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Randomized Experiments Political Analysis Year 2: Week 5 Professor David Kirk

PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

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Page 1: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Randomized Experiments

Political Analysis Year 2: Week 5Professor David Kirk

Page 2: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Outline

Lecture builds on Prof. Ruggeri’s lecture on confounding and the purpose of control variables

Potential outcomes framework

The logic of randomized experiments

Examples of experiments to study voting

Page 3: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Bicycle Thefts in Oxford (OX1)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70Bicycle Th

efts

Hypothetical PoliceCrackdown Begins

Page 4: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

What is the impact of the police intervention?

1) Positive

2) Negative

3) Zero

4) Not enough information

Page 5: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Bicycle Thefts in Oxford (OX1)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70Bicycle Th

efts

Impact of Crackdown?

Hypothetical PoliceCrackdown Begins

Page 6: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Hypothetical Example

A gentleman is feeling ill but does not know whether going to the hospital will make him feel better

Assume there are two options (i.e., treatments): he either goes to the hospital (d = 1) or he does not (d = 0)

There are two potential outcomes: his level of health if he went to the hospital (y1) and his level of health if he does not go to the hospital (y0)

To determine the effect of going to the hospital on his health, we take the difference: y1 – y0

Page 7: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Fundamental Problem of Causal Inference

Causal inference is a missing data problem: We cannot simultaneously observe both y1 and y0 for the same person—one of the values is always missing

Group Y 1 Y 0

Treatment Group (D = 1) Observable UnobservableControl Group (D = 0) Unobservable Observable

Page 8: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Counterfactual

The counterfactual represents the state of the world that individuals would have experienced in the absence of the treatment or program (e.g., had they not gone to the hospital) 

Problem: Counterfactual cannot be observed 

Solution: We need to “mimic” or construct the counterfactual, and the treatment and control groups should be as similar as possible

Page 9: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Back to the Health Example (Naïve Estimate)

1

2

3

4

5

Hospital No Hospital

Self‐Reported Health Status of Individuals by Prior Hospitalization(2005 National Health Interview Study; Angrist and Pischke 2009)

Poor

Fair

Excellent

Very Good

Good

1

2

3

4

5

Hospital No Hospital

Self‐Reported Health Status of Individuals by Prior Hospitalization(2005 National Health Interview Study; Angrist and Pischke 2009)

Poor

Fair

Excellent

Very Good

Good

Page 10: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Control by Matching and Regression

Known sources of variation may be (potentially) eliminated by matching treatment and control groups on known characteristics Similarly with regression, we “control” for known sources of variation between 

the treatment and control groups by adding variables to our model

Matching ensures that groups compared are alike on specific known and observable characteristics (in principle, everything we have thought of)

But matching and statistical control are limited: matching and control are only possible on observable characteristics

What we really need is a method of making groups alike not only on all known and observable characteristics, but everything we didn’t know about or were unable to observe

Page 11: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Randomized Experiments

What if we had randomly assigned―e.g., by flipping a coin―which ill individuals will receive medical treatment?

Random assignment facilitates causal inference by making groups (e.g., treatment and control groups) randomly similar to each other on all variables (known and unknown, observable or not) The only systematic difference between groups is that one group received the treatment (e.g., medical care)

Page 12: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Randomized Experiments cont.

If the groups are the same prior to medical treatment but have different levels of health after treatment, then the difference is because of the treatment

Vs.

Page 13: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Example: Voter Turnout

Some key questions in the study of voting:– What affects voter turnout?– Is voting a contagious behaviour?

oOr do individuals likely to vote simply seek out friends who are similar (birds of a feather flock together)?

– Can online mobilization increase turnout?

Page 14: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Two Treatments: Informational Message and Social Message

RM Bond et al. Nature 489, 295-298 (2012) doi:10.1038/nature11421

Page 15: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

The Effect on Voting

RM Bond et al. Nature 489, 295-298 (2012) doi:10.1038/nature11421

Page 16: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Another voting experiment: Gerber, Green, and Larimer (2008)

To what extent do social norms cause voter turnout?

An individual’s vote is extremely unlikely to be the deciding vote in an election 

So why do people vote?

Hypotheses: because of intrinsic rewards (e.g., feel good about following civic duty) and/or extrinsic rewards (social norms, civic duty, and the possibility of shame)

Page 17: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Gerber, Green, and Larimer: Research Design

Sent mailings to 80,000 to households in Michigan prior to 2006 election. Four different types of mailings:1) Reminded of civic duty2) Indicated that researchers would assess their turnout 

through public records3) Displayed previous record of voter turnout of household 

members4) Displayed previous record of voter turnout of household 

members and neighbours

In addition to the 4 treatment groups, there was a control group (N=99,999) that did not receive any mailing

Page 18: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Treatment 1: Reminder of Civic Duty

Page 19: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Treatment 2: Vote Examined by Researchers

Page 20: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Treatment 3: Display Voting Record

Page 21: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Treatment 4: Display Voting Record (Household and Neighbours)

Page 22: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Results of Gerber et al.

Page 23: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Features of Random Experiments

1) Manipulation: to test relationships, the experimenter deliberately introduces change in an independent variable (i.e., the treatment), and then observes the effects of this change

2) Control: the experimenter controls which unit will receive treatment; because experimenters have the ability to control the conditions of observation, experiments can more effectively eliminate the possibility that confounding variables will influence the validity of results

3) Random Assignment: subjects are randomly assigned to treatment and control groups; besides the receipt of a treatment, these two groups are equivalent

Page 24: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Random Assignment

Random assignment: procedure of assignment to group, where each subject has an equal probability of being in either group (treatment or control)

Random does not mean haphazard or unknown

Random assignment allows us to control pre‐experimental differences across treatment and control groups

Through random assignment, attributes of the units (i.e., subjects) that might confound the experimental results will be evenly distributed between the treatment and control groups

Page 25: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Criteria for Establishing Causal Relationships

1) Association: T and Y are correlated

2) Time ordering: cause (T) precedes the effect (Y)

3) Nonspuriousness: spuriousness occurs because there is one or more confounding variables (W) which changes both the independent (T) and dependent (Y) variables, giving the illusion that the independent variable is causing the dependent variable

T Y

W

Page 26: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

26

Page 27: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

What else might explain the relationshipbetween chocolate consumption and winning 

the Nobel Prize?

Chocolateconsumption

per capita

Nobel prizesawarded

per capita

?

Page 28: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Another example of spuriousness

Does shoe size have a causal effect on literacy?

Or is there a “confounding” variable that is correlated with both shoe size and literacy, thus explaining why there is a correlation? 

ShoeSize Literacy

OmittedVariable

Page 29: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Summary

Causal inference is a missing data problem: We cannot simultaneously observe both potential outcomes (y1and y0) for the same person

Hence, the task of causal inference is to create a reasonable approximation of the counterfactual condition.

Randomization is generally regarded as to be the “gold standard” for constructing the counterfactual

We will examine other strategies for constructing the counterfactual in subsequent lectures

Page 30: PoliticalAnalysis Week5 RandomExperiments · Microsoft PowerPoint - PoliticalAnalysis_Week5_RandomExperiments Author: david.kirk Created Date: 20151109211837Z

Final Thought

Last week Prof. Ruggeri encouraged you, in your final essays, to think about possible confounders (i.e., omitted variables) that may affect both your dependent variable and independent/treatment variable

Similarly, for your essays, think about an ideal experiment to answer a given research question. If an experiment was possible, what would it look like?