will revolutionize products and production processes. Companies are already harnessing( 利用 ) the power of virtual reality(虚拟现实 ), the combination of technologies that allows users to experience three dimensional, computer-generated environments through sound, sight, and touch. Virtual reality has helped firms to gather consumer reactions to new car designs, kitchen layout, and other potential offerings.

Varying R&D budgets 　变化着的研究与开发预算　 Although the United States leads the world R&D expenditures, most is earmarked( 指定用途 ) for defense (nearly 60% of $74 Billion). There is a need to transfer more of this money into other types of research.

Increased regulation of technological change 　增长着的技术革新规定　 As products become more complex, the public needs to be assured of their safety. In the United States, the Federal Food and Drug Administration must approve all drugs before they can be sold. Safety and health regulations have also increased in the areas of food, automobiles, clothing, electrical appliances, and construction. Marketers must be aware of these regulations when proposing, developing, and launching(投放市场 ) new products.

Accelerating Paceof Change

Accelerating Paceof Change

Unlimited Opportunitiesfor Innovation

Unlimited Opportunitiesfor Innovation

Issues in the TechnologicalEnvironment

Issues in the TechnologicalEnvironment

VaryingR & D Budgets

VaryingR & D Budgets

IncreasedRegulation

IncreasedRegulation

2.5 Political—legal environment 政治—法律环境

Marketing decisions are strongly affected by developments in the political and legal environments, which are composed of laws ， government, and pressure groups that influence and limit organizations and individuals.

  Legislation regulating business 对商业进行管理的立法

　 Business legislation has three main purposes: to protect firms from unfair competition, to protect consumers from unfair business practices, and to protect society from unbridled( 放纵的 ) business behavior. For example, European Community has enacted laws that cover competitive behaviors, product standards, product liability, and commercial transactions. The US has laws covering issues such as competition, product safety and liability, fair trade, and packaging and labeling.

2.6 Social—cultural environment 社会—文化环境

Society shapes our beliefs, values and norms. People absorb, almost unconsciously, a worldview that defines their relationship to themselves, others, organizations, society, nature, and the universe.

   Views of themselves 人们对自己的看法

　 People vary in their relative emphasis on self-gratification(满意 ). Today, people are more conservative: they cannot rely on continuous employment and rising income, so they are more cautious(谨慎的 ) in spending and more value-driven(价值导向 ) in purchasing.

Views of nature 人们对自然的看法

A long term trend has been humankind’s growing mastery of nature through technology. Recently people have awakened to nature’s fragility and finite resources. They recognized that nature may be destroyed by human activities. Love of nature is leading to more camping, hiking, boating and fishing. Business has responded with relevant goods to the new requirements. Food producers have found growing markets for “natural” food and healthy food.

l   Views of organizations 人们对组织的看法

People vary in the attitudes toward corporations, government agencies, trade unions, universities and other organizations. By the large, people are willing to work for these organizations. But there has been an overall decline in organizational loyalty. Companies’ downsizing has caused distrust. Many people today see work not as a source of satisfaction but as a required chore(杂事 ) to earn money to enjoy their nonwork hours.

This outlook(前景 ) has several implications. Companies need to find new way to win back consumer and employee confidence. They need to make sure that they are good corporate citizens and that their consumer messages are honest.

Views of society 人们对社会的看法

Chapter 6

Analyzing Consumer Markets and Buyer Behavior

分析消费者市场和购买行为

  The aim of marketing is to meet and satisfy target customers’ need and wants. The field of consumer behavior studies how individual, group, and organizations select, buy, use, and dispose of(处置 ) goods, service, ideas, or experiences to satisfy their needs and desires. Understanding customer behavior is never simple, because customers may say one thing but do another. They may not be in touch with their deeper motivations( 不会暴露他们的内心世界 ), and they may respond to influences and change their minds at the last minute.

Still, marketers can profit from understanding how and why customer

s buy. For example, Whirlpool’s(惠尔浦公司 ) staff anthropologists(人类学家 ) go into people’s homes, observe how they use appliances(家用电器 ), and talk with household members. Whirlpool has found that in b

usy families, women are not the only ones doing the laundry( 洗衣服 ).

Knowing this, the company’s engineers developed color-coded( 彩色控制的 ) washer and dryer controls to make it easier for kids and men to pit

ch in(操作 ).

In fact, not understanding your customer’s motivation( 动机 ), needs, and preferences can lead to major mistakes. Studying customers provides clues for developing new products, product features, prices, channels, messages, and other marketing-mix elements( 营销组合元素 ).

1 How and Why Consumers Buy? The starting point for understanding consumer buying behavior is the stimulus-response model(刺激反应模式 ) shown below. As this model shows, both marketing and environmental stimuli(刺激 ) enter the buyer’s consciousness( 意识 ). In turn, the buyer’s characteristics and decision process lead to certain purchase decisions. The marketer’s task is to understand what happens in the buyer’s consciousness between the arrival of outside stimuli and the buyer’s purchase decision.

   As this model indicates, a consumer’s buying behavior is influenced

by cultural, social, personal, and psychological factors.

Marketing stimuli---Product, Price, Place, Promotion Other stimuli---Economic, Technological, Political, Cultural

Buyer’s characteristics--- Cultural, Social, Personal, Psychological Buyer’s decision process--- Problem recognition,

Information search, Evaluation of alternatives, Purchase decision,Post purchase behavior

Buyer’s decision---Product choice, Brand choice, Dealer choice, Purchase timing, Purchase amount

1.1 Cultural factors influencing buyer behavior 影响消费者行为的文化因素

Cultural factors include culture, subculture and social classes.

  Culture 文化 --- The set of basic values, perceptions, want, and be

haviors learned from family and other important institutions. Culture is t

he most fundamental determination of a person’s wants and behavior.

文化是人类欲望和行为最基本的决定因素

Every group of society has a culture, and cultural influences on buying behavior may vary greatly from country to country. Failure to adjust to these differences can result in ineffective marketing or embarrassing mistake. For example, an American company was going to promote its products in Taiwan. In order to seek more foreign trade opportunities, they arrived in Taiwan carrying gift of green baseball caps. It was the time before Taiwan election and green was the color of the political opposition party. What was worse is that, to Taiwanese, a man wearing green cap means his wife has been unfaithful. So the company failed its trip to make more business opportunities. The head of the delegation late noted, “I don’t know whatever happened to those green caps, but the trip gave us an understanding of the extreme difference in cultures.” International marketers must understand the culture in each international market and adapt their marketing strategies accordingly.

  Marketers are always trying to find cultural shifts in order to discover new products that might be wanted. For instance, the cultural shift toward greater concern about health and fitness has created a huge industry for exercise equipment and clothing, low –fat and more natural food, and healthy and fitness services. The increased desire for leisure time has resulted in more demand for convenience products and services, such as microwaves ovens and fast food.

 Subculture 亚文化 --- Each culture consists of smaller subcultures that provide more specific identification and socialization for their members. Subcultures include nationalities, religions, racial groups( 民族 , 宗教 , 种族群体 ), and geographic regions(地理区域 ). Many subcultures make up important market segments, leading marketers to tailor products and marketing programs to their needs.

Hyatt Hotel A practice widely followed in China, Hong Kong, and Singapore, feng shui means “wind and water.” Practitioners of feng shui, or geomancers(地占者 , 地卜者 ), will recommend the most favorable conditions for any venture, particularly the placement of office buildings and the arrangement of desks, doors, and other items within. To have good feng shui, a building should face the water and be flanked ( 在 ... 的侧面) by mountains. It also should not block the view of the mountain spirits. The Hyatt hotel in Singapore was designed without feng shui, and, as a result, had to be redesigned to boost business. Originally the front desk was parallel to the doors and road, and this was thought to lead to wealth flowing out. Furthermore, the doors were facing northwest, which easily let undesirable spirit in. the geomancer recommended design alterations so that wealth could be retained and undesirable spirit kept out( 以便留住财富和赶走鬼 ) 。

 Social class 社会阶层

Social classes are relatively homogeneous and enduring divisions in a society. They are hierarchically ordered and their members share similar values, interests, and behavior. 社会阶层实在一个社会中具有相对的同质性和持久性的群体，它们是按等级排列的。每一个成员具有类似的价值观、兴趣爱好和行为方式

Social classes reflect income as well as occupation, education, and other indicators. Those within each social class tend to behave more alike than do persons from different classes. Also, within the culture, persons are perceived as occupying inferior or superior positions according to social class （还有，在文化上，人们根据社会阶层来判断各自社会中地位的高低） . Social class is indicated by a cluster of variables rather than by any single variable.

Social classes differ in dress, speech patterns, leisure activity, home furnishings(家具 ), automobiles and others. Social classes also differ in media preferences, with upper-class consumers preferring magazines and books and lower-class consumers preferring television. When watching TV, upper-class consumers prefer news and drama, and lower-class consumers prefer soap operas and spot programs.

Subculture

Social Class

Buyer

Cultural FactorsInfluencing Buyers

Culture

Subculture

Social Class

Buyer

1.2 Social factors influencing buyer behavior 影响消费者行为的社会因素

Consumer’s behavior also is influenced by social factors, such as the consumer’s small groups, family, and social roles and status.

1） Reference group 相关群体

Reference group consist o all of the groups that have a direct (face-to-face) or indirect influence on a person’s attitudes or behavior. Groups that have a direct influence on a person are called memberships. 相关群体指那些直接 ( 面对面 ) 或间接影响人的看法和行为的群体。凡对一个人有直接影响的群体称为成员群体。

Although marketers try to identify target customers’ reference group, the level of reference-group influence varies among products and brands. Manufacturers of products and brands with strong group influence must reach and influence the opinion leader ( 意见领导者 )in these reference groups.

An opinion leader is the person in informal product related communications who offers advice or information about a product or product category. 意见领导者是对一个特定的产品或产品种类非正式地进行传播、提供意见或信息的人。

2 ） Family 家庭

The family is the most important consumer-buying organization in society, and it has been researched extensively. From parents, a person acquires an orientation toward religion, policies, and economics as well as a sense of personal ambition( 个人抱负 ), self-worth(自尊 ), and love.

The roles vary widely in different cultures and social classes. Vietnamese American(越南裔美国人 ), for example, are more likely to adhere to(依附 )the model in which the man makes large-purchase decision.

In the United States, husband-wife involvement has traditionally varied widely by product category. The wife has traditionally acted as the family’s main purchasing agent, especially for food, sundries( 杂物 ), and clothing items. In the case of expensive products and services like vacations or housing, husbands and wives have engaged in more joint decision making. Marketers need to determine which member normally has the greatest influence in choosing various products. Often it is a matter of who has more power and expertise( 专门知识 ).

Cadillac Women now make up 34% of the luxury car market, and

automakers are paying attention. Male car designers at Cadillac are goin

g about their work with paper clip(纸夹 ) on their fingers to simulate( 体验 ) what it feels like to operate buttons, knobs, and other interior feature

s( 内饰功能 ) with longer fingernails. The Cadillac Catera features an ai

r-conditioned glove box to preserve(储存 ) such items as lipstick and fil

m. Under the hood, yellow markings highlight( 使显著 ) where fluid fills

go.

General Motors Children may also have a strong influence on fami

ly buying decision. GM-Chevrolet( 通用汽车公司 -雪佛莱 ) recognizes

these influences in marketing its Chevy Venture minivan( 小汽车 ). For

example it ran ads to woo(拉拢 ) these “back-seat consumers” in Sports

Illustrated Kids (“儿童运动指南”杂志 ), which attracts mostly 8-14 y

ears-old boys. Venture’s brand manager said “We are kidding(哄骗 ) ou

rselves when we think kids are not aware of brands.”

3) Roles an statuses 角色和地位 A person participates in many groups, such as family, club, or organiz

ations. The person’s position in each group can be defined in terms of rol

e and status. A role consists of the activities that a person is expected to

perform according to the persons around them.

Social FactorsInfluencing Buyers

Family Family Reference groupsReference groups

Roles and statusesRoles and statuses

1.3 Personal factors influencing buyer behavior 影响消费者购买行为的个人因素

Cultural and social factors are just two of the four major factors that i

nfluence consumer buying behavior. The third factor is personal charact

eristics, including the buyer’s age, stage in life cycle; occupation, econo

mic circumstances, lifestyle; and personality, and self-concept.

Personal Influences

Occupation andeconomic factorsOccupation and

economic factors

Lifestyle(click here for Quick Quiz)

Lifestyle(click here for Quick Quiz)

Personality and self-concept

Personality and self-concept

Age and family life

cycle stage

1) Age and stage in the life style 年龄和生命周期阶段

People buy different goods and services over a lifetime. They eat baby food in the early years, most foods in the growing and mature years, and special diets in the later years. Taste in clothes, furniture, and recreation is also age-related, which is why smart marketers are attentive to the influence of age.

Similarly, consumption is shaped by the family life cycle. The traditional family life cycle covers a series of stages in adult lives, starting with independence from parents and continuing into marriage, child rearing empty net( 空巢） years, retirement, and later life.

Marketers often choose a specific family life-cycle group as their target market. Yet target households are not a always family based: There are also single households, gay households （同性恋家庭） , and cohabitor households(非婚同居家庭） . Marketer s should pay attention to how changing life circumstance--divorce, widowhood, re-marriage-- influence consumption behavior.

2) Occupation and economic circumstances职业和经济状况

Occupation also influences a person’s consumption pattern. A blue-collar worker will buy work clothes and lunchboxes, while a company president will buy expensive suits and country club membership( 乡村俱乐部会员 ).For this reason, the marketers should identify the occupational groups that are more interested in their products and services, and consider specializing their products for certain occupations. Software manufacturers, for example, have developed special programs for lawyer, physicians(医生 ), and other occupational groups.

A person’s economic situation will affect product choice. Thus marketers must track(跟踪 ) these, and if recession( 经济衰退 ) is likely, marketers can redesign, reposition and reprise their products to offer more value to target customers.

3) Lifestyle 生活方式 People from the same subculture, social class and occupation may actually lead quite different lifestyles.

Lifestyle 生活方式 --A lifestyle is the person’s pattern of living in the world as expressed in activities, interests, and opinions. Lifestyle portrays the “whole person” interacting with his or her environment. 生活方式是一个人在世界上的生活模式 , 表现为他的活动、兴趣和观点。生活方式描绘出一个人与其所在环境相互作用的“全人”。

4) Personality and self-concept 个性和自我概念

Each person has a distinct personality that influences buying behavior.

 Personality 个性 -----Personality refers to the distinguishing psychological characteristics that lead to relatively consistent and enduring responses to environment.

个性是指一个人所特有的心理特征，它导致一个人对他或她所处的环境相对一致和持续不断的反应 .

Personality is usually described in terms of such traits( 特征） as sel

f-confidence, dominance （控制欲） , autonomy （自主） , deference

（顺从） , sociability （社会交际 ), defensiveness （保守） , and adap

tability( 适应） . Personality can be useful in analyzing consumer behav

ior, provided that personality types can be classified accurately and that s

trong correlations （相互关系） exist between certain personality types

and product or brand choices. For instance, a computer company might d

iscover that many prospects show high self-confidence, dominance, and

autonomy, suggesting that computer ads should appeal to these traits( 特性 ) .

1.4 Psychological factors influencing buyer behavior 影响消费者购买行为的心理因素

Psychological factors are the fourth major influence on consumer buying behavior, in general, a person’s buying choices are influenced by the psychological factors of motivation; perception; learning; belief and attitude.

1) Motivation 动机

We know that Anna Flores became interested in buying a camera.

Why? What is she really seeking? What needs is she trying to satisfy?

A person has many needs at given time. Some needs are biogenic

( 生理状况 ); They arise from physiological( 生理学的 ) states of tensio

n such as hunger, thirst, and discomfort. Other needs are psychogenic

(心理状况 ); They arise from psychological states of tension such as the

need for recognition( 重视 ), esteem(尊重 ), or belonging(归属 ). A nee

d becomes a motive when it is aroused to a sufficient level of intensity.

Motive is a need that is sufficiently pressing to drive the person to act. 动机是一种需要，它能够产生足够的压力去驱使人行动。

Abraham Maslow‘s theory(亚伯拉罕 马斯洛动机理论 )---- Abraham Maslow sought to explain why people are driven by particular needs at particular times. His theory is that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy （层次） , from the most to the least pressing （迫切） . In order of importance, these five categories are physiological needs( 生理需要 ), safety needs(安全需要 ), social needs(社会需要 ), esteem(尊重需要 ) and self-actualization needs(自我实现需要 ). A consumer will try to satisfy the most important need first; when that need is satisfied, the person will try to satisfy the next-most-important need.

For example, starving(饥饿 ) people (physiological need) will not tak

e an interest in the latest happening in the art world (self-actualization ne

ed). Nor in how they are seen or esteemed by others (social needs). Nor e

ven in whether they are breathing clean air (safety needs). But as each im

portant need is satisfied, the next most important need will come into pla

y.

Maslow’sHierarchy of Needs

Self-actualization

(self-realization)

Self-actualization

(self-realization)

55

Esteem needs(self-esteem, recognition)

Esteem needs(self-esteem, recognition)

44

Safety needs(security, protection)

Safety needs(security, protection)

22

Social needs(sense of belonging, love)

Social needs(sense of belonging, love)

33

Psychological needs(food, water, shelter)

Psychological needs(food, water, shelter)

11

2) Perception 认知

A motivated person is ready to act, yet how that person actually acts is influenced by his or her perception of the situation.

Perception is the process by which an individual selects, organizes, and interprets information inputs to create a meaningful picture of the world.

认知是个人选择、组织并解释信息投入，以便创造一个有意义的个人世界图象的过程

Perception depends on not only physical stimuli, but also on the stimuli’s relation to the surrounding field and on conditions within the individual. Individuals can have different perceptions of the same object because of three perceptual processes: selective attention( 选择性注意 ), selective distortion( 选择性扭曲 ) and selective retention( 选择性保留 ).

People are exposed to great amount of stimuli everyday; most of these

stimuli are screened out—a process called Selective attention( 选择性注意 ). The result is that marketers have to work hard to attract consumers’

attention.

Through research, marketers learned that people are more likely to noti

ce stimuli that relate to the current needs; this is why car shoppers notice

car ads but not appliance ads. Furthermore, people are more likely to noti

ce stimuli that they anticipate—such as foods promoted on a food Web si

te. And people are more likely to notice stimuli whose deviations are lar

ge in relation to the normal size of the stimuli, such as a banner ad offeri

ng a $10 discount (not just $5). （例如减价 100 美元而不是减价 5 美元的广告条）

Even noticed stimuli do not always come across the way that marketers intend. Selective distortion( 选择性扭曲 ) describes the tendency of people to interpret information in a way that will support what they already believe. Selective distortion means that marketers must try to understand the mind-set of customers and how these will affect interpretations of advertising and sales information.

People also will forget much that they learn. They tend to retain infor

mation that supports their attitudes and beliefs. Because of Selective rete

ntion( 选择性保留 ), Because of selective exposure, distortion and reten

tion, marketers have to work hard to get their messages through. This fac

t explains why marketers use so much drama and repetition in sending m

essages to their markets.

3) Learning 学习

  Learning involves changes in an individual’s behavior that arise from experience.

学习是指由于经验而引起的个人行为的改变。

Most human behavior is learned. Theorists believe that learning is produced through the interplay( 相互影响 ) of drives(驱使力 ), stimuli(刺激物 ), cues(诱因 ), response(反应 ), and reinforcement( 强化 ).

Here person has a drive for self-actualization to become a photogapher. A drive(驱动 ) is a strong internal stimulus that calls for action. Her drive becomes a motive( 动机 ) when it is directed toward a particular stimulus object(刺激物 ), in this case, a camera. Her response to the idea of buying a camera is conditioned by the surrounding cues. Cues( 提示物 ) are minor( 次要的 )stimuli that determine when, where, and how the person responds. Seeing camera in a shop window, hearing of a special sale price, and receiving her husband’s support are all cues that can influence h

er response to her interest in buying a camera.

4) Belief and attitude 信念和态度

Through doing and learning, people acquire beliefs and attitudes that, in turn, influence buying behavior.  Belief 信念 ---- A belief is a descriptive thought that a person holds about something. 信念是指一个人对某些事物所持有的描绘性思想。 Belief may be based on knowledge, opinion, or faith, and they may or may not carry an emotional charge(因素 ). Of course, manufacturers are very interested in the belief that people have about their products and services. These beliefs make up product and brand images, and people act on their images. If some beliefs are wrong and inhibit purchase, the manufacturer will want to launch a campaign to correct these beliefs.

Certain countries enjoy a reputation for certain goods: Japan for automobiles and consumer electronics; the United States for high-tech innovations, soft drinks, toys, cigarettes, and jeans; France for wine, perfume, and luxury goods. Chinese consumers in Hong Kong believe that American products as prestigious( 有名望的 ), Japanese products as innovative, and Chinese products as cheap. A company has several options when its products are competitively priced but their place of origin turns off consumers. The company can consider co-production with a foreign company that has a better name. Korea could make a fine leather jacket that it sends to Italy for finishing. Or the company can adopt a strategy to achieve world-class quality in the local industry, as is the case with Belgian chocolates, Polish ham, Columbian coffee.

 Attitude 态度 ----An attitude is a person’s enduring favorable or unfavorable evaluations, emotional feelings, and action tendencies towards some object or idea. 态度是指一个人对某些事物或观念长期持有的好与坏的认识上的评价、情感上的感受和行为倾向。

People have attitudes toward almost everything: religion, politics, clothes, music and food. Attitudes put them into a frame of mind of liking or disliking an object, moving toward or away similar objects.

Psychological Factors

Motivation• Freud• Maslow• Herzberg

Beliefs andAttitudes

Perception• Selective attention• Selective distortion• Selective retention

Learning• Drive• Stimuli• Cues• Responses• Reinforcement

2   The Consumer Buying Decision Process 购买决策过程 

Marketers have to go beyond the various influences on buyers and d

evelop an in-depth understanding of how consumers actually make their

buying decisions. Specifically, marketers must identify who makes the b

uying decision, the types of buying decisions, and the stages in the buyin

g process.

 

2.1 Buying roles 购买的角色 It is easy to identify the buyer for many products. Men normally choo

se their shaving equipment, and women choose cosmetics. We can distin

guish five roles that people might play in buying decision:

1) Initiator 发起者

An initiator first suggests the idea of buying the product or service.发

起者是指首先提出或提出购买某一产品或服务的人。 2) Influencer 影响者 An influencer is the person whose view or advice influences the

decision. 影响者是指其看法或建议对最终决策具有一定影响的人 3) Decider 决策者

A decider actually decides whether to buy , what to buy, how to buy,

or where to buy. 决策者是指在是否买、为何买、如何买、在哪买 等方面做出完全的或部分的最后决定的人。

4) Buyer 购买者

A buyer makes the actual purchase. 购买者指实际采购的人

5) User 使用者

A user consumes or uses the product or service 使用者指实际消费或是用产品或服务的人

2.2 The stages of the buying decision process 购买决策中的各个阶段

In addition to examining buying roles and behavior, smart companies

research the buying decision process involving in their product category.

They ask consumers when they first became acquainted with the product

category and brands, what their brand beliefs are, how involved they are

with the product, how they make their brand choice, and how satisfied th

ey are after purchase.

The following Figure shows a five-stage model of the typical buying pr

ocess. Starting with problem recognition, the consumer passes through th

e stage of information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decisi

on, and post-purchase behavior.

Consumer BuyingProcess

Problemrecognition

Problemrecognition

Informationsearch

Informationsearch

Evaluation ofalternatives

Evaluation ofalternatives

Purchasedecision

Purchasedecision

Postpurchasebehavior

Postpurchasebehavior

Stage 1: Problem recognition 阶段 1 ：认识问题

The buying process starts when the buyer recognizes a problem or need. This need can be triggered(引起 ) by internal stimuli (such as feeling hunger or thirst) or external stimuli (such as seeing an ad) that then becomes a drive.

Anna Flores, for instance, passes a bakery( 面包店 ) and sees fresh baked bread that stimulates her hunger; she admires a neighbor’s new car; or she watches a television ad for a Hawaiian vacation. After a day’s busy work, Anna feels she need a new hobby( 嗜好 ) and after talking with her friends about photography, she think of camera.

By gathering information from a number of consumers, marketers can

identify the most frequent stimuli that spark interest in a product categor

y. They can then develop marketing strategies that trigger consumer inter

est and lead to the second stage in the buying process.

Stage 2: Information search 阶段 2 ：信息收集

An aroused consumer who recognizes a problem will be inclined to search for more information. In this example, Anna Flores may become more receptive to information about cameras. She pays attention to camera ads, camera used by friends, and camera conversations. Or Anna may go into active information search, in which she looks for reading material, calls friends and gathers information in other ways. The amount of searching she does will depend on the strength of her drive, the amount of information she starts with, the ease of obtaining more information, the value she places on additional information, and the satisfaction she gets from searching.

The customer can obtain information from the following sources:

Personal source 个人来源 --family, friends, neighbor, acquaintances(熟人 )

Commercial source 商业来源 --advertising, Web sites, salespersons, dealers, packaging, displays

Public source 公共来源 --mass media, consumer-rating organizations(消费者评审组织 )

Experiential source 经验来源— handling, examining, using the products

People often ask others—friends, relatives, and acquaintances(熟人 ), professional —for recommendations concerning a product or service. Thus companies have a strong interest in building such word-of-mouth (口头的 ) source. These sources have two chief advantages. First, they are convincing: word-of-mouth is the only promotion method that is of customers, by customers, and for customers. Having loyal, satisfied customers that brag about (夸张 ) doing business with you is the dream of every business owner. Not only are satisfied customers repeat buyers, but they are also walking, talking billboard for your business, second, the costs are low. Keeping in touch with satisfied customers and turning them into word-of –mouth advocates cost the business relatively little.

Stage 3: Evaluation of alternatives 阶段 3 ：可供选择的方案评价

Some basic concepts will help us understand consumer evaluation processes:

 First, the consumer is trying to satisfy a need.

 Second, the consumer is looking for certain benefits from the product solution.

 Third, the consumer sees each product as a bundle of attributes(属性 ) with varying abilities of delivering the benefits sought(寻找 ) to satisfy this need.

Stage 4: Purchase decision 阶段 4 ：购买决策

In the evaluation stage, the consumer ranks brands and forms purchase intentions. Generally, the consumer’s purchase decision will be to buy the most preferred brand, but two factors can come between the purchase intention and the purchase decision. The first factor is the Attitude of others(他人的态度 ), The second factor is Unanticipated situational factors ( 未预期情况因素的影响 ).

The consumer may form a purchase intention based on factors such as expected income, expected price, and expected product benefits.

However, unexpected events may change the purchase intention. Anna Flores may lose her job, some other purchase may become more urgent, or a friend may report being disappointed in her preferred camera. Or a close competitor may drop its price. Thus, preferences and even purchase intentions do not always result in actual purchase choice.

Stage 5: Post purchase behavior 阶段 5 ：购后行为

The marketer’s job does not end when the product is bought. After purchasing the product, the consumer will be satisfied or dissatisfied and will engage post purchase behavior of interest to the marketer.

 1) Post purchase satisfaction 购后满意

The buyer’s satisfaction with a purchase is a function of the closeness between the buyer’s expectation and the product’s perceived performance. If performance falls short of expectation, the buyer is disappointed; if it meets expectation, the buyer is satisfied; if it exceeds expectation, the buyer is delighted.

These feelings make a difference in whether the customer buys the product again and talks favorably or unfavorably about the product to others. The larger the gap between expectations and performance, the greater the consumer’s dissatisfaction. Boeing’s salespeople tend to be conservative when they estimate the potential benefit of their aircraft.

They almost always underestimate fuel efficiency—they promise a 5% saving that turns out to be 8%. Customers are delighted with better-than-expected performance; they buy again and tell other potential customers that Boeing lives up to its promise.

2) Post purchase actions 购后行动

The customer’s satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the product after purchase will influence subsequent behavior. These feelings make a difference in whether the customer buys the product again and talks favorably or unfavorably about the product to others. Satisfied consumers will be more likely to purchase the product again. For instance, data on automobile brand choice show a high correlation between being highly satisfied with the last brand bought and intention to rebuy the brand. One survey showed that 75% of Toyota buyers were satisfied and 75% intended to buy a Toyota again; 35% of Chevrolet buyers were highly satisfied and about 35% intended to buy Chevrolet again. The satisfied customer will also tend to say good things about the brand to others. Marketers say: “Our advertisement is a satisfied customer.”

Dissatisfied consumers, on the other hand, may abandon or return the product; take public action by complaining to the company;, going to a lawyer, or complaining to government agencies and other group; or take private actions such as nor buying the product or warning friends.

On average, a satisfied customer tells 3 people about a good product experience, a dissatisfied customer gripes to 11 people. In fact, one study showed that 13% of the people who had a problem with an organization complained about the company to more than 20 people. Clearly, bad words of mouth travels farther and faster than good words of mouth and can quickly damage consumer attitude about a company and its products.

Therefore, a company would be wise to measure customer satisfaction regularly. Companies should set up systems that encourage customers to complain. In this way the company can learn how well it is doing and how it can improve. The 3M Company claims that over two-thirds of its new products ideas come from listening to customer complaints. But listening is not enough—the company also respond constructively to the complaints it receives.

Post purchase communications to buyers have been shown to result in fewer product returns and order cancellations. Computer companies, for example, can send a letter to new computer owners congratulating them on having selected a fine computer. They can place ads showing satisfied brand owners. They can solicit customer suggestions for improvements and list the location of available services. They can send a magazine containing articles describing new computer applications.

3) Post purchase use and disposal 购后使用和处置

See the following picture.

Get rid of ittemporarily

Get rid of itpermanently

Keep it

Give itaway

Trade it

Sell it

Throw itaway

Loan it

Rent it

Store it

Convertto new

purpose

Use fororiginalpurpose

To beused

To be(re)sold

Direct toconsumer

Tointermediary

Throughmiddleman

Product

How Customers Use orDispose of Products

Chapter 9

Identifying Market Segments and Selecting Target Markets

辨认市场细分和选择目标市场 

A company can not serve everyone in broad markets such as greeting

cards (for consumers) and computers (for business), because the custome

rs are too numerous and diverse in their buying requirements. This is wh

y marketers look for specific market segments that they can serve more e

ffectively. Instead of scattering their marketing efforts (a “shotgun” appr

oach—散弹式方法 ), they focus on the buyer whom they have the great

est chance of satisfying (a “rifle” approach— 来复枪式方法 )

Target marketing requires marketers to take three major steps:

目标市场营销需要经过三个主要步骤： Segmentation—Targeting---Positioning 细分 -- 目标 -- 定位 , 即 STP.1) Identify and profile distinct groups of buyers who might require separate products or marketing mixes (market segmentation); 按照购买者所需要的产品或营销组合，将一个市场细分为若干个不同的购买者群体，并描述他们的轮廓（市场细分）；2) Select one or more market segments to enter (market targeting); 选择一个或几个准备进入的细分市场（市场目标化）；3) Establish and communicate the products’ key distinctive benefits in the market (market positioning). 建立与市场传播该产品的关键特征与利益（市场定位）。

Steps in Market Segmentation, Targeting,and Positioning

Steps in Market Segmentation, Targeting,and Positioning

1. Identifysegmentationvariables andsegment themarket

2. Develop profiles ofresultingsegments

MarketMarketSegmentationSegmentation

3. Evaluateattractivenessof eachsegment

4. Select thetargetsegment(s)

MarketMarketTargetingTargeting

5. Identifypossible

positioningconcepts foreach target

segment

6. Select,develop, andcommunicate

the chosenpositioning

concept

MarketMarketPositioningPositioning

1 Using Market Segmentation 使用市场细分

1.1 Levels of market segmentation 市场细分的层次 Market segmentation is an effort to increase a company’s precisio

n marketing. The starting point of any segmentation discussion is mass marketing. In mass marketing the seller engages in the mass production, mass distribution, and mass promotion of one product for all buyers. Today’s consumers can shop in mega malls, superstore, or specialty shops. They’re bombarded( 大量给予） with messages delivered via media ranging from TV, radio magazines, newspapers to newcomers like the Internet, fax, and e-mail. No wonder some have claimed that mass marketing is dying. Not surprisingly, many companies are retreating from mass marketing and turning to segmented marketing.

 

Four levels: 四种层次 :

1) Segment marketing 细分营销

Market segment consists of a large identifiable group within a market, with similar wants, purchasing power, geographical location, buying attitudes, or buying habit.

市场细分片由在一个市场上有可识别的相同的欲望、购买能力 、地理位置、购买态度和购买习惯的大量人群组成。

　　 For example, an automaker may identify four broad segmentations in the car market: buyers who primarily seeking (1) basic transportation, (2) high performance, (3) luxury, or (4) safety.

　 Because the wants of segment members are similar but not identical, some scholars urge marketers to present flexible market offerings instead of one standard offering to all of a segment’s members. A flexible market offering consists of the product and service elements that all segment members value, plus discretionary opinions (for an additional charge) that some members value. (灵活的市场供应包括了细分市场中的所有成员所重视的产品和服务基本要素，再加上细分市场中部分成员的可选要素（可增加收费 ).

　 For example, Delta Airlines offers economy passengers a seat, food, and soft drinks, but it charges extra for alcoholic beverages.

2) Niche marketing 补缺营销

　 A niche is a more narrowly defined group, typically a small market whose needs are not being well served. 补缺是更窄地确定某些群体 , 一般来说 , 这是一个小市场并且它的需要没有被服务好。

　 Marketer usually identify niche by dividing a segment into subsegment or by defining a group seeking a distinctive mix of benefits. For example, the segment of heavy smokers includes two niches: those are trying to stop smoking and those who don’t care. 　

3) Local marketing 本地化营销

Target marketing is leading to some marketing programs that are tailored to the needs and want of local customer groups (trading areas, neighborhoods, even individual stores).

目标营销正导致专为本地顾客群体（贸易地区、邻近区域，甚至个性化商店）的需求和需要量身定做的营销方案的出现。

Retailers such as Sears and Wal Mart routinely customize each store’s merchandise and promotions to match its specific clientele.

Proponents(赞同者 ) of local marketing see national advertising as wasteful because it fails to address needs （因为这不能满足本地化的要求） . Opponents argue that local marketing drives up(增大） manufacturing and marketing costs by reducing economies of scale. Logistical（物流） problems become magnified when companies try to meet varying local requirements, and a brand’s overall image might be diluted（淡化，削弱） if the products and massage vary in different localities.

4) Individual marketing 个别化营销

The ultimate level of segmentation leads to “segments of one”, customized marketing,” or “one-to-one marketing.” 市场细分的最后一个层次是：“细分到人”、“定制营销”或“一对一营销”。

In the past centuries, consumers were served as individuals: the tailor fitted suits and the cobbler(鞋匠 ) designed shoes for each individual. Now technology is enabling companies to mass-customize their offerings. Mass customization( 大规模定制 ) is a company’s ability to prepare individual designed products, programs, and communications on a mass basis to meet each customer’s requirements.

Mattel Starting in 1998, girls were able to log onto Barbie.com and

design their own Barbie Pal(伙伴 ). They choose the dolls skin tone(色调 ), eye color, hairdo(发型 ) and hair color, clothes, accessories(饰品 ),

and name. They even fill out a questionnaire(问卷 ) detailing their doll’

s likes and dislikes. When Barbie’s Pal arrives with the mail, girls find t

he doll’s name on the packaging along with a computer-generated paragr

aph about her personality.

1.2 Effective segmentation 有效的细分

Clearly, there are many ways to segment a market, but not all segmentations are effective. For example, buyers of salt could be divided into blond hair and black hair customers. But hair color obviously does not affect the purchase of salt. Furthermore, if all salt buyers bought the same amount of salt each month, believed that all salt is the same, and wanted to pay the same price, the company would not benefit from segmenting this market. To be useful, market segments must be:

1) Measurable 可衡量性— The size, purchasing power and profit of the segment can be measured. Certain segmentation variables are difficult to measure. For example, there are 3.5 million left-handed people in the United States—almost equaling the entire population of Canada. Yet few products are targeted toward this left-handed segment. The major problem may be that the segment is hard to identify and measure. There are no data on the demographic of lefties. And the U.S. Census(人口普查 ) Bureau does not keep track of left-handedness in its surveys.

2) Substantial 尺度性 ---The segments are large and profitable enough to serve. A segment should be the largest homogeneous group worth going after with a tailored marketing program. It would not pay, for example, for an automobile manufacturer to develop cars for people who are shorter than 1 m.

3) Accessible 可接近性 ---The segments can be effectively reached and served. Suppose

4) Differential 差别性 ----The segments are conceptually distinguishable and respond differently to different marketing mix elements and programs. If married and unmarried women respond similarly to a sale on perfume, they do not constitute separate segment.

5) Actionable 行动可能性 ---Effective programs can be formulated for attracting and serving the segment. For example, although one small airline identified seven market segments, its staff was too small to develop separate marketing programs for each segment.

Effective SegmentationExplain what each of the characteristics

of successful market segments:

Measurable Measurable SubstantialSubstantial

AccessibleAccessible

DifferentialDifferential ActionableActionable

2  Segmenting Consumer and Business Markets 细分消费者和企业市场 2.1 Bases for segmenting consumer markets 细分消费者市场的基础

1) Geographical segmentation 地理细分

　　 Geographic segmentation calls for dividing the market into different geographical units such as nation, states (provinces), regions, counties, or neighborhoods.

　　 For example, a company that sells products throughout the EU will need reflect the different language spoken in the labeling of its products.

To use geographical segmentation, marketers divide the total market into groups according to location or other geographic criteria such as population density or climate. For example, differences among nations may make segmentation by country useful. In China, for instance, air conditioners are such a luxury that Chinese buyers want a very sophisticated model. To serve the Chinese market, Fedders developed a new model that was stylish, lightweight, energy-efficient, and offered such features as a remote control.

2)   Demographic segmentation 人文细分   Age and life-cycle stage 年龄和生命周期阶段

For instance, Kodak has begun selling single use cameras to kids. These cameras are packed with an envelope to mail the film back to Kodak for development. The goal is to make kids independent; they needn’t ask their mom to get their film processed. Mom also won’t see the photos they took. Nevertheless, age and life cycle can be tricky variables. For example, the Ford Motor Company designed it Mustang automobile to appeal to young people who wanted an inexpensive sport car. But Ford found that the car was being purchased by all age groups it the realized that its target market was not only the chronologically( 按年代顺序排列地 ) young but also the psychologically young.

  Gender 性别

The automobile industry also uses gender segmentation extensively.

Women buy half of all new cars sold in the United States and influence

80% of new purchasing decisions. So women have become an importa

nt potential car market in US. But women have different frames, less u

pper-body strength, and more safety concerns. To answer these issues,

automakers are designing cars with hoods and trunks that are easier to

open, seat belts that fit women better, and an increased emphasis on sa

fety features, like air bags.

  Income 收入

Income has long been used by marketers of products and services such as automobiles, clothing, cosmetics, financial services and travels. However, income does not always predict the best consumer for a given product. The most economic cars are not bought by the really poor, but rather by those who think of themselves as poor relative to their status aspirations; medium-price and expensive cars tend to be purchased by the over privileged segments of each social class( 由各个阶层中拥有特权的人士所购买 ).

Many companies target affluent (rich) consumers with luxury goods. However not all companies use income segmentation to target the affluent. Many retailers also target people with middle and low incomes, such as Family Dollar, Dollar General, and Dollar Three store. When Family Dollar tried to seek locations for new stores, it look for lower-middle-class neighborhoods where people wear less expensive shoes and drive old cars that drip a lot of oil. The typical Family Dollar customer’s household earns about $25,000 a year, and the average customer spends only $8 per trip to the store. Yet the store’s low-income strategy has made it one of the most profitable discount chains in the country.

Social class 社会阶层 Social class strongly influences preference in cars, clothing, hom

e furnishings, leisure activities, reading habits, and retailers, which

is why many firms design products for special social classes. Howe

ver, the tastes of social classes can change over time. The 1990s w

ere about ostentation (摆阔 ,铺张 ) for the upper classes; affluent

tastes now run toward more utilitarian (实利的— practical) produ

cts.

3)   Psychographic segmentation 心理细分

  Lifestyle 生活方式

Meat would seem like an unlikely product for lifestyle segmentation, but one forward looking( 有见地的 ) grocery store found that segmenting its self-service meat products by lifestyle had a big payoff (good performance— 业绩 ).

Kroger Company

Walk by the refrigerated self-service meat cases of most grocery stores and you will usually find the offering grouped by type of meat. Pork is here, lamb is there, and chicken is over there. A Nashville, Tennessee-based Kroger supermarket decided to experiment and offer groupings of different meat by lifestyle. For instance, the store had a section called “Meat in minutes (速食肉类 ) ,” one called “Cookin’ Lite (厨房原肉类 ),” another, filled with prepared products like hot dogs and ready-made hamburger patties (肉饼 ), called “Kids Love This Stuff (孩子们的最爱 ),” and one called “I Like to Cook ( 我喜欢烹饪 ).” By focusing on lifestyle needs, Kroger’s test store encouraged habitual beef and pork buyers to consider lamb and veal (小牛肉 )as well. Also, the 16-foot service case, which regularly pulled in $10,000 a week, has seen an improvement in both sales and profits.

  Personality 个性

Marketers can endow (赋予 ) their products with brand personality tha

t corresponds to target consumer personalities. For instance, in the late 1

950’, Fords and Chevrolets were promoted as having different personalit

ies. Ford buyers were identified as independent, impulsive( 冲动 ), alert

of change(留心改变 ), and self-confident. Chevrolet owners were conse

rvative, thrifty(节俭 ), prestige-conscious( 关心声誉 ), and seeking to a

void extreme(力求避免极端 ).

4) Behavioral segmentation 行为细分 Behavioral segmentation divides buyers into group based their knowledge of, attitude toward, use of, or response of a product.  Occasions时机— buyers can be grouped according to occasions when they get the idea to buy, actually make their purchase, or use the purchased item. Some holidays, like Mother’s day and father’s day, were established partly to increase the sale of candy and flowers. During New Year’s Day, there are more sales of greeting cards. .  Benefits 利益 ----buyers can be classified according to the benefits they seek. One study of travelers uncovered three benefit segments: those who travel to be with their family, those who travel for adventure or educational purposes, and people who enjoy the “gambling”(赌博) and “fun” aspect(方面 ) of travel.

 User status 使用者状况 ---markets can be segmented into groups of nonusers, ex-users( 曾经使用者 ), potential users, first-time users, and regular users of a product. The company’s market position also influences its focus. Market leaders focus on attracting potential users, whereas small firms try to lure users away from the leaders.

 Usage rate 使用率— a market can also be segmented into light, medium, and heavy product users.

For example, a recent study of US-branded ice cream buyers showed that heavy users make up only 18% of all buyers but consume 55% of all the ice cream sold. On average, these heavy users pack away 13 gallons of ice cream per year versus only 2.5 gallons for light users.

Similarly, a travel industry study showed that frequent users of travel

agents for vacation travel are more involved, more innovative, more

knowledgeable, and more likely to be opinion leaders than less frequent

users. Heavy users take more trips, and gather more information about

vacation travel from newspapers, magazines, books and travel shows.

Clearly, a travel agency would benefit by directing its marketing efforts

toward heavy users, perhaps using telemarketing and special promotions.

Loyalty status 忠诚状况A market can also be segmented by consumer loyalty. Consumer can be loyal to brands (Tides), stores (Wal-Mart), and companies (Ford). Buyers can be divided into groups according to their degree of loyalty. Some consumers are completely loyal—they buy one brand all the time. Others are somewhat loyal—they are loyal to two or three brands of a given product or favor one brand while sometimes buying others. Still other buyers show no loyalty to any brand. They either want something different each time they buy or they buy whatever’s on sale.

Bases for Segmenting Consumer Markets

Explain how each factor affects a company’s marketing strategy.

GeographicNations, states, regions, counties, cities, neighborhoods

Demographic Age, gender, family size, life cycle, race, occupation, income

Bases for Segmenting Consumer Markets

PsychographicLifestyle or personality

BehavioralOccasions, benefits, uses, attitudes, loyalty, buyer-readiness

Multi-AttributeSmaller and better defined target groups, geoclustering

3 Marketing Targeting Strategies  3.1 Evaluating market segmentation 评估细分市场 In evaluating different market segments, the firm must look at two factors: (1) the segment’s overall attractiveness, and (2) the company’s objectives and resources. First, the company must ask whether a potential segment has the characteristics that make it generally attractive, such as size, growth, profitability, scale economies(规模经济 ), and low risk. Second, the firm must consider whether investing in the segments makes sense according to the firm’s objective and resources. Some attractive segments could be dismissed(摒弃 ) because they do not mesh with( 相合 )the company’s long-run objectives; some should be dismissed if the company lacks one or more of the competences needed to offer superior value.

3.2  Selecting and entering market segments 选择和进入细分市场

Having evaluated different segments, the company can consider five patterns of target market selection:

The company can consider five patterns of target market selection: 公司可考虑 5 种目标市场模式：

1) Single-segment concentration 密集单一市场

Many companies concentrate on a single segment. Volkswagen

concentrates on the small car market, while Porsche concentrates on the

sports car market. Through concentrated marketing, these firms gain a

throughout understanding of the chosen segment’s needs and achieve

a strong market presence. Furthermore, each firm enjoys operating

economies by specializing in its production, distribution, and promotion;

if it gains leadership, it can earn a high return on investment

2) Selective specialization 有选择的专门化 -

The firm selects a number of segments, each objectively attractive and appropriate. This strategy has the advantage of diversifying （分散） the firm’s risk.

3) Product specialization 产品专门化

The approach is to specialize in making a certain product for several segment. 公司集中生产一种为各类顾客销售的产品。

An example would be a microscope manufacturer that sells microscopes to university laboratories, government laboratories, and commercial laboratories. The firm makes different microscopes for different consumer groups and builds a strong reputation in the specific products area. The downside( 不利方面 ) risk is that the product may be supplanted (replaced) by an entirely new technology.

4 ) Market specialization 市场专门化

The firm concentrates on serving many needs of a particular customer

group. 专门为满足顾客群体的各种需要而服务。

An example would be a firm that sells an assortment of products only

to university labs. The firm gains a strong reputation in serving this custo

mer group and become a channel for further products that the customer g

roup can use. The downsize risk is that the customer group may suffer bu

dget cut(削减预算 ).

5) Full market coverage 完全覆盖市场

A firm attempts to serve all customer groups with all of the products they might need. Only very large firms such as IBM (computer market), General Motors (vehicle market), and Coco-Cola (drink market) can undertake a full market coverage strategy. Large firms can cover a whole market through undifferentiated marketing or differentiated marketing.

 Undifferentiated marketing无差异营销 ----In Undifferentiated marketing, a firm might decide to ignore market segment difference and go after the whole market with one offer. 在无差异营销中，公司可以不考虑细分市场间的区别，仅推出一种产品来追求整个市场。

This mass-marketing strategy ( 大市场战略 ) focuses on what is common in the needs of consumers rather than on what is different. The company designs a product and a marketing program that will appeal to the largest number of buyers, then uses mass distribution backed （支持） by mass advertising to create a superior product image. The narrow product line (产品线） keeps down costs of research and development, production, inventory, transportation, marketing research, advertising and product management. Presumably, the company can turn its lower costs into lower prices to win over price-sensitive customers.

However, most modern marketers have strong doubts about this strategy. Difficulties arise in developing a product or brand that will satisfy all consumers. Moreover, mass marketers often have trouble in competing with more focused firms that do a better job to satisfy the need of specific segments and niches.

Differentiated marketing差异营销 ----In Differentiated marketing, the firm operates in several market segments and designs different programs for each market. 在差异营销中，公司决定同时经营几个细分市场，并为每个细分市场设计不同的产品。 For instance, Intel does this with chips and programs for consumers, business, small business, networking, digital imaging, and video markets. General Motors does this with its various vehicle brands and models; it tries to produce a car for every “purse, person and personality.” Nike offers athletic shoes for a dozen or more different sports, from running and fencing(击剑 ) to bicycling, basketball and baseball. P&G gets more total market share with eight brands of laundry detergent(洗涤剂 ) than it could with only one.

By offering product and marketing variations, these companies hope for higher sales and a stronger position within each market segment. Developing a stronger position within several segments creates more total sales than undifferentiated marketing across all segments. P&G getsmore total market share with eight brands of laundry detergent(洗涤剂 ) than it could with only one. But differentiated marketing also increases the costs of doing business. A firm usually finds it more expensive to develop and produce, say, 10 units of 10 different products than 100 units of one product. Developing separate marketing plans for the separate segments require extra marketing research, forecasting, sales analysis, and channel management. Try to reach different market segments with different advertising increases promotion costs. Thus the company must weigh increased sales against increased costs when deciding on a differentiated marketing strategy.

Chapter 10

Developing, Differentiating, and Positioning Products through the Life Cycle

在产品生命周期中发展、区分和定位产品

1 Challenges in New Product Development 新产品开发的挑战

 Companies that fail to develop new products (either goods or services) are putting themselves at great risk. Over time, existing products are vulnerable(脆弱的 ) to the changing customer needs and tastes, new technologies, shortened product life cycles and increased competition. Yet, new-product development also entails considerable risk: Texas Instruments lost $660 million before withdrawing from the home computer business; DuPont lost an estimated $100 million on a synthetic leather called Corfam; and the British-French Concorde aircraft will never recover its investment.

1.1  Types of new products 新产品的种类

   New-to-the-world products 新问世产品 ---New products that create an entirely new market.

  New products lines 新产品线 ---New products that allow a company to enter an established market for the first time.

Additions to existing product lines 现行产品的增补品 ---new products that supplement a company’s established product lines (package sizes, flavors, and so on).

Improvements and revisions of existing products 现行产品的改进更新 ---New products that provide improved performance or greater perceived value and replace existing products,e.g.Microsoft Office 2000.

Repositionings 市场重定位 ---Existing products that are targeted to new markets or market segments, such as repositioning Johnson & Johnson’s Baby Shampoo(香波 ) for adults as well as youngsters.

Cost reductions 成本减少 ---new products that provide similar performance at low cost, such as Intel’s Celeron(赛扬 ) chip.

The new-to-the-world category involves the greatest cost and risk because these products are new to both the company and the marketplace, so positive customer response is far from certain. That is why most new-product activities are improvements on existing products. At 　 Sony, for instance, over 80% of new-product activity is undertaken to modify and improve existing Sony products. Even new-product improvements are not guaranteed to succeed, however.

1.2 Why new products fail---and succeed 为什么新产品失败—成功

New products are failing at a disturbing rate; by one estimate, 80% of recently launched products are no longer around. But the product failures can serve one useful purpose: Inventors, company managers and new-product team leaders can learn valuable lessons about what not to do. Some of the reasons for new-product failure are: 1) A high-level executive pushes a favorite idea through in spite of negative market research findings; 2)  The idea is good, but the market size is overestimated; 3)  The product is not well designed; 4) The product is incorrectly positioned, ineffectively advertised, or overpriced; 5)  Development costs are higher than expected; 6) Competitors fight back harder than expected.

2    Managing New Products: Ideas to Strategy管理新产品：从创意到战略   

Discuss Each Step ofNew Product Generation

Conceptdevelopmentand testing

Marketingstrategy

developmentBusinessanalysis

Productdevelopment

Markettesting

CommercializationIdea

Generation

Ideascreening

2.1 Ideas generation 创意产生

The marketing concept believes that customer needs and wants are the logical place to start the search for new product ideas. Many of the best ideas come from asking customers to describe their problems with current products.

In addition to customer, new-product ideas can come from many sour

ces: scientists, competitors, employees, channel members, sales reps, top

management, inventors, patent attorneys( 代理人 ), university and comm

ercial laboratories, industrial consultants, advertising agencies, marketin

g research firms, and industry publications.

Toyota claims its employees submit 2 million ideas annually (about 35

suggestions per employee), and over 85% of which are implemented. Ko

dak and other firms give monetary, holiday, or recognition award to emp

loyees who submit best ideas.

2.2 Idea screening 创意筛选

  Once the firm has collected a number of new ideas, the next step is to screen out the weaker ideas, because product-development costs rise substantially with each successive development stage. Each idea would be reviewed against such criteria as: Does the product meet a need? Would it offer superior value? Will the new product deliver the expected sales volume, sales growth, and profit? The ideas that survive this screening move to the concept development stage (next stage).

2.3 Concept development and testing概念发展和概念测试

  Product idea 产品创意 ----A product idea is a possible product the company might offer to the market. 产品创意是公司本身希望提供市场的一种可能产品的设想。

Product concept 产品概念 ----A product concept is a detailed version of the idea expected in meaningful consumer terms. 产品概念是用有意义的消费者术语表达的详细的构想。

Product image-----Product image is the way consumers perceive an actual or potential product.

A product idea can be turned into several concepts by asking: who will use this product? What primary benefit should this product provide? When will people consume or use this product？ For instance, Daimler Chrysler is getting ready to commercialize its experimental fuel-cell-powered electric car. This car’s low-polluting fuel-cell system runs directly off liquid hydrogen. It is highly fuel efficient (75% more efficient than gasoline engines) and gives the new car an environmental advantage over standard internal combustion engine cars. DaimlerChrysler is currently road testing its NECAR 4 (New Electric Car) subcompact(微型汽车 ) prototype(样机 ) and plans to deliver the first fuel-cell cars to customers in 2004. Based on the tiny Mercedes A-Class, the car accelerates quickly, reaches speeds of 90 miles per hour, and has a 280-mile driving range, giving it a huge edge over battery-powered electric cars that travel only about 80 miles before needing 3—12 hours of recharging.

DaimlerChrysler’s task is to develop this new product into alternative product concepts, find out how attractive each concept is to customers, and choose the best one. It might create the following product concepts for the fuel-cell electric car: Concept 1 A moderately priced subcompact designed as a second

family car to be used around town. The car is ideal for running errands (接送孩子 ) and visiting friends

Concept 2 A medium-cost sporty compact(小型运动汽车 ) to young people Concept 3 An inexpensive subcompact “green” car appealing to

environmentally conscious people who want practical transportation and low pollution

The concept can be presented symbolically or physically. Here is

concept 3, in words:

  An efficient, fun-to-drive, fuel-cell-powered electric subcompact car

that seats four. This high-tech wonder runs on liquid hydrogen,

providing practical and reliable transportation with almost no

pollution. It goes up to 90 miles per hour and, unlike battery-powered

electric cars, it never needs recharging. It’s priced, fully equipped, at

$20,000.

2.4 Marketing strategy development 营销战略发展

Suppose DaimleChryler finds that concept 3 for the fuel-cell-powered electric car tests best. The next step is to draft a three-part preliminary(初步的 ) marketing strategy development to introduce the new product into the market.

The first part will describe the target market; the planned product positioning; and the sales, market share, and the profit goals for the first year. Thus:

The target is younger, well-educated, moderate-to-high-income individuals, couples, or small families seeking practical, environmentally responsible transportation. The car will be positioned as more economical to operate, more fun to drive, and less polluting than today’s internal combustion engine cars, and less restricting than battery-powered electric cars, which must be recharged regularly. The company will aim to sell 100,000 cars in the first year, at a loss of not more than $15 million. In the second year, the company will aim for sales of 120,000 cars and a profit of $25 million.

The second part of the marketing strategy statement outlines the product’s planed price, distribution, and marketing budget for the first year:

The fuel-cell-powered electric car will be offered in three colors—red, white, and blue—and will have optional air-conditioning and power-drive feature. It will sell at a retail price of $200,000—with 15% off the list price to dealers. Dealers who sell more than 10 cars per month will get an additional discount of 5% on each car sold that month. An advertising budget of $20 million will be split 50—50 between national and local advertising. Advertising will emphasize the car’s fun and low emissions. During the first year, $100,000 will be spent on marketing research to find out who are buying the car and their satisfaction levels.

The third part of the marketing strategy statement describes the

planned long-run sales, profit goals, and marketing mix strategy:

DaimlerChrysler intends to capture a 3% long-run share of the total

auto market and realize an after-tax return on investment of 15%. To

achieve this, product quality will start high and be improved over time.

Price will be raised in the second and third year if competition permits.

The total advertising budget will be raised each year by about 10%.

Marketing research will be reduced to $60,000 per year after the first

year.

2.5 Business analysis 商业分析

  In this stage, the company evaluates the proposed new product’s business attractiveness by preparing sales, cost and profit projections to determine whether these satisfy company objectives. If they do, the product concept can move to the product-development stage. Note that this cannot be a static process: As new information emerges, the business analysis must be revised and expanded accordingly.

Estimating total sales 估计总销售量

Management needs to estimate whether sales will be high enough to yield a satisfactory profit. Infrequent purchase products---such as automobiles and industrial equipment—exhibit replacement cycle that are dictated(支配 ) by physical wearing out or by obsolescence( 过时 ) due to changing style, features and performance; sales forecasting calls for estimating first-time sales and replacement sales separately.

Estimating cost and profits 估计成本和利润

Management should also analyze expected costs and profits based on estimate prepared by the R&D, manufacturing, marketing and finance department. Companies use other financial measures to evaluate new product proposals. The simplest is break-even( 亏损平衡 ) analysis, in which management estimate how many units of the product the company will have to sell to break even with the given price and cost structure. （管理层估计公司要卖出多少产品才能使公司处于既不赢利也不亏损的状态）

3 Managing new product: Development to commercialization 管理新产品：从开发到商品化 

1. Product development

2. Market testing(both consumer goods and business goods)

3. Commercialization

3.1 Product development 产品开发

  If the product concept passes the business analysis test, it moves to be d

eveloped into a physical product. Up to now it has existed only as a word

description, drawing, or prototype(样机 ). This step involves a large inv

estment compared with the cost for the earlier stages. The R&D department will develop and test one or more physical versions of the product concept. R&D hopes to design a prototype that will satisfy and excite consumers and that can be produced quickly and at budgeted costs. The prototype must have the required functions and also convey the intended psychological characteristics. The electric car, for example, should strike consumers as being well built, comfortable, and safe.

Consumer testing can take a variety of forms, from fringing

consumers into a laboratory to giving them samples to use in their

homes. For instance, when DuPont developed its new synthetic

carpeting, it installed free carpeting in several homes in exchange for the

homeowners’ willingness to report their likes and dislikes.

3.2 Market testing 市场测试

After management is satisfied with functional and psychological performance, the product is ready to be dressed up with a brand name and packaging, and put to a market test.

   Consumer-goods market testing 消费品市场测试 In testing consumer products, the company seeks to estimate four v

ariables: trial, first repeat purchase, adoption, and purchase frequency.

3.3 Communication 商品化

  If the company goes ahead with commercialization, it will face its largest costs to date. Some decisions during this stage include:

  When (timing) 何时 ----时机

Marketing timing is critical. If DaimlerChrysler’s new fuel-cell electric car will eat into the sales o the company’ other cars, its introduction may be delayed. If the car can be improved further, or if the economy is down, the company may wait until the following year to launch it.

 

If a firm learns that a competitor is nearing the end of its development

work, it can choose: First entry首先进入— being first to market, locking up key distribut

ors and customers, and gaining reputational leadership.

  Parallel entry平行进入— launching at the same time as a rival. The

market may pay more attention when the two companies are advertising t

he new products)

  Late entry后期进入— waiting until after a competitor has entered, l

ets the competitor bear the cost of educating the market and may reveal p

roblem to avoid).

The timing decision involves additional considerations. If a new

product replaces an older product, the company might delay the

introduction until the old product’s stock is drawn down. If the product is

highly seasonal, it might be delayed until the right season arrives.

   Where (geographic strategy) 何地 ---- 地理战略

The company must decide whether to launch the new product in a single locality, a region, several regions, the national market, or the international market. In particular, small companies may enter attractive cities or regions one at a time. Large companies may quickly introduce new models into several regions or into the full national market. Companies with international distribution system may introduce new products through global rollouts( 首次展示 ) . Colgate-Palmolive （高露洁） uses a “lead-country” strategy. For instance, it launched its Palmolive shampoo and conditioner first in Australia, Philippines, Hong Kong, and Mexico, and then rapidly rolled it into Europe, Asia, Latin America and Africa.

 To whom (target-market prospects) 给谁 ---- 目标市场预期顾客 The company must target its initial distribution and promotion to the best prospect groups. Presumably( 大概 ) , the company has already profiled the prime prospects—who would ideally be early adopters, heavy users, and opinion leaders who are able to be reached at a low cost. The company should rate the various prospect groups on these characteristics and then target the best prospect group to generate strong sales as soon as possible, motivate the sales force, and attract further prospects.

Many companies are surprised to learn who really buys their produc

t and why. Microwave ovens began to enjoy explosive growth only after

microwave-oven popcorn was developed. Households dramatically incre

ased their purchase of computers when the CD-ROM multimedia was int

roduced.

  How (introductory market strategy) 用什么方法 ---- 导入市场战略

The company must develop an action plan for introducing the new pro

duct into the rollout( 首次展示 ) markets.

4 The Consumer Adoption Process 消费者采用过程

4.1 Stages in the adoption process 采用过程中的各个阶段

　　 Adopters of new products have been observed to move through five stages: 据观察，新产品的采用者发展有以下 5 个阶段：

1) Awareness (consumer becomes aware of the innovation but has no information about it); 知晓

2) Interest (consumer is stimulated to seek information about the

innovation; 兴趣 3) Evaluation (consumer considers whether to try the innovation);

评价 4) Trial (consumer tries the innovation to estimate its value); 试用 5) Adoption (consumer decides to make full and regular use of the

innovation) 采用

The Consumer Adoption Process

In the past, companies used mass-marketing. Now they must identify and target early adopters by this process:

AwarenessAwareness

InterestInterest

EvaluationEvaluation

TrialTrial

AdoptionAdoption

4.2 Factors influencing the adoption process 影响采用过程的因素

Five characteristics influence the rate of adoption of an innovation: 1) Relative advantage 相对优点 ----The degree to which the innovation appears superior to existing products; The greater the perceived relative advantage of using a personal computer, say, in preparing income taxes and keeping financial records, the more quickly personal computers will be adopted. 2) Compatibility 一致性 ----The degree to which the innovation matches the value and experiences of the individuals; Personal computers, for example, are highly compatible with upper-middle-class lifestyles.

3) Complex 复杂性 ---- The degree to which the innovation is relatively difficult to understand or use; Personal computer, for instance, is complex and will therefore take a longer time to penetrate into home use.

4)  Divisibility 可分性 --- The degree to which the innovation can be tried on a limited basis; The availability of rentals of personal computers with an option to buy increases their rate of adoption.

5) Communicability 传播性 ----The degree to which the beneficial results of use are observable or describable to others. The fact that personal computers lend themselves to demonstration and description helps them diffuse faster in the social system.

 

Other characteristics that influence the rate of adoption are cost, risk and uncertainty, scientific credibility, and social approval. The new-product marketer has to research all these factors and give the key ones maximum attention in designing the new-product and marketing program.

5 Marketing through the product life cycle 产品生命周期的营销战略

5.1 The concept of the product life cycle 产品生命周期的概念

To say that a product has a life cycle is to assert four things:

1)   Products have a limited life;

2) Product sales pass through distinct stages with different challenges

, opportunities, and problems for the seller;

3) Profits rise and fall at different stages of the product life cycle;

4) Products require different marketing, financial, manufacturing,

purchasing, and human resource strategies in each stage.

Four stages: 4阶段

1)  Introduction （导入期 ) A period of slow sales growth as the product is introduced in the market. 产品进入市场时 , 销售缓慢成长的时期。

2) Growth （成长期 ) A period of rapid market acceptance and substantial profit improvement. 产品被市场迅速接受和利润大量增加的时期。

3) Maturity （成熟期 ) A period of a slowdown in sales growth because the product has achieved acceptance by most potential buyers. 因为产品已被大多数的潜在购买者所接受而造成的销售缓慢的时期

4) Decline （衰退期 ) The period when sales show a downward drift and profits erode. 销售下降的趋势增强和利润不断下降的时期。

Product Life Cycle Activity

Get with a partner. As each phase of the life cycle is revealed, write as many specific products you think presently fit into the stages. Then share your lists in class.

Introduction

MaturityGrowth

Decline

5.2Market strategies: Introduction stage 导入阶段的营销战略

Profits are negative or low in introduction stage because of low sales and heavy distribution and promotion expenses. Much money is needed to attract distributors. Promotional expenditures are high because of the need to:

1)Inform potential consumers 告诉潜在的消费者 . 2)Induce product trial 引导试用产品 . 3)Secure distribution 确保分销

Companies must decide when to enter the market with a new product. Most studies indicate that the market pioneer( 市场开拓者 ) gains the most advantage. Such as Amazon.com, Cisco, Coca Cola, eBay, Eastman Kodak, Microsoft and Xerox developed sustained market dominance( 优势 ). The pioneer knows that competition will eventually enter the market and charge a lower price, which will force the pioneer to lower price. As competition and market share stabilize, buyers will no longer pay a price premium(溢价 ); some competitors will withdraw at this point, and the pioneer can then expand market share.  

5.3 Market strategies: Growth stage 成长阶段的营销战略

The growth stage is marked by a rapid climb in sales, as DVD players are currently experiencing. Early adopters like the product, and additional consumers start buying it. Attracted by the opportunities, new competitors enter with new products features and expanded distribution. Prices remain where they are or fall slightly, depending on how fast demand increases. Companies maintain or increase their promotional expenditures to meet competition and to continue to educate the market. Profits increase during this stage as promotion costs are spread over a large volume and unit manufacturing costs fall faster than price declines.

During this stage, the firm uses several strategies to sustain rapid market growth as long as possible:

1)  Improving product quality and adding new products features and improved styling; 改进产品质量和增加新产品的特色和式样；

2)  Adding new models and flanker products; 增加新式样和侧翼产品;

3)   Entering new market segments; 进入新的细分市场；

4) Increasing distribution coverage and entering new distribution channels; 进入新的分销渠道；

5)   Shifting from product-awareness advertising to product-preference advertising ；广告从产品知名度转移到产品偏好来；

6) Lowering prices to attract the next layer of price-sensitive buyers.降低价格，以吸引另一层次价格敏感的购买者。

5.4 Market strategies: Maturity stage 成熟阶段的营销战略

At some point, the rate of sales growth will slow, and the product will enter a stage of relatively maturity. Three strategies for the maturity stage are market modification, product modification and marketing-mix modification 1) Market modification 市场改进  Converting nonusers 转变非使用人— the key to the growth of air freight service is the constant search for new users to whom air carriers can demonstrate the benefits of using air freight rather than ground transportation. Entering new market segments 进入新的细分市场 --Johnson & Johnson successfully promoted its baby shampoo to adult users. Winning competitors’ customers 争取竞争对手的顾客 --Pepsi-Cola is constantly tempting(劝说 ) Coca-Cola users to switch.

2) Product modification 产品改进

Managers try to stimulate sales by modifying the product’s improvement through :

    Quality improvement 质量改进

    Feature improvement 特点改进

    Style improvement 式样改进

For example, Sony keeps adding new styles and features to its Walkman and Discman lines, and Volvo adds new safety features to its cars. America Online regularly introduces new versions of its Internet software. Finally, the company can improve the product’s styling and attractiveness. Thus, car manufactures restyle their cars to attract buyers who want a new look. The makers of consumer food and household products introduce new flavors, colors, ingredients, or packages to revitalize consumer buying. But customers are not always willing to accept an “improved” product, as the classic tale(故事 ) of New Coke illustrate: 

Coca-Cola

Battered(接连重击 ) by competition from the sweeter Pepsi-Cola, Coca-Cola decided in 1985 to replace its old formula(配方 ) with a sweeter variation(变化 ), dubbed( 授与 ... 以称号 ) the New Coke. Coca-Cola spent $4 million on market research. Blind taste tests showed that Coke drinkers preferred the company’s new sweeter formula. But the launch of New Coke provoked a national uproar(骚动 ). Market researchers had measured the taste but had failed to measure the emotional attachment( 爱慕 ) consumers had to Coca-Cola. There were angry letters, formal protests, and even lawsuit( 诉讼 ) threats, to force the retention of “The Real Thing.” Ten weeks later, the company withdrew New Coke and reintroduced its century-old formula as “Classic Coke,” giving the old formula even stronger status in the marketplace.

3) Marketing-mix modification 营销组合改进 Product managers can try to stimulate sales by modifying marketing elements such as:         Prices 价格        Distribution 分销        Advertising 广告        Sales promotion 销售促进        Personal selling 销售人员        Services 服务 For example, Goodyear boosts its market share from 14 to 16% in 1 year when if began selling tires through Wal-Mart, Sears, and Discount Tire.

5.5 Market strategies: Decline stage 衰退阶段的营销战略

Five strategies in the decline stage衰退期的 5 种战略 1) Increasing the firm’s investment 增加公司的投资 (to dominate the market or strengthen its competitive position) ； 2) Maintaining the firm’s investment level until the uncertainties about the industry are resolved; 在未解决行业的不确定因素前，公司保持原有的投资水平；

3) Decreasing the firm’s investment level selectively, by dropping unprofitable customer groups, while simultaneously strengthen the firm’s investment in lucrative niches; 公司有选择地降低投资态势，抛弃无希望的顾客群体，同时加强对有利可图的顾客需求领域的投资；

4) Harvesting (milking) the firm’s investment to recover cash quickly; 从公司的投资中获取（或榨取 /撇脂）巨利，以便快速回收现金；

5) Divesting the business quickly by disposing of its assets as advantageously as possible. 尽可能地用有利的方式处理它的资产，迅速放弃该业务 。

6 Differentiation and positioning strategy 差别 (异 ) 和定位战略

Companies such as Hewlett-Packard invests precious resources t

o develop and then shepherd(引导 ) its new products through the

product life cycle. Yet in today’s highly competitive global market

place, a product will not survive—let alone thrive—without some

distinct competitive difference that sets it apart from every rival pr

oduct. This is why smart companies rely on differentiation.

Differentiation 差别 (异 )化 Differentiation is the act of designing a set of meaningful differences t

o distinguish the company’s offering from competitors’ offerings.

差别化是指设计一系列有意义的差别，以便使该公司的产品同竞争者产品相区分的行动。

Here we examine how a company can differentiate its market offering a

long five dimensions: product, services, personnel, channel, and image.

Differentiation Variables （差异工具） :

Product----Form, Features, Performance, Conformance, Durability, R

eliability, Repairability, Style, Design

Service—Ordering ease, Delivery, Installation, Customer Trai

ning, Customer Consulting, Maintenance and Repair, Miscellaneous

Personal—Competence, Courtesy, Credibility, Reliability, Res

ponsiveness, Communication

Channel---Coverage, Expertise, Performance

Image—Symbols, Media, Atmosphere, Events

6.1 Product differentiation 产品差别 (异 )化 We can find physical products that allow little variation: chicken, steel, aspirin. Yet even here some meaningful differentiation is possible. Consider the many possible forms taken by products such as aspirin; it can be differentiated by dosage, size, shape, coating, action time and so on. On the other hand, some products can be highly differentiated, such as automobiles, commercial machinery, and furniture. Such products can be differentiated on features, performance, and design. Thus, Volvo provides new and better features; Whirlpool designs its washer to run more quietly. Similarly, companies can differentiate their products on such attributes as conformance( 一致性 ), durability(耐用性 ), reliability( 可靠性 ), repairability(耐用性 ). Suppose a Porsche 944 car is designed to accelerate to 60 miles an hour within 10 seconds. If every such car coming off the assembly line does this, the model is said to have high conformance.

Product Differentiation

Form FeaturesPerformance

Quality Conformance

Quality

Durability Reliability Repair-ability

Style Design

6.2 Services differentiation 服务差别 (异 )化 When the physical product cannot be differentiated easily, the key to competitive success may lie in adding valued services and improving their quality. The main service differentiations include:

 Easy ordering- 定货的难易 --Baxter Healthcare( 巴克斯特医疗公司 ) has eased the ordering process by supplying hospitals with computers through which they send orders directly to Baxter; Consumers can now order and receive groceries without going to the supermarket by suing Web-based services. Delivery 交货— Deluxe Check Printers, Inc. has built an impressive reputation for shipping out its checks one day after receiving an order—without being late once in 18 years.

Installation 安装 Customer training 客户培训 — GE not only sells and installs expensive X-ray equipment in hospitals, but also gives extensive training to users of this equipment.

Customer consulting 客户咨询 Maintenance and repair 维护保养

Compaq Computer Compaq, with its Presario line, was the first to use installation as a source of differentiation. Instead of providing an instruction book filled with unintelligible(难解的 ) terminology, Compaq offers customers a poster （宣传画） that clearly illustrate the 10 installation steps. The company uses color-coded cords, cables and outlets to further simplify installation and has rigged up(配备 ) computer with a cheerful video and audio presentation that leads new users through setup and registration.

Canon Canon has developed a system that allows customers to return spent printer cartridges (打印机盒 ) at Canon’s expenses. The cartridges are then rehabilitated (修复 ) and sold as such. The process makes it easy for customers to return used cartridges; all they need to do is drop the prepaid package off at a United Parcel service collection station. Customers also like the environmentally friendly aspect of the program and tend to identify Canon as an environmentally friendly company.

6.3 Personnel differentiation 人员差别 (异 )化

Companies can gain a strong competitive advantage through having better-trained people. Singapore Airlines enjoy an excellent reputation in large part because of its flight attendants. The McDonald’s people are courteous(必恭必敬 ), the IBM people are professional, and the Disney people are upbeat （精神饱满） . The sales forces of such companies as GE, Cisco, and Northwestern Mutual Life enjoy an excellent reputation. Well-trained personnel exhibit six characteristics:        Competence 能力、资格        Courtesy 谦恭        Credibility 诚实        Reliability 可靠        Responsiveness 负责        Communication 沟通

6.4 Channel differentiation 渠道差别 (异 )化

Companies can achieve competitive advantages through the way they

design their distribution channels’ coverage, expertise, and performanc

e. Caterpillar’s success in the construction-equipment industry is based

partly on superior channel development. Its dealers are found in more l

ocations, are better trained, and perform more reliably than competitor

’s dealers. Dell Computers has also distinguished itself by developing

and managing superior direct-marketing channels using telephone and

Internet sales.

6.5 Image differentiation 形象差别 (异 )化

Buyers respond differently to company and brand images.

  Identity comprises the ways that a company aims to identify or position itself or its product; whereas image is the way the public perceives the company or its product. 个性是公司确定或定位他自己或产品的一种方法 , 形象是公众对公司或它的产品的认知方法。 Symbols—Image can be amplified by strong symbols. The company can choose a symbol such as the lion (Harris Bank), apple (Apple Computer). A brand can be built around a famous person, as with new perfumes—Passion (Elizabeth Taylor). Companies can choose a color identifier such as blue (IBM), yellow (Kodak), or red (Cambell Soup).

 Media 媒体 ---the chosen image must be worked into ads and media that convey a story, for example. It should appear in annual reports, brochures, catalogs etc. 

Atmosphere 气氛 ----the physical space occupied by the company is another powerful image generator. A bank that wants to convey the image of a safe bank must communicate this through the building’s architecture, interior design, colors, materials and furnishings.

 Events 事件 ----a company can build an identify through the events it sponsors. At&T and IBM sponsor symphony( 交响乐 ) performance. Nike and VW sponsor European Football League, Philip sponsor Chinese Football League.

Chapter 11

Setting Product and Brand Sreategy 

设立产品和品牌战略

1.        Product mix 产品组合

A product mix (also called product assortment) is the set of all items that a particular marketer offers for sale. 产品组合（也叫产品搭配）是指特定的生产上提供给市场以供销售的一系列产品或项目。

A company’s product mix has a certain width( 广度 ), length( 长度 ), depth(深度 ), and consistency( 一致性 ). The width refers to how many different products lines the company carries. The length refers to the total number of items in the mix. The depth refers to how many variants of each product are offered. The consistency refers to how closely related the various product lines are in end use, production requirements, distribution channels or some other ways. 广度是指公司具有多少不同的产品线，长度是指它的产品组合中的产品种数，深度是指产品线中每种产品的种类，产品组合的一致性是指各条产品线的最终用途、生产条件、分销渠道或者其他方面相互关系的程度

The four product dimensions permit the company to expand its

business by adding new product lines, thus widening its product mix;

lengthening each product line; deepening product mix by adding more

variants; and pursuing more product line consistency.

At Kodak, the product mix consists of two strong product lines: the

information products and image products. At NEC, the product mix

consists of communication products and computer products.

Co

nsi

sten

cyProduct Mix

Width: number of different

product lines

Length: total number of

items within lines

Depth: number of versions of

each product

Product Mix:all product

lines offered

Width: number of different

product lines

Length: total number of

items within lines

Depth: number of versions of

each product

Product Mix:all product

lines offered

2    Product-Line Decision 产品线决策 

2.1 Product-line analysis

To support decisions about which items to build, maintain, harves

t, or divest, product line managers need to analyze the sale and profit as

well as the market profile of each item.

2.2   Product-line length 产品线长度 Every company’s product covers a certain part of the total possible

range. For instance, BMW automobiles are located in the upper price ran

ge of the automobile market. Line stretching occurs when a company len

gthens its product line beyond its current range. The company can stretch

its line downmarket, upmarket, or both ways.

With a downmarket stretch, a firm introduces a lower price line( 当 公司在市场上向下延伸时，公司会推出低价格的产品线 ). However, m

oving downmarket can be risky, as Kodak found out. It introduced Koda

k Funtime film to counter lower-priced brand, but the price was not

low enough to match the lower-priced competitive products. When regul

ar customers started buying Funtime----cannibalizing the core brand—K

odak withdraw Funtime.

With an upmarket stretch, a company enters the high end of the market for more growth, higher margins, or to position itself as a full-line manufacturer. （当产品向上延伸时，在市场上定位于低端产品的公司会进入高段产品市场，之所以这样做，可能是被高端产品较高的增长率和利润做吸引， 也可能是为了将自己定位为全线制造商）。 All of the leading Japanese automakers have launched an upscale automobile: Toyota launched Lexus; Nissan launched Infinity; and Honda launched Acura. (Note that these marketers invented entirely new names rather than using their own names).

Companies that serve the middle market can stretch their product line in both directions, as the Marriott Hotel group did. The major risk of the two-way stretch is that some travelers will trade down after finding the low-price hotels have most of what they want. A product line can also be lengthened by adding more items within the present range. These are several motives for line filing: trading for incremental products, trying to satisfy dealers who complain about lostsales because of missing items in the line, trying to utilize excess capacity, trying to be the leading full-line company, and trying to plug hotels to keep out competitors.

2.3   Line featuring and line pruning （产品特色化和产品削减）

The product manager typically selects one or a few items in the line to feature; this is a way of attracting customers, lending prestige, or achieving other goals. If one end of its line is selling well and the other end is selling poorly, the company may use featuring to boost demand for the slower sellers, especially if those items are produced in a factory that is idled by lack of demand. In addition, manager must periodically review the entire product line for pruning, identifying weak items through sales and cost analysis. They may also prune when the company is short of production capacity or demand is slow.

3 Brand Decision 品牌决策

3.1   What is brand A brand is as a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of these, intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competitors. 品牌是一种名称、名词、标记、符号或设计，或者这些元素的组合，其目的是借以识别某个销售者或某一些销售者提供的产品或服务，并使之与竞争对手的产品和服务区别开来。   In essence, a brand identifies the seller or maker. Whether it is a name, trademark, logo, or another symbol, a brand is essentially a seller’s promise to deliver a specific set of warranty of quality. But a brand is an even more complex symbol. It can convey up to six levels of meaning, as shown in the following:

Levels of brand meaning

Attributes （属性） a brand brings to mind certain attributes---Mercedes suggests expensive, well-built, durable, high-prestige vehicle.

Benefits （利益） tributes must be translated into functional and emotional benefits---the attribute “durable” could translate into the functional benefit “I won’t have to buy another car for several years.”

Values （价值） a brand says something about the product’s values----Mercedes stand for high performance, safety, and prestige.

Culture （文化） a brand may represent a certain culture----Mercedes represents German culture: organized, efficient, high quality.

Personality （个性） a brand can project a certain personality----Mercedes may suggest a non-nonsense boss (person) or reigning lion (animal). ( 可使人想起一位不会无聊的老板或一头有权势的狮子 )

User （使用者） a brand suggests the kind of customer who buys or uses the product----Mercedes vehicles are more likely to be bought by 55-year-old top managers than by 20-year-old store clerks

What Is a Brand?

Explain what is meant by each of the following levels of meaning for brands:

User Personality

Culture Values

Attributes Benefits

The marketer must decide at which level(s) to anchor( 锁定 ) the brand’s identity. One mistake would be promoter only attributes. First, the buyers are not as interested in attributes as they are in benefits. Second, competitors can easily copy attribute. Third, today’s attributes may become less desirable tomorrow. The most enduring(持久 ) meanings of a brand are its values, cultures, and personality. They define the brand’s essence. The Mercedes stands for high technology, performance, and success. Mercedes must project this in its brand strategy. Mercedes must resist marketing an inexpensive car bearing(具有 ) the name; doing so would dilute(冲淡 ) the value and personality Mercedes has built up over the years.

3.2  Brand equity 品牌权益 Brands vary in the amount of power and value they have in the marketplace. At one extreme are brands that are not known by most buyers. Then there are brands for which buyers have a fairly high degree of brand awareness. Beyond this are brands with a high degree of brand acceptability. Next are brands that enjoy a high degree of brand preference. Finally there are brands that command a high degree of brand loyalty. Aaker distinguished five levels of customer attitude toward a brand: (Aaker 将顾客对品牌的态度分为 5 个等级 )

1)  Customer will change brands, especially for price reason. Not brand loyalty.

2)  Customer is satisfied. No reason to change the brand.

3)  Customer is satisfied and would incur cost by changing brand.

4)  Customer values the brand and sees it as a friend.

5)  Customer is devoted to the brand. 

Brand equity is highly related to how many customers are in class 3,4,or 5.

High brand equity allows a company to enjoy reduced marketing costs because of high brand awareness and loyalty, gives a company more leverage in bargaining with distributors and retailers, permits the firm to charge more because the brand has higher perceived quality, allows the firm to defense against price competition. Some people see brands as a company’s specific products and facilities, so brands become the company’s major enduring asset. The world’s 10 most valuable brands in 1997 were (in rank order): Coca Cola, Marlboro, IBM, McDonald’s, Disney, Sony, Kodak, Intel, Gillette, and Budweiser.

The top 10 brands by “News Week” of USA (美国《商业周刊》 ) are : (2004)  

可口可乐 ７０４．５亿美元 微软 ６５１．７亿美元 ＩＢＭ ５１７．７亿美元 通用电气 ４２３．４亿美元 英特尔 ３１１．１亿美元 诺基亚 ２９４．４亿美元 迪斯尼 ２８０．４亿美元 麦当劳 ２４７．０亿美元 万宝路 ２２１．８亿美元 梅塞德斯 ２１３．７亿美元

3.3 Brand strategy decision

Over time, each type of brand can be developed further. A company can introduce:

Line extension—existing brand name extend to new sizes or flavors in the existing product category

Brand extension—brand names extended to new product categories

Multibrands—new brand names introduced to new product category

New brand--new brand name for a new category product

Co-branding—combining two more well-known brands names.

Line extension

Line extension introduces additional items in the same product category under the same brand name, such as new flavor, forms, colors, added ingredients, and package size. The vast majority of new products (such as “lite” versions of existing foods---清淡口味的食品 ) are actually line extension..

Line extension involves risks and has provoked heated debate among marketing professionals. On the downside, extensions may lead to the brand name losing its specific meaning. Some scholar called this the “line-extension trap” today the seller must ask: New, Classic, or Cherry Coke? Regular or diet? With or without caffeine? Bottle or can? Line extension of strong brands, symbolic brands, brands with strong advertising and promotion support, and early market entrants are more successful; a company’s size and marketing competence also play a role.

Brand extension

A company may use its existing brand name to launch new products in other categories. Honda uses its company name to cover such different products as automobiles, motorcycles, snow blowers （滑雪车） , lawn mowers （割草机） , marine engines and snowmobiles （雪地摩托） This allow Honda to advertise that it can for “six” Honda in a two car garage.

Brand extension strategy offers many of the same advantages as line extensions, but it involves risks. One is that the new product might disappoint buyers and damage their respect for the company’s other products. Another is brand dilution, which occurs when consumers stop associating a brand with a specific product or highly similar products(既无法把品牌与某种具体的产品或者高度相似的产品联系在一起 ) and think less of the brand.

4 Packaging 包装Packaging includes all the activities of designing and producing the co

ntainer for a product. The container is called the package, and it might include up to three levels of material. Old Spice aftershave lotion( 古风牌剃须液 ) is in a bottle (primary package—主要包装 ) that is in a cardboard box （纸盒） (secondary package--- 次要包装 ) that is in corrugated box (shipping package--瓦楞纸箱 ) containing six dozen boxes of Old Spice.

Developing effective package for a new product requires several decisions. The first task is to establish the packaging concept, defining what the package should be or do for the particular product. Then decisions must be made on other elements----size, shape, materials, color text( 文本说明 ), and brand mark （品牌标记 , plus the use of any “tamperproof” devices （防伪装置） . All packaging elements must be in harmony( 和谐统一 ) and must fit with the product’s pricing, advertising, and other marketing elements. Next come engineering tests to ensure that the package stands up under normal conditions; visual tests, to ensure that the script is legible and the color harmonious; dealer tests, to ensure that dealers find the package attractive and easy to handle; and consumer tests, to ensure favorable response.

Packaging should be consistent with local wants and tastes. Manu customers in China consider Procter & Gamble’ shampoo a luxury, so the company successfully markets single-use pouches( 小袋 ) of shampoo priced at the equivalent of 14 cents apiece (每个 ).

Chapter 1３

Designing Pricing Strategies and Programs

设计定价战略与方案

1 Adapting the Price 修订价格

Companies usually do not set a single price but rather a pricing structure that deflects variations in geographical demand and costs, market-segment requirement, purchase timing, order levels, delivery frequency, guarantees, service contracts, and other factors. As a result of discounts, allowances, and promotional support, a company rarely realizes the same profit from each unit of a product that it sells. Here, we will examine several price-adaptation strategies: geographical piecing, price discounts and allowances, promotional pricing, discriminatory pricing, and product-mix pricing.

1.1    Geographic pricing 地理定价

1) Barter 物物交换 ----The direct exchange of goods, with no money and no third party involved 物物交换即商品与商品的直接交换，没有第三方参与。

2) Compensation deal 补偿贸易 ----The seller is paid partly in cash and partly in products. 付给卖方的货款部分为现金，部分为产品。

A British aircraft manufacturer sold planes to Brazil for 70% cash and the rest in coffee.

3) Buyback arrangement 产品回购 ----The seller sells a plant, equipment, or technology to another country an agrees to accept as partial payment products manufactured with the supplied equipment.卖方向一个国家出售工厂、设备或技术，并同意接受一部分该设备生产的产品，作为付款的一部分。

An U.S. chemical company built a plant for an Indian company and accepted partial payment in cash and the remainder in chemicals manufactured at the plant.

4) Offset 反向回购 ----The seller receives full payment in cash but agrees to spend a substantial amount of that money in that country within stated time period. 卖方收到的全部是现金的货款，但必须同意在一个规定的时间内用相同的货币来购买该国的产品。

For instance, Pepsi Co. sells its cola syrup to China for RMB and agrees to buy Chinese garments at a certain rate for sale in the U.S. More complex countertrade( 对销贸易 ) deals involve more than two parties. For example, Daimler-Benz agreed to sell 30 trucks to Romania and accept in exchange 150 Romania-made jeeps, which it sold in Ecuador for bananas, which in turn were sold to a German supermarket chain for deutsche marks. Through this circuitous transaction, Daimler-Benz finally achieved payment in German currency.

1.2 Pricing discounts and allowances 价格折扣和折让

Companies often adjust their basic price to accommodate differences in customers, products, locations and so on.

1) Cash discount is a price reduction to buyers who pay their bills promptly. 现金折扣是对及时付清帐款的购买者的一种价格折扣

A typical example is “2/10, net 30” which means that payment is due within 30 days and that the buyer can deduct 2% by paying the bill within 10 days. Such discounts are customary in many industries.

2) Quantity discount is a price reduction to those buyers who buy large volumes. 数量折扣是卖方因买方购买数量大而给予的一种折扣。

A typical example is “10 per unit for less than 100 units; $9 per unit for 100 or more units.” Quantity discounts must be offered equally to all customers and must not exceed the cost savings to the seller associated with selling large quantities. They can be offered on a noncumulative( 不累积的 )basis (on each order placed) or a cumulative basis (on the number of units ordered over a given period).

3) Functional discount (also called trade discounts) are offered by a manufacturer to trade-channel member if they will perform certain functions, such as selling, storing, and record keeping. 功能折扣 (也叫贸易折扣 ) ，是由制造厂商向履行了某种功能，如推销、储存和帐条记载的渠道成员提供的一种折扣。

4) Seasonal discount is a price reduction to buyers who buy merchandise or services out of season. 季节折扣是卖主向那些购买非当令商品或服务的买者提供的一种折扣。

Ski manufacturers will offer seasonal discount to retailers in the spring and summer to encourage early ordering. Hotels, motels, and airlines will offer seasonal discounts in slow selling periods.

5) Allowances are extra payments designed to gain reseller participation in special programs. 折让是根据价目表给顾客以价格折让的另一类型。

6) Trade-in allowances are price reductions granted for turning in an old item when buying a new one. They are most common in durable-goods. Promotional allowances are payments or price reductions to reward dealers for participating in advertising and sales support program.

7) Specific-event pricing 特别事件定价— Sellers establish special prices in certain seasons to draw in more customers. Stores offers special prices on stationery items during a back-to-school sale.

8) Cash rebates 现金回扣 ---Manufacturers offer cash rebate to encourage purchase of their products within a specified period, this helps clear inventories without cutting the stated price. Mazda advertisers cash rebates on the purchase of selected previous-year models to clear these vehicles out of dealer inventory.

9) Low-interest financing 低息贷款 ---Instead of cutting its price, the company can offer customers low-interest financing. Ford offers low-or no-interest financing to encourage the purchase of selected cars.

10) Longer payment terms 较长的付款条款 ---Sellers stretch loan over longer period and thus lower the monthly payment that customers pay. Auto companies and mortgage banks use this approach because consumers are more concerned with affordable payments than with the interest rate.

1.3  Promotional pricing 促销定价

Companies can use any of seven promotional pricing techniques to stimulate early purchase. However, smart marketers recognize that promotional pricing strategies are often aero-sum game (得不偿失的游戏 ). If they work, competitors copy them and they lose their effectiveness. If they do not work, they waste company money that could have been put into longer impact marketing tools, such as building up product quality and service or strengthening product image through advertising.

Promotional pricing technique: 促销定价技术1) Loss-leader pricing牺牲品定价— Stores drop the price on well-known brands to stimulate additional store traffic. Kmart cuts the price of selected toys to attract shoppers before Christmas.

2) Warranties and service contracts 保证和服务合同 ---Companies can promote sales by adding a free or low-cost warranty or service contract. Real estate brokers ( 经纪人 ) offer special warranties on selected homes to expedite sales.

3) Psychological discounting 心理折扣 ---Used legitimately, this involves offering the item at substantial saving from the normal price. A jewelry store lowers the price of a diamond ring and advertises “Was $359, now $299”

1.4  Discrimination pricing 差别定价

Discrimination pricing occurs when a company sells a product or service at two or more prices that do not reflect a proportional difference in cost. 差别定价描述了这样一种情况，在那里公司以两种或两种以上不反映成本比例差异的价格来推销一种产品或提供一种服务。

Discriminatory pricing takes several forms: 差异定价有以下形式

1) Customer-segment pricing 顾客细分定价 ---Different customer groups pay different prices for the same good or service. For example, museums often charge a lower admission fee to students and senior citizens.

2) Product-form pricing 产品式样定价 ---Different versions of the product are priced differently but proportionately to their respective costs. Evian, for example, prices a 48-ounce bottle of its mineral water at $2, while its 1.7-ounce moisturizer spray(喷雾器 ) sells for $6. Image pricing 3) Image pricing 形象定价 ---Some companies price the same product at different levels based on image differences. For instance, aperfume manufacturer can put its perfume in one bottle with certain name and image priced at $10 an ounce; the same perfume in another bottle with a different name and image could be priced at $30 an ounce.4) Location pricing 地点定价 ---the same product is priced differently at different locations even though the cost are the same. For instance, theaters often vary seat prices according to audience preferences for different locations.

5) Time pricing 时间定价 ---Prices are varied by season, day, or hour. Public utilities use time pricing, varying energy rates to commercial users by time of day and weekend versus weekday. A special form of time pricing is yield pricing(占位定价 ), which is often used by hotels and airlines to ensure high occupancy. To ensure that all berths are full, for instance, a cruise ship （游船） may lower the price of the cruise two days before sailing.

Predatory pricing 掠夺性定价— Selling below cost with intention of destroying competition are against the law.

1.5  Product-mix pricing 产品组合定价

We can distinguish six situations involving product-mix pricing:

1) Product-line pricing 产品线定价法 Many sellers use well-established price points (such as $200, $350, $500 for suits) to distinguish the products in their line. Kodak offers not just one type of film, but assortment, including regular Kodak film, higher-priced Kodak Royal Gold film for special occasions, and still higher-priced Adantix APS film for Advanced Photo system cameras. 

2) Optional-feature pricing 选择（备选）特色定价法 Many companies offer optional products, feature, and services alon

g with their main product. Automakers and many other firms offer optio

nal products, feature, and services along with their main product. Pricing

these options is a sticky problem because companies must decide which i

tems to include in the standard price and which to offer as options. Many

restaurants price their liquor high and their food low. The food revenue c

overs costs, and the liquor produces the profit.

3) Captive-product pricing 附带产品定价法

Manufacturers of razor and cameras often price them low and set

high markups(涨价幅度 ) on razor blades and film, respectively. There i

s a danger in pricing the captive product too high in the aftermarket ( 后期市场 )---the market for ancillary(配件 ) supplies to the main products

. Caterpillar makes high profits in the aftermarket by pricing its part and

service high. This practice has given rise to “pirates”(非法仿制者 ) who

counterfeit (伪造品 ) the parts and sell them to “shady tree”(角落 ) mec

hanics who install them, sometimes without passing on the cost saving to

customers. Meanwhile, Caterpillar loses sales. （卡特皮勒公司以高价销售零件和服务，在后期市场上获得高额利润。因此哈写仿制其零件的“非法仿制者便运应而生，他们将假冒的零件售给“角落”机械师安装，有时他们不将节省的费用交给顾客。与此同时，卡特皮勒公司丧失了销售额。）

4) Two-part pricing 两段定价法 Service firms often engage in two-part pricing, consisting of a fixed fee plus a variable usage fee. Telephone users pay a minimum monthly fee plus charges for calls beyond a certain area. The challenge is how much to charge for the basic service and how much for the variable usage. The fixed fee should be low enough to induce purchase; the profit can be made on the usage fees.

5) By-product pricing 副产品定价法 The production of certain goods—meat, chemicals, and son on—often results in by-products, which can be priced according to their value to customers.

6) Product-bundling pricing 成组产品定价法

Sellers often bundle(捆绑，组合 ) their products and features at a set price. An auto manufacturer, for instance, might offer an option package at less than the cost of buying all of the options separately. Because customers may not have planned to buy all of the components; the saving on the price bundle must be substantial enough to induce them to buy the bundle.

2 Initiating and Responding to Price Changes 发动价格变更和对它的反应

2.1  Initiating price cuts 发动降价 Several circumstances might lead a firm to cut prices:  Excess plant capacity 过多的生产能力  Declining market share下降中的市场份额 ---which may prompt

（促使） the firm to cut prices as a way of regaining share; Drive to dominate the market through lower costs 发动降价以期 望扩大市场份额；

Initiating Price Changes

Initiating price cutsInitiating price cuts

Low quality trapLow quality trapFragile-market-

share trapFragile-market-

share trap

Shallow-pockets trap

Shallow-pockets trap

When considering price-cutting, marketers need to be aware of three possible traps: 考虑降价时，营销人员需要注意三种可能的误区： 1)  Customers may assume that lower-price products have lower

quality; 低质量误区，消费者认为产品低价格产品的质量低 2)  A low price buys markets share but not market loyalty because

the same customers will shift to any lower-price firm; 低价能买到市场占有率，而买不到市场的忠诚，顾客会转向另一个价格更低的公司

3) Higher-price competitors may cut their prices and still have longe

r staying power because of deeper cash reserves.售价高的 竞争者具有雄厚的现金储备，它们也能降价并能持续更长的 时间

2.1  Initiating price increases 发动提价  Factors leading to price increases:   Cost inflation 成本膨胀 This occurs when rising costs—unmatched by productivity gains—

squeeze profit margins, leading firms to regularly increase prices. In fact, companies often raise their prices by more than the cost

increase called anticipated pricing. 公司提高的价格常常比成本的增加要多，这种价格称为预期价格

Overdemand 供不应求 When a company cannot supply all of its customers, it can use one of the following pricing techniques: 当公司不能满足它的顾客时，常用以下几种调价方法：.

 With delayed quotation pricing 采用延缓报价 ---The company does not set a final price until the product is finished or delivered. This is prevalent （普遍的） in industries with long production lead time, such as industrial construction and heavy equipment

With escalator clause 采用价格自动调整条款 ---The company requires the customer to pay today’s price and all or part of any inflation increase that occurs before delivery, based on some specified price index ( 指数 ). Such clauses are found in many contracts involving industrial projects of long duration

With unbundling 采用处理产品价目 ---The company maintains its price but removes or prices separately on or more elements that were part of the former offer, such as free delivery or installation. （公司为了保持其产品价格，将先前供应的产品分解为单一或多个构件定价出售，如免费送货与安装） Many restaurants have shifted from total dinner pricing to a la carte( 照菜单点 ) pricing. A joke in countries with high inflation is that the current price of a car no longer includes the tires and steering wheel.

With reduction of discounts 减少折扣 ---The company no longer offers its normal cash and quantity discounts.

Initiating Price Changes

Initiating price increasesInitiating price increases

Delayed quotation pricing

Delayed quotation pricing

UnbundlingUnbundling

Escalator clausesEscalator clauses

Reduction of discounts

Reduction of discounts

2.3   Reactions to price changes 价格变化的反应

Savvy marketers pay close attention to customers’ reactions, because customers often question the motivation behind price change. Customers are most price sensitive to products that cost a lot or are bought frequently; they hardly notice high prices on low-cost items that they buy infrequently. Some buyers are less concerned with price than with the total costs of obtaining, operating, and servicing the product over its lifetime.

Competitors are most likely to react a price change when there are few

firms offering the product, the product is homogeneous, and buyers are h

ighly informed. They may think the company is trying to steal the marke

t, or may believe that the company wants the entire industry to reduce pri

ce to stimulate total demand.

2.4  Responding to competitors’ price changes 对竞争者价格变化的反应

How should a firm respond to a price cut that is initiated by a co

mpetitor? In markets characterized by high product homogeneity( 同质 ), the firm should search for ways to enhance its augmented( 扩张的 ) product, but if it cannot find any, it will have to meet the price red

uction. If the competitor raises its price in homogeneous product mark

et, the other firms might not match it; the leader will have to rescind

(解除 ) the increase.

In nonhomogeneous product market （异质产品市场）， a firm has more latitude （范围） . The firm need to consider the following issues:

1) Why did the competitor change the price? Is it to steal the market, to utilize excess capacity （利用过剩的生产能力） , to meet changing cost conditions （适应成本变动状况） or to lead an

industry wide price change

2)  Does the competitor plan to make the price change temporary or permanent?

3)    What will happen to the company’s market share and profit if it does not respond? Are other companies going to respond?

4) What are the competitor’s and other firm’s responses likely to be to each possible reaction.

Market leaders frequently face aggressive price-cutting by smaller firms trying to build market share. Using price, Fuji attacks Kodak, and Compaq attacks IBM. Brand leader can respond in several ways:

1)   Maintain price and profit margins 维持原价格和利润幅度

The leader might maintain its price and profit margin, believing that 1) it would lose too much profit if it reduced its price. 2) It would not lose much market share, and 3) it could regain market share when necessary.

2)  Maintain price while adding value 维持原价格和增加价值

The leader could improve its product, services, and communications. The firm may find it cheaper to maintain price and spend money to improve perceived quality than to cut price and operate at a lower margin.

3)  Reducing price降价

The leader might drop its price to match the competitor’s price. It might do so because 1) its costs fall with volume, 2) it would lose market share because the market is price sensitive, and 3) it would be hard to rebuild market share once it lost. This action will cut profits in the short run.

4)   Increasing price and improving quality 提高价格同时改进质量

The leader might raise its price and introduce new brands to bracket( 围攻 ) the attacking brand.

5) Launching a low-price fighter line 推出廉价产品线反击

Add lower-price items to the line or create a separate lower-price brand. Easman Kodak introduced a low-priced seasonal film called Funtime. Miller beer launched a lower-priced beer brand called Red Dog.

Responding toCompetitors’ Price Changes

Maintain priceMaintain price

$$ $$Maintain price and add valueMaintain price and add value

Increase price and improve

quality

Increase price and improve

quality

Reduce priceReduce price

Launch a low-price fighter lineLaunch a low-

price fighter line

Price-Reaction Program for Meeting a Competitor’s Price Cut

Is the pricelikely to

significantlyhurt our sales?

Yes

Is it likely to bea permanent

price cut?Yes

NoHold our price

at present level;continue to watch

competitor’sprice

Has competitorcut his price?

NoNo

How much hashis price been

cut?Yes

By less than 2%Include a

cents-off couponfor the nextpurchase

By 2-4%Drop price by

half of thecompetitor’s

price cut

By more than 4%Drop price tocompetitor’s

price

Chapter 13

Selecting and Managing Marketing ChannelsRetailing and Wholesaling

选择和管理销售渠道零售和批发

1 What Work is performed by Marketing Channels?   Marketing channels 营销渠道 ----Marketing channels are sets of i

nterdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product or service available for use or consumption. 营销渠道是促使产品或服务顺利的被使用或消费的一整套相互依存的组织

Why would a producer delegate （授权） some of the selling job to intermediaries? After all, doing so means giving some control over how and to whom the products are sold. The use of intermediaries results from their greater efficiency in making goods available to target markets. Through their contacts, experience, specialization, and scale of operation, intermediaries usually offer the firm more than it can achieve on its own.

 

Figure 13.1 shows how using intermediaries can provide economies. Part A shows three manufacturers, each using direct marketing to reach three customers, for a total of nine contacts. Part B shows the three producers working through one distributor, who contacts the three customers, for a total of only six contacts. Clearly, working through a distributor is more efficient in such situations.

Reducing the Number of Channel Transactions

Number of contacts without a distributor: M x C = 3 X 3 = 9

Manufacturer

1

32

456

789

Customers

1.1    Channel functions and flows （渠道的功能和流程） A marketing channel performs the work of moving goods from producers to consumers, overcoming the time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who need or want them. Members of the marketing channel perform a number of key functions:   They gather information about potential and current customers, competitions, and other actors and forces in the marketing environment,They develop and disseminate(传播 ) persuasive communications to stimulate purchasing,   They reach agreement on price and other terms so that transfer of ownership of possession can be effected,

They place orders with manufacturers

They acquire the funds to finance inventories at different levels in the marketing channel,

They assume(承担 ) risks connected with carrying out channel work(他们通过银行或其他金融机构为买方贷款 ) ,

 They provide for the successive （一系列的） storage and movement of physical products,

They provide for buyer’s payment of their bills through banks and other financial institutions,

They oversee （监督） actual transfer ownership from one organization or person to another.

1.2    Channel levels 渠道级数 Zero-level channel 零级渠道 --Direct-marketing channel 直接销售渠道 One-level channel 一级渠道 -- One-level channel contains one selling intermediary 一级渠道包括一个中间机构 Two-level channel二级渠道 -- Two-level channel contains two selling intermediaries

Three-level channel 三级渠道 --Three-level channel contains three selling intermediaries

Consumer Marketing Channels

0-level channel

ConsmrMfgr.

1-level channelRetailer ConsmrMfgr.

2-level channelWhlslr Retailer ConsmrMfgr.

3-level channelWhlslr Jobber Retailer ConsmrMfgr.

Industrial Marketing ChannelsM

anu

fact

ure

r

0-level channel

Industrialdistributors

1-level channel

Manufacturer’srepresentative

2-level channel

Manufacturer’ssales branch

3-level channel

Co

nsu

mer

2    Channel-Design Decisions 渠道设计决策 2.1 Identifying major channel alternatives 识别主要的渠道选择方案

1) Types of intermediaries 中间机构的类型

  Merchants---such as wholesalers and retailers to resell the goods.  Agents----such as brokers, manufacturers’ representatives and sales agents. Facilitators---such as transportation companies, independent warehouses, banks and advertising agencies.

2)  Number of intermediaries 中间机构的数量

Companies have to decide on the number of intermediaries to use at each channel level. Three strategies are available: exclusive distribution, selective and intensive distribution distribution  Exclusive distribution 专营性分销 ----Exclusive distribution means severely limiting the number of intermediaries. 专营性分销是严格限制中间商的数量。 It is used when the producer wants to maintain control over the service level and service outputs offered by the reseller. Often it involves exclusive dealing arrangement, in which the resellers agree not to carry competing brands. By granting exclusive distribution, the producer hopes to obtain more dedicated and knowledgeable selling. It requires greater partnership between seller and reseller and is used in the distribution of new automobiles, some major appliances, and some women’s apparel brand.

 Selective distribution 选择性分销 ----Selective distribution involves the use of more than a few but less than all of the intermediaries who are willing to carry a particular product. 选择性分销是利用一家以上，但又不是让所有愿意经销的几家机构都来经营某一种产品。 In this way, the producer avoids dissipating its efforts over too many outlets, and it gains adequate market coverage with more control and less cost than intensive distribution. Nike, the world largest athletic shoemaker, is a good example of selective distribution. 

    Intensive distribution 密集性分销 ----Intensive distribution consists of the manufacturer placing the goods or services in as many outlets as possible. 密集性分销的特点是尽可能多地使用商店销售商品或服务。 This strategy is generally used for items such as tobacco products, soap, snack food, and gum, products for which the consumer requires a great deal of location convenience.

3  Retailing 零售  Retailing includes all of the activities involved in selling goods or services directly to final consumers for personal, nonbusiness use. A retailer or retail store is any business enterprise whose sales volume comes primarily from retailing.  3.1    Types of retailing

See pictures

Major store retailer types:

Specialty store 专业商店

Department store 百货商店

Supermarket 超级市场

Convenience store 便利店

Discount store 折扣店

Off-price store 折价零售店

Superstore 目录商店

Types of Retailers

Discount stores

Broad product line, low margin, high volumeDiscount stores

Broad product line, low margin, high volume

Off-price retailerInexpensive, overruns, irregulars, leftovers

Off-price retailerInexpensive, overruns, irregulars, leftovers

SuperstoresLarge assortment of routinely purchased food

and nonfood products, plus services

SuperstoresLarge assortment of routinely purchased food

and nonfood products, plus services

Catalog showroomBroad selection, fast turnover, discount prices

Catalog showroomBroad selection, fast turnover, discount prices

New store types emerge to meet widely different customer preferences for service levels and specific services. Retailers can position themselves as offering one of the four levels of service:  Self-service: self-service is the cornerstone( 基础 ) of all discount operations, allowing customers to save money by carrying out their own locate-compare-select process(寻找 - 比较 - 选择过程 ).  Self-selection: Customers find their own goods----although they can ask for assistance---and they then complete the transaction by paying a salesperson for the item.  Limited service: These retailers carry more shopping goods, and customers need more information and assistance. The stores also offer services (such as credit and merchandise-return privileges).  Full service: Salespeople are ready to assist in every phase of the locate-compare-select process. The high staffing cost, along with the higher promotion of special goods and slower-moving items plus more service, result in high-cost retailing.

3.2 Retailer marketing Decisions

Retailers’ marketing decision includes the areas of target market, product assortment and procumbent, services and store atmosphere, price promoting and place.

1) Target market

A retailer’s most important decision concerns the target market. Until the target market is defined and profiled, the retailer can not make consistent decisions on product assortment( 品 种 ） , store dector（布置） , advertising messages and media, price and service level.

Wal Mart The late （已故的） Sam Walton and his brother opened the first Wal Mart discount store in Roger, Arkansas, in 1962. It was a big, flat, warehouse-type store selling everything from apparel to automotive supplies to small appliances at the lowest possible prices to small-town America. More recently, Wal Mart has been building stores in larger cities. Today, Wal Mart operates 2,363 discount stores in the United States, including 454 Supercenters, 444 Sam’s Club, and 41 distribution centers. Its annual sales exceed $117 billion, making it the world’s largest retailer and the largest company. It is expanding into the Wal Mart Neighborhood Market supermarket-pharmacy business( 它扩展到沃尔玛附近的超级市场药店业务 ).

Wal Mart’s secret: Target small-town America, listen to the customers, treat the employee as partners, purchase carefully, and keep a tight rein（控制） on expenses. Signs reading “Satisfaction Guaranteed” and “We Sell for Less” hang prominently （醒目地） at the store entrance, and customers are often welcomed by a “people greeter.” Wal Mart is frequently cited as a retailing pioneer. Its use of everyday low pricing and EDI(电子数据交换 ) for speed stock replenishment(补充 ) has been benchmarked by other retailers （被其他零售商作为丁点超越的目标） , and it was the first U.S. megamerchant( 大商业企业 ) to take the plunge(跳进 ) into global retailing. It already has over 600 stores overseas—in Argentina, Brazil, China, South Korea, and Mexico—and is adding more.

2 ） Product assortment （品种） and procurement （采购） The retailer’s product assortment---breath and depth must match th

e target marketer’s shopping expectations. Thus, a restaurant can offer a

narrow and shallow(窄而浅 ) assortment (small lunch counters), a narro

w and deep(窄而深 ) assortment (delicatessen—熟食店 )), a broad and

shallow （宽而浅） assortment (cafeteria), or a broad and deep （宽而深） assortment (large restaurant).

3 ） Service and store atmosphere

Service mix is one of the key tools for differentiating one store from another. Options include:

Prepurchase service （购前服务） such as telephone and mail orders, advertising, window and interior display, fitting rooms 试衣间） shopping hours, fashion shows, and trade-ins （旧货折价收进） ., shopping hours, fashion shows, and trade-ins.

Postpurchase service （购后服务） such as shipping and delivery, gift wrapping, adjustments and return, alternations and tailoring( 换货和定制 ), installations and engraving( 代顾客雕字 ).

Ancillary service （辅助服务） such as general information, check cashing （兑换支票） , parking, restaurants, repair, interior decorating, credit （赊帐信用交易） , rest rooms, and baby-attendant service( 照看婴儿服务 ).

Atmosphere is another different tool in the store’s arsenal. The store must embody a planned atmosphere that suits the target and draws consumers toward purchase. Supermarkets, for example, have found that varying the tempo of music affects the average time spent in the store and the average expenditures

.  Mall of America The largest mall in the United States, the Mall of America near Minneapolis, is a superregional mall plus a 70-acre amusement park. Opened in 1992, it now has a total of over 400 stores that employ more than 12,000 people. Anchored （停泊） by 4 major department stores—Nordstrom, Macy’s, Bloomingdale’s, and Sears—it has become a tourist destination for avid(渴望的 ) shoppers from around the world. It now attracts between 35 million and 40 million visits yearly, and has led to the completion of 7,000 hotel and motel rooms in the area. Other attractions at the Mall of America include a 14-screen General Cinema, Under Water World, an interactive(交互作用的 ) Daimler Chrysler Showcase(陈列馆 ), Golf Mountain, a Rainforest(热带雨林 ) Café, and even a Chapel （教堂） of Love, where over a thousand couples have been married.

4) Place decision  General business district( 中心商业区 )---“Downtown,” the oldest and most heavily trafficked city area. Rents are normally high, but a renaissance(复兴 ) is bringing shoppers back to many cities. Regional shopping centers(地区购物中心 )----Large suburban mall containing 40—200 stores and generally with one of more famous stores, offering generous parking, one-stop shopping and other facilities. Community shopping centers(社区购物中心 )----Smaller mall with one famous store and 20—40 small stores.Strip malls (shopping strip)( 购物区 )---A cluster of stores, usually housed in one long building. Location within a large store(店中店 )----Concession( 租让 ) space rented by McDonald’s and other retailers inside the unit of a large retailer or an operation such as an airport.

4  Wholesaling 批发  Wholesaling includes all of the activities involved in selling goods or

services to those who buy for resale or business use. Wholesaling excludes manufacturers and farmers (because they are not engaged in primarily in production) and retailers.   Wholesalers (also called distributors) differ from retailers in a number

of ways. First, wholesalers pay less attention to promotion, atmosphere, and location because they are dealing with business customers rather than final consumers. Second, wholesale transactions are usually larger than retail transactions, and wholesalers usually cover a large trade area than retailers. Third, the government deals with wholesalers and retailers differently regarding legal regulations and taxes.

Why don’t manufacturers sell directly to retailers or final consumers rather than through wholesalers? The main reason is efficiency: wholesalers are often better at handling one or more of these functions:

        Selling and promoting        Buying and assortment building （采购和置办多种商品）        Bulk breading （大宗购买）        Warehousing        Transportation        Financing        Risk bearing （承担风险）        Market information  Management services and counseling （管理服务和建议 )

WholesalerFunctions

ManagementServices & Advice

ManagementServices & Advice

Selling andPromoting

Selling andPromoting

MarketInformation

MarketInformation

Buying andAssortment Building

Buying andAssortment Building

Risk BearingRisk Bearing Bulk BreakingBulk Breaking

TransportingTransporting

FinancingFinancing WarehousingWarehousing

Why are Wholesalers Used?Why are Wholesalers Used?

 Chapter 15 Designing and Managing Integr

ated Marketing

设计和管理整合营销

1 Decide on the marketing communication mix 开发有效的传播

1.1 Developing and managing the marketing communication mix

Promotional tools 促销工具   Advertising 广告  Sales promotion 销售促进  Public relations and publicity 公馆与宣传  Personal selling 人员推销   Direct marketing 直接营销

AdvertisingPublic, pervasive, expressive, impersonal

Sales promotionCommunication, incentive, invitation

Public relations and publicityCredibility, surprise, dramatization

Personal SellingPersonal confrontation,

cultivation, response

Personal SellingPersonal confrontation,

cultivation, response

Direct MarketingNonpublic, customized,up-to-date, interactive

Direct MarketingNonpublic, customized,up-to-date, interactive

1.2 Factors in setting the marketing communications mix 确定营销传播的组合的因素

1 ）  Type of product market 产品市场类型

For consumer goods, the relative importance of promotion tools goes in this way: Sales promotion>Advertising>Personal selling>Public relation

For industrial goods, the relative importance of promotion tools goes in this way: Personal selling> Sales promotion>Advertising>Public relation

Although advertising is used less than sales promotion and personal selling, it still plays a significant role in building awareness and comprehension, serving as an efficient reminder of the product, generating leaders, legitimizing the company and products, and reassuring customers about their purchase. Personal selling can also make a strong contribution in consumer-goods marketing by helping to persuade dealers to take more stock and display more of the product, build dealer enthusiasm, sign up more dealers, and grow sales at existing accounts.

2 ） Push-versus-pull strategy 推动与拉引战略

 Push strategy involves the manufacturer using sales force and trade promotion to induce intermediaries to carry, promote, and sell the product to end users. 推动战略要求制造商使用销售队伍和贸易促销，刺激中间商向最终用户推出、促销和销售产品。

This is especially appropriate where is low brand loyalty in a category; brand choice is made in the store; the product is an important item; and product benefits are well understood.

 Pull strategy involves the manufacturer using advertising and consumer promotion to induce consumers to ask intermediaries for the product, thus inducing the intermediaries to order it 拉引战略要求制造商使用广告和消费者促销，刺激消费者向中间商提出对某项产品的要求，以刺激中间商订购该产品。

This is especially appropriate when there is high brand loyalty; and people choose the brand before they go to the store.

Push Versus Pull Strategy

Producer

Producer

Interme-diaries

Marketingactivities

End users

Marketingactivities

Demand Interme-diaries

Demand

Push Strategy

Pull Strategy

End users

Marketing activities

Demand

3) Product-life cycle stage 产品生命期阶段

Advertising and public relation are most cost effective in the introduction stage; then all the tools can be toned down (缓和 ) in the growth stage because the demand is building word of mouth. Sales promotion, advertising and personal selling grow more important in the maturity stage. In the decline stage, sales promotion continues strong, advertising and publicity are reduced, and salespeople give the product only minimum attention.

4) Company market rank 公司市场排列

Market leaders derive more benefits from advertising than from sales promotion. Conversely, smaller competitors gain more by using sales promotion in their marketing communication mix.

Developing Promotion Mix Strategies

Company market rankCompany

market rank

Type of product/ market

Type of product/ market

Product life-cycle stage

Product life-cycle stage

Buyer/ readiness

stage

Buyer/ readiness

stagePush vs. pull

strategyPush vs. pull

strategy

1.3 Integrated marketing communication (IMC) 整合营销传播

Integrated marketing communication (IMC) is a concept of

marketing communications planning that recognizes the added value o

f a comprehensive plan that evaluates the strategic roles of a variety of

communications disciplines. 整合营销传播的概念是确认评估各种传播方法战略作用的一个综合计划的增加价值。

2 Developing and Managing the Advertising Campaign 开发和管理广告程序   Advertising is any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor. 广告是由明确的主办人发起，通过付费用的任何非人员介绍和促销其创意、商品或服务的行为。 Advertisers include not only business firms but also museums, charitable organizations, government agencies that direct messages to target public. Ads are a cost-effective way to disseminate messages, whether to build brand preference for Intel computer chips or to educate people about the danger of drugs.  In developing an advertising program, successful firms start by identifying the target market and buyer motives. Then they can make five critical decisions, known as Five Ms.

Five Ms: 5 Ms

 Mission: what are the advertising objectives? 任务：广告的目的是什么？

 Money: how much can be spent? 资金：要花多少钱？

 Message: what message should be sent? 信息：要传送什么信 息？

Media: what media should be used? 媒体：使用什么媒体？

Measurement: how should the results be evaluated? 衡量：如何评价结果

The Five Ms of Advertising

MissionMission

MoneyMoney

MessageMessage MediaMedia

MeasurementMeasurement

2.1 Setting the advertising objectives 建立广告目标

   Informative advertising 通知性广告 ---The objective is to buil

d primary demand. Thus DVD makers initially had to inform con

sumers of the benefits of this technology.  Persuasive advertising 说服性广告 ---becomes important in the

competitive stage, where the objective is to build selective deman

d for a particular brand. Some persuasive advertising is comparative

advertising, which explicitly compare two or more brands. Reminded advertising 提醒性广告 ----is important with matu

re products. Coco-Cola ads are primarily intended to remind people

to purchase Coco-Cola. Automobile ads often depict (describe).

2.2 Choosing the advertising message 选择广告信息

1)   Message generation 信息的产生 2) Message evaluation and selection 信息的评价和选择   Messages are rated on: desirability, exclusiveness, and believability. 信息可以根据愿望性、独占性和可信性来加以评估。 3)  Message execution 信息的表达

Rational positioning 理智定位    Emotional positioning 情感定位 The actual words in an ad must be memorable and attention-getting to make an impression on the audience. The following ad themes (column on left) would have had much less impact without the creative phrasing (column on right)  4) Social responsibility 信息的社会责任观

Choosing theAdvertising Message

1. Message evaluation and

selection

1. Message evaluation and

selection

3. Social responsibility

3. Social responsibility

2. Message execution

2. Message execution

4. Message generation

4. Message generation

Our technology can help you do almost anything

Where do you want to go today?”(Microsoft)

No hard sell, just a good car

“Drivers wanted” (VW)

7-up is not Cola

“Un-Cola”

Let’s drive you in our bus instead of driving your car

“Take the bus, and leave the driving to us”

2.3 Developing media strategies 发展媒体战略

1) Deciding reach, frequency, and impact 决定接触面、频率和影 响 Media selection 媒体选择

Media selection involves finding the most cost-effective media to deliver the desired number of exposures to the target audience. 媒体选择就是有关寻找向目标受众传达预期展露次数的展露成本效益最佳的途径问题。

 Reach (R): The number of different persons or households that are exposed to a particular media schedule at least once during a

specified time period.  Frequency (F): The number of times within the specified time

period that an average person or household is exposed to the message.Impact (I): The qualitative value of an exposure through a given

medium (thus a food ad in Good Housekeeping would have a higher impact than the same ad in the Police Gazette.

2) Selecting media and vehicles 选择媒体工具

Target-audience media habits 目标受众的媒体习惯

products产品

 message 广告信息

 cost 费用

3) Deciding on media timing 决定媒体时间安排 In launching a new product, the advertiser can choose among

ad continuity, concentration, flighting, and pulsing. 在推出一项新产品时，广告客户必须在广告连续性、集中性、时段性和节奏性中间做出选择。

3 Sales-Promotion Strategies 销售促进战略

Sales promotion, a key ingredient in any marketing campaigns,

consists of a diverse collection of incentive tools, mostly short ter

m, designed to stimulate trial, or quicker or greater purchase, of pa

rticular products or services by consumers or the trade. 销售促进包括各种多数属于短期性的刺激工具，用以刺激消费者和贸易商较迅速或较多地购买某一特定产品或服务。

Whereas advertising offers a reason to buy, sales promotion offe

rs an incentive to buy. 如果广告提供了购买的理由，而销售促进则提供了购买的刺激。

3.1 Purchase of sales promotion 销售促进的目的

Sellers-promotion tools can be used to achieve a variety of objectives. Sellers use incentive-type promotions to attract new triers, to reward loyal customers, and to increase the repurchase rates of occasional( 偶然性 ) users. New triers are of three types----users of another brand in the same category, users in other categories, and users of brand switchers( 品牌转换者 ). Sale promotion often attract the brand switchers, because users of other brands and categories do not always notice or act on promotion. Brand switchers are primarily looking for low price, good value or premium, so sales promotions are unlikely to turn them into loyal users.

Sales promotion, with its incessant( 不断的 ) price off, coupons, and premiums(奖金 ), may devalue the product offering in the buyers’ minds. When a brand is price promoted too often, the consumer begins to buy it mainly when it goes on sale. So there is risk in putting a well-known brand leader on promotion over 30% of the time. Kellog ( 凯洛格 ), Draft（卡夫） and other market leaders are trying to return to “pull” marketing by increasing their advertising. They blame the heavy use of sales promotion for decreasing brand loyalty, increasing consumer price sensitivity, brand-quality-image dilution, and a focus on short-run marketing planning.

Some people think that sales promotion enable manufacturers to adjust to short-term variation in supply and demand, adapt programs to different consumer segments, induce consumers to try new products, and lead to more varied retail formats. On the customer side, sales promotion raise awareness of prices and helps consumers feel satisfied as smart shoppers. Make sure the promotion is justified. For example, a new store opening, a company anniversary and other kinds of celebrations are all good seasons for running a promotion. Celebrating autumn back-to-school times are not good reasons to run promotions, as they are too generic. Festivals and anniversaries are good.

3.2 Major decisions in sales promotion 销售促进的主要决策 1) Establishing objectives 建立目标 The specific objectives for sales promotion vary with the target market. For consumers, objectives include encouraging purchase of the large-size units, building trial among nonusers, and attracting switchers away from competitors’ brands. For retailers, the objectives include persuading retailers to carry new items and higher levels of inventory, encouraging off-season buying, offsetting competitive promotions, building brand loyalty, and gaining entry into new retail outlets. For the sales force, objectives include encouraging support of a new product or model, encouraging more prospects, and simulating of-season sales. For example, a new store opening, a company anniversary and other kinds of celebrations are all good seasons for running a promotion. Celebrating autumn back-to-school times are not good reasons to run promotions, as they are too generic. Festivals and anniversaries are good.

2 ） Selecting consumer-promotion tools ----选择消费者促销工具

  Sample （样品 )-----Offer free amount of a product or service

 Coupon(优惠券 )----Certificates offering a stated saving on the purchase of a specific product.

 Cash refund offers (rebate)( 现金折扣，现金退款 )----Provide a price reduction after purchase---- Customer sends a specified “proof of purchase” to the manufacturer who “refunds” part of the purchase price by mail.

 Price pack (cents –off deal)( 特价包 , 小额折价交易 )---- Promoted on the package or label, these offer savings off the product’s regular price.

   Premium(奖品 )---- Merchandise offered at low or no cost as an incentive to buy a particular product

  Prizes (contests, sweepstakes, games)( 通过竞赛、抽奖、游戏获得奖金 )---- Customers are offered with the chance to win cash, trips, or merchandise as a result of buying something.   Patronage awards(光顾奖励 )----Values in cash or points given to reward patronage of a certain seller. Most airlines offer frequent flier plans.  Product trials(免费试用 )---- Inviting prospects to try the product free in the hope that they will buy the product. Product warranties( 产品保证 )----Explicit or implicit promises by sellers that the product will perform as specified or that the seller will fix it or refund the customers’ money during a specified period. When Chrysler offered a five-year car warranty, substantially longer than GM’s and Ford’s, customers took notice. Sear’s offer of a lifetime warranty on its auto batteries will certainly benefit the customers.

Tie-in promotions(联合促销 )----two or more brands or companies team up on coupons, refunds, and contests to increase pulling power.  Cross-promotions( 交叉促销 )---- using one brand to advertise another noncompeting brand.  Point-purchase (POP) displays and demonstrations( 售点陈列和商品示范 )----Display and demonstrations that take place at the point of purchase or sale.   Manufacturer promotion is illustrated by the auto industry’s frequent use of debates and gifts to motivate test-drivers and purchase. Retailer promotions include capons, and retailer contests or premiums.

3)  Selecting trade-promotion tools ----选择交易促销工具

  Price-pff (off-invoice or off-list) 价格折扣（又称发票折扣或价目单折扣）   Allowance （折让）   Free goods （免费商品） Manufactures can use the above trade promotion tools to: 1) persuade an intermediary to carry( 经销 ) the product; 2) persuade an intermediary to carry more units; 3) induce retailers to promote the brand by featuring, display, an price reduction ( 使零售商通过宣传产品特色、展示以及降价来推广产品 ); 4) stimulate retailers and their salespeople to push the products.

4)   Selecting business-and sales force promotion tools 选择业务和销售队伍的促销工具

Trade show and conventions(贸易展览会 )----industry associations organize trade shows and conventions where firms buy space and set up booths and displays to demonstrate and sell their products and services. Firms expect several benefits, including generating new sales leaders, maintaining customer contact, introducing new products, meeting new customers, selling more to present customers, and educating customers with publications, videos and other audiovisual materials. Sales contests （销售竞赛 )---induce salespeople to force or dealers to increase sales over a stated period, with prizes going to those who succeed. Specialty advertising （纪念品广告 )---- these include useful, low-cost items bearing the company’s name and address, and sometimes an advertising message that salespeople give to prospects and customers. Common items are ballpoint pens, calendars etc.

 

4 Public Relations Strategies 公共关系战略

Public A public is any group that has an actual or potential interest in or impact on a company’s ability to achieve its objectives. 公众是任何一组群体，它对公司达到其目标能力具有实际的或潜在的兴趣或影响力。

Public relation (PR) Public relation involves a variety of programs that are designed to promote or protect a company’s image or its individual products. 公共关系包括设计用来推广或保护一个公司形象或它的个别产品的各种计划。

Five functions:5项职能：

1 ） Press relations (presenting news and information about the organization in the most positive light); 与新闻界的关系（用正面的形式战时关于本组织的新闻和信息）；

2 ） Product publicity (publicizing specific products); 产品的公共宣传（为某些特定产品做宣传）；

3 ） Corporate communication (promoting understanding of the organization through internal and external communications); 公司的信息传播（通过内部和外部信息传播来促进对本机构的了解）；

4 ） Lobbying (dealing with legislators and government officials to promote or defeat legislation and regulation); 游说（与立法者和政府官员打交道，以促进或挫败立法和规定）；

5 ） Counseling (advising management about public issues and company positions and image---and advising in the event of a mishap). 咨询（就公司事件问题、公司地位和公司形象向管理当局提出建议，提出产品灾祸时的建议）

 4.1 Marketing public relations 营销公关 (MPR)

MPR plays an important role in: 营销公关有助于完成下述任务：

 Assisting in the launch of new products 协助新产品上市； Assisting in repositioning a mature product 协助成熟其产品的再定位； Building interest in a product category 建立对某一产品的兴趣； Influencing specific target groups 影响特定的目标群体；Defending products that have encountered public problems. 保护遭遇社会问题的产品Building the corporate image in a way that reflects favorably on its products 建立有利于表现产品特点的公司形象。

4.2 Major decisions in marketing 营销公关的主要决策

In considering when and how to use MPR, management must establish the marketing objectives, choose the messages and vehicles, implement the plan carefully, and evaluate the results. The main tools of MPR are described as follows:

        Major tools in marketing PR 主要的营销公关工具  Publications 公开出版物 Events 事件 ----companies can draw attention to new products or other company activities by arranging special events like new conference, on-linechats, seminars, exhibitions, sports and cultural sponsorships that will reach the target public.  News 新闻  Speeches 演讲 Public-service activities 公益活动 ----companies can build goodwill by contributing money and time to good causes. Identity media 形象识别媒体 ----to attract and spark （鼓舞） recognition, the firm’s visual identity is carried by its logo, stationery （文具） , brochures, signs business forms, business cards, Web site, buildings, uniforms, and dress code （制服标记） .

1) Establishing the marketing objectives 建立营销目标

MPR can build awareness of a product, service, person, organization or an idea; add credibility by communicating a message in an editorial context （通过社论性的报道增加传播信息的可信度） ; boost sales force and dealer enthusiasm and hold down promotion costs because it costs less than media advertising.

2) Choosing message and vehicles 选择公关信息和载体

The MPR expert must identify or develop interesting stories to tell about the product. If there are few stories, the expert should propose newsworthy events to sponsor as a way of stimulating media coverage ( 应安排有新闻价值的事件从而吸引媒体报道 ) 。

3) Implementing and evaluating the plan 执行和评估计划

The easiest measure is the number of exposures obtained in the media（在媒体暴露的次数） ; a better measure would be changes in product awareness, comprehension, or attitude resulting from the MPR campaign (after allowing for the effect of other promotional tools （考虑了其他促销工具的影响之后 ). The most satisfactory measure is sales-and-profit impact, allowing the company to determine its return （回报） on MPR investment.

Microsoft and Window 95 Microsoft’s campaign launching Windows 95 was an MPR success story. No paid ads for Windows 95 had appeared by August 24, 1995, the launch day. Yet everyone knew about it! The Wall Street Journal estimated that 3,000 headlines, 6,852 stories, and over 3 million words were dedicated to Windows 95 from July 1 to August 24. Microsoft teams around the world executed attention-grabbing( 抓住注意 ) publicity. Microsoft hung a 600-foot Windows 95 banner from Toronto’s CN Tower. The Empire State Building in New York was bathed(粉刷成 ) in the red, yellow and green color of the Windows 95 logo. Microsoft paid The London Times to distribute free its entire daily run of 1.5 million copies to the public. By the end of the first week, U.S sales alone were $108 million, not bad for a $90 product. The lesson is clear: Good advance PR can be much more effective than millions of dollars spent on advertising.

5 Direct marketing

  Direct marketing is the use of consumer-direct channels to reach and deliver goods and services to customers without intermedediaries. The channels include direct mail, telemarketing, interactive TV, Web sites and mobile devices. They share four distinctive characteristics. They are:

 Nonpublic (非公共性） --the message is normally addressed to a specific person;

 Customized ( 定制化） --the message can be prepared to appeal to the addressed individual;

   Up-to-date (即时化） --a message can be prepared very quickly);

 Interactive (互动性） --the message can be changed depending on the person’s response.

6 Personal Selling

Personal selling has three distinctive qualities:

  Personal confrontation (it involves an immediate and interactive rel

ationship between two or more persons);

Cultivation (it permits all kinds of relationships to spring up, ranging

from a matter-of-fact selling relationship to a deep personal friendship);

  Response (it makes the buyer feel under some obligation fro having

listened to the sales talk)