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Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Paper: Perspectives on International Relations and World History
Lesson: Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
Lesson Developer: Ankit Tomar
College: Miranda House, University of Delhi
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU& BRICS
Introduction Defining Post-Cold War Era Major Developments in Post-Cold War Period American Hegemony and UniPolar World Emergence of Other Centres of Power: EU, BRICS and Japan Conclusion Glossary Essay Type Questions Multiple Choice Questions Suggested Readings Useful Web-Links
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
INTRODUCTION
International politics is ever-changing, dynamic and comprehensive. It has never accepted any particular order as permanent and it has been proved with the dismantling of the Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe (1991) and the end of Cold War which led to the massive changes in the international system.
The end of Cold War gives a start of new phase in the history of international politics which is often referred as a ‘post-Cold War’ phase of world politics. In the post-Cold War era, the balance of power system and bipolar system that existed for a long period before the end of Cold War, was made away by the unipolar world order loaded with multi-polar characteristics, where more than one power may exercise its influence in world politics. Thus, it would not be unwise to describe the present international order as ‘unipolar with multi-polar tendencies’.
Top Five Largest Economies in 2050
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In the post-Cold War context, a whole range of issue that were once viewed as of secondary importance, now have a serious implications and stronger central role in driving change in global politics. In the present scenario, some of the most important issues of concern in global politics include environmental concerns and climate change, nuclear proliferation, menace of global terrorism, rise of ethnic conflicts, globalization and threat to nation state, human rights and refugee issue and the like.
Furthermore, in the post-Cold War era questions have been continuously raised by some scholars against the relevance of Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) as the superpower rivalry gets over with the end of Cold War. Nevertheless, NAM countries, in the post-Cold War scenario, are continuing to use this forum to achieve a set of agendas which are relevant in the post-Cold War world. It includes, among others, independence in foreign
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
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relations, sustainable development, protection of environment, international cooperation in political, economic and cultural fields, equity in trade relations, democratization of the United Nations and NAM’s long standing goals of international peace and security, disarmament and arms control, and protection of human rights.
Non-Aligned Countries on World Map
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The international financial regimes such as the IMF, the World Bank and WTO, with their policies of structural adjustments, are also continued to dominate all over the developing and under-developed countries of Southern-hemisphere in the era of the post-Cold War.
In the post-Cold War scenario, although security and defence issues remain important and military power, though not a salient feature of world politics but still it viewed as one potential among many sources of strength and influence and continues to be the most reliable technique for serving the interest of the big and powerful states. This became evident soon after the end of Cold War on the wake of Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait and action taken by the US led coalition power under the auspices of the UN. The war on Terror, being carried out by the US initially against Afghanistan and thereafter against Iraq, post9/11, show that the use of military power is still important and its use by the reigning superpower and its allies to the protection of their own interest is the rule of the day.
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
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9/11 Attack: An Incident of International Terrorism
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The post-Cold War world also witnessing an increased regional integration and growth of regional arrangements such as the European Union, SAARC, BRICS, ASEAN, OPEC, NAFTA, APEC, OAS, AU and a host of others which can pose a threat to the US supremacy.
Now, the prime purpose of this lesson is not to depict US as the only superpower in world politics rather it aims to show the major developments in the post- Cold war era and the emergence of other centres of power.
DEFINING POST-COLD WAR ERA
The term ‘Post- Cold War’ refers to a one of the significant phase in the history of international politics which not only depicts the end of the Cold War and a bloc politics that led to a serious rivalry between the two distinct ideological camps followed by the two superpowers (USA and USSR) and their respective allies but also marked a global power shift in the world politics. Today, in the post-Cold War era, the international politics is very different as it was immediately after the Second World War. The impact of globalization, terrorism or climate change on global politics was almost negligible before the end of Cold War. Moreover, the post-Cold War world order has thrown many
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
challenges to the researchers and practitioners of international politics: Is the post-Cold War international order a unipolar or a multi-polar one? Is globalization eroding the notion of state sovereignty? Is the world moving towards economic integration? Are EU, BRICS and Japan going to pose an effective challenge to the might of the United States? These and many other pertinent issues has acquire the centre place in the post-Cold War international politics and require proper analyses in order to understand the nature and scope of global politics in a broad and comprehensive way.
Now, if one has look at the history of international politics after the disintegration of erstwhile Soviet Union in 1991, it shows that the international world order has no longer remains a bipolar world and become unipolar just after the end of Cold War. But the post-Cold War era is not only about the unipolarity in world order rather it has also witnesses the emergence of alternative centres of power in the 21st century.
Emergence of Alternative Centres of Power
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Besides all of this the main characteristic feature of the post- Cold War era is that many of the issues such as environmental degradation, international terrorism, human security, the rising rates of migration, poverty, ethno-cultural conflicts, etc. which were at the periphery of global agendas become the issues of global concern with a greater interest in the changing world scenario.
MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN POST-COLD WAR PERIOD
The four and a half decade long Cold War (1945-1990) marked an important phase in the history of International Politics. This war was responsible for the bipolar nature of world politics in which the two superpowers behaved like separate and contradicted poles. But with the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, Cold war was ended and bipolarity in the world politics also ceased to exist. Thus, the former Soviet Union was no longer a challenge to the United State’s hegemonic leadership and the United States sits alone at the top of the international hierarchy soon after the end of Cold War which has transformed the global hierarchy.
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
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USA USSR
Source: Author
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Other notable developments in world politics that took place after the end of Cold War were the unification of Germany, the creation of CIS, and the divisions of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Soon after the dismantling of Soviet Union, the Russian Federation was acknowledged as the successor of the former Soviet Union by the international community. It was given a permanent seat at the UN Security Council, in place of the former Soviet Union. Apart from that the fifteen sovereign States of former Soviet Union also marked the beginning of a new era of cooperation and friendship. The countries in other parts of the world also start to adjust their roles in a new world order which is markedly different from that of the previous four and a half decades.
After the end of Cold War, the new millennium has also witnessed a number of remarkable changes in the international system. Globalization, technological advancements, emergence of non-state actors along with nation-states, rise of international organizations, disarmament and arms control, international law and neo-liberal capitalist world order becomes one of the main characteristic features of the post-Cold War era. In the post-Cold War period, the process of globalization has deeply influenced the international politics and relations among states.
The current international world order which is primarily driven by neo-liberal and capitalist ideology, gives rise of growing importance of World Bank, IMF, WTO and TNCs as significant economic anchors in international politics. With the end of the Cold War and the collapse of Eastern bloc after 1989, neo classical economic policies that favoured a minimalist state and an enhanced role for the market became predominant under the economic logic of globalization.
Furthermore, due to the process of globalization, many of the issues and regimes get a global understanding and become international in their nature and scope. For instance, terrorism, environmental protection or climate change etc are all no longer remain as domestic issues rather these become the concern of all states in the rapidly changing world scenario.
Now with the end of the Cold war, the concept of ‘security’ and ‘development’ has also increasingly come to be scrutinized by scholars and practitioners of international relations. In other words, the end of Cold War enforced a redefinition of security and development in the post-Cold War era. In the classical formulation, security and development has only narrow and one-sided views. Earlier security only refers to
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
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territorial integrity and handling the military threats from other states but in today’s context the scope of security become more comprehensive, broaden and inclusive which includes not only military threats from other states but also encompass disease, terrorism, poverty, environmental degradation, economic and cultural threats or dangers etc. The idea of human security becomes so popular in the post-Cold War period.
Like security, the idea of development also gets broader dimensions in the post-Cold War phase. Traditionally development as a process or condition has been looking only in an economic term which is often referred as economic growth and gross availability of products in the market but since the 1990s, this view has been challenged by various alternative approaches to development which virtually evolved from grass roots and stresses on equity, participation, self-reliance and sustainability. In this context, scholars like Amartya Sen, relates the idea of development with enhancing capabilities and choices of citizens as consumers. According to Sen, development is both a process and a product; it is a process of empowering the citizens with certain entitlements that will help them to enter in the market with adequate purchasing power to buy products of their choice as consumers.
Besides the notion of security and development, the idea of human rights also gets a very comprehensive dimension which is now not only limited to political and socio-economic rights but also includes cultural and community based rights of human.
The post-Cold War period also witnessed the establishment of WTO (World Trade Organization) regime which came into existence on 1st January 1995 during the Uruguay Round of 1986-1994 and Ministerial Meeting at Marrakesh, Morocco. The WTO which is a successor of GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs) was established with the aim to liberalize world trade and to promote economic growth, development and welfare of the people all around the globe.The Post-Cold War scenario has also come to be characterized with the rise of moral and cultural issues which has replaced the ideological one. In this phase the international relations has become more complex with ethnic and identity movements. For instance in former Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Angola, Cyprus, Somalia, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Burundi, Russia, Georgia, and elsewhere, rise of fundamentalist forces gradually spreading all over the world and often assuming the character of international terrorism jeopardizing international peace and security.
In sum, all of these changes and developments in the post-Cold War phase make the study of international politics more interesting and global.
AMERICAN HEGEMONY AND UNIPOLAR WORLD
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
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Bipolarity in International System
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Cold War was an important phase in the international history which gets an end with the disintegration of erstwhile Soviet Union in 1991. The end of Soviet Union leads to the emergence of United States of America as a sole super-power with formidable economic, military and political clouts in the international politics. It appeared that there was no nation that could successfully counter the might of the US. Therefore, the new international order immediately after the Cold War, with the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 was described by many of the scholars as a ‘unipolar world’, and bipolarity gets replaced by unipolarity, with the US as the remaining superpower, exercising unobtrusive control over world politics. During the first two decades of the end of Cold War, the United States was leading its competitors by a wide margin in overall military capabilities and the ability to project its forces globally.
American Hegemony
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Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
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But at the end of the first decade of twenty-first century, the question regarding the unipolar nature of international order was arising because of the emergence of various alternative centres of power. Today, there are some powers in international order which can pose a serious challenge to the superiority of the US and thus, the current international order is often described as multi-polar world order.
In the post-Cold War phase European Union, BRICS and Japan emerged as the alternative centres of power. The European Union (EU) contains the former world powers namely, United Kingdom, Germany and France etc. This regional organization has one of the most powerful economies in the world at present. The EU has not only military potential but also the largest economy in the world. Besides EU, BRICS countries also have a very influential impact on the global politics. China for instance is believed by many to be one of the emerging powers in world politics. It has a very strong military, the second strongest in the world. China is a permanent member of the UN Security Council and a nuclear-weapon state. Apart from that China has also achieved spectacular economic growth during the last two decades.
Furthermore, Russia and India are also considered by many as the leading powerful countries in the contemporary international system. Russia, the successor of former Soviet Union is geographically the largest country in the world and has a control over a variety of strategic raw materials. It has also inherited most of the military might of former Soviet Union and retained almost 85 percent of the nuclear weapons of the Soviet Union, as well as the permanent membership of the UN Security Council.
Like Russia, India has also emerged as a powerful and most influential country in the post- Cold War era. The burgeoning size and robust growth of the Indian economy is drawing much attention in the world. Geo-politically, India is regarded as a world largest democratic and secular country. It also has a stable economy and nuclear weapons power.
India: An Emerging Superpower
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
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In the wake of the policy of economic liberalization in 1991, followed by India’s entry into a globalized world, it has become an avenue for the investment of foreign capital by other countries of world.
EMERGENCE OF OTHER CENTRES OF POWER: EU, BRICS AND JAPAN
EUROPEAN UNION (EU)
European Union
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The European Union (EU) formerly known as the European Community (EC) or the European Economic Community (EEC) is a geo-political entity based on a unique economic and political partnership among 28 European countries that together covering a large portion of the European continent. It is founded upon numerous treaties and has undergone expansions from the original, six member states to 28.
The European Union (EU) was created to foster better economic, political and social co-operations among the member countries by the Maastricht Treaty on November 1st 1993
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in the aftermath of the Second World War which had devastated the European countries. The war had left them totally bankrupt and had hit their economies and human resources hard. The European countries which were enjoying a dominant position in world politics so far, example, Great Britain, France and Germany, had lost their position after the World War II and the World was soon dominated by the two superpowers-the United States and the Soviet Union. This period was followed by an extreme superpower rivalry, which came to be known as the Cold War. Thus, the first objective behind the creation of European Union was to foster economic cooperation among the countries and to become economically interdependent
European Union Map
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Due to devastation of European Countries after the Second World War, the European Countries expressed their desire to move towards the path of integration, which would work as a bulwark against aggressive nationalism preached by the Nazi Germany and prevent future holocaust demonstrated in the horrors of war.
The first step towards an integrated Europe came in the form of a regional arrangement created by the Convention for European Economic Cooperation, signed in Paris on 16th April, 1948, to initially increase economic cooperation between six countries: Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. The regional arrangement
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that emerged out of this treaty was called Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC). The chief function of the organization was to act as a coordinating agency of the countries receiving the Marshall Plan aid and it proved to be so useful that it continued to exist even after the official end of Marshall Plan in December 1951.
Marshall Plan
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In the direction of an integration of Europe, the French Foreign Minister, Robert Schuman, on 9th May 1950, proposed a community to integrate the coal and steel industries of France and West Germany under a common High Authority. The goal of the proposed community was that France, Italy, West Germany, and the Benelux countries could share the strategic resources in order to “make war not only unthinkable but materially impossible”, and to build lasting peace in Europe. The objective of such an integration was made clear in the Schuman Declaration. The realization of the Schuman proposal led to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) by the Treaty of Paris (1951) and on 18th April, 1951, the leaders of six member countries signed a European Declaration stating that the signing of this Treaty marked the true foundation of an organized Europe. The resulting ECSC introduced a common, single steel and coal market, with freely set market prices, and without import/export duties or subsidies.
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
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Another landmark in the process of European integration was the Merger Treaty of 8th April, 1965, which came into force on 1st July 1967. Apart from that, the other milestone towards integration was reached with the signing of the Single European Act (SEA) of 1986 which set 1st January 1993 as the date by which a full internal market was to be established. Through this Act, the process for constructing a truly single European Market began with the aim of lifting all trade restrictions between the member states.
Now, the point which is significant to mention here is that the European Union which was established after the Second World War is not based on the ideas of federation, confederation or customs union rather it has been depended on a supranational foundation and evolved over time from an economic union to an increasingly political one. The European Union has its own flag, anthem, founding date and currency.
The European Union-Symbols
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The EU also has economic, political, military and diplomatic influence on the international politics as it is based on the human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights. It also has the world’s biggest economy with a GDP of more than $ 18.495 trillion in 2014 and remains focused on making its governing institutions more transparent and democratic. Furthermore, due to the abolition of border controls between EU countries, now it’s become much easier for people to live, work and travel freely throughout most of the continent.
ORIGIN AND MEMBERSHIP OF EUROPEAN UNION
Founding Fathers of European Union
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The formation of European Union for economic growth was the outcome of a long historical process that started after the Second World War. It was the brainchild of two French politicians, Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman who planned the formation of this organization to control and enhance business related to coal and steel, the two principles items for industrial development at that time. Thus, the origin of European Union can be traced back to the year 1952, when six countries-Belgium, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands decided to create the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) by pooling their coal and steel resources in a market controlled by an independent supranational authority. The ECSC was largely under private control, and its management used to keep close links with Labour Unions of coal and steel industries
The European Coal and Steel Community (1951)
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Value Addition: Did You Know Understanding Robert Schuman
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
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The statesman Robert Schuman, who born in Luxembourg, was a qualified lawyer and regarded as one of the founding fathers of European unity. He is also known as the architect of the European integration project. He was a French foreign minister between 1948 and 1952. For promoting European integration, he proposed joint control of coal and steel production (the most important materials for the armaments industry). The basic idea was that whoever did not have control over coal and steel production would not be able to fight a war. He also supported the formation of a common European defence policy, and held the post of President of the European Parliament from 1958 to 1960.
In 1952, the six members of the ECSC formed a European Defence Community (EDC) by another treaty. The objective of the EDC was to create a Unified Military Command in Europe with contribution of defence personnel from members of the ECSC and other willing states. But the unified military command could not be created due to differences of opinion between France and Britain. The ECSC countries also attempted to form a European Political Community in 1953, but this plan too failed due to differences among member-states. A major step towards a unified Europe was the Treaty of Rome of 1957. By this treaty, the ECSC countries formed two very important regional organizations of Europe, the European Atomic Energy Community (also known as Euratom) and the European Economic Community (EEC). It may be mentioned here that the ECSC was the first regional organization in Europe after the Second World War, and its members endeavoured to build the concept of a ‘unified Europe’. It was due to their efforts that the Euratom and the EEC were formed. The EEC later came to be known as the Economic Community (EC), and also as the Common Market of Europe, where trade without barriers, political or economic, could be carried out. It was considered the real predecessor of today’s European Union, because the concept of economic integration on a regional basis was introduced for the first time in the EEC.
In accordance with provisions in the Treaty of Rome, a Custom Union was created by the ECSC members in 1969. The main objective of this union was to achieve a unified rate of tariffs for its members. The Concept of common market was also introduced by these members, and the common market facilitated the unhindered movement of goods, labour, and capital among the six countries. In 1960, a Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was created by EEC to regulate agriculture-related activities and business. The idea of common market gradually became popular in Europe, and three more nations, Britain, Ireland and Denmark, joined the EEC in 1973, Greece joined in 1981, and Portugal and Spain in 1986. In 2013, Croatia became the 28th country to join the EU. The Community started to become truly ‘European’ with the joining of new members.
The treaty of Rome (1957) was drastically amended in 1986, and the single European Act thereby passed to expedite the process of a unified Europe. In 1987, the European Parliament was made more representatives by allowing more members to become part of it. The European Court of Justice (ECJ), established in 1957, was also strengthened.
In 1991, twelve EEC members met in Maastricht to further strengthen the concept of an integrated Europe. These twelve members were Belgium, Britain, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Portugal and Spain. A treaty was signed in Maastricht to change the name of the European Economic Community to European Union. It was decided that this treaty would come into effect after the national
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parliaments of the twelve signing members ratified it. This ratification process took two more years, and the European Union came into existence on 1st November 1993, after the ratification process was complete.
The European Act of 1986 and the Maastricht Treaty on the European Union in 1992 were milestones in the history of the European Union. The former envisaged the creation of a single market by 1st January 1993 and the Maastricht Treaty set into motion an ambitious programme; ‘Euro’, a common single currency (to manifests the unified economic strength of the member states and to do away with the US dollar domination in the world market) by 1st January 1999 in several member-states; a European Central Bank, a common foreign and security policy and the European citizenship. Its task is to mould the member states into a single community embracing every sector of the economy covering key areas such as the free movement of goods and workers, freedom of establishment and services, the free movement of capital and payments, competition policy, economic and monetary policy, environmental policy, research technology and industrial policy.
The Euro
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In 1995, the Schengen Treaty was signed by members of the EU to facilitate borderless travel, which effectively means travel across the member states with a single passport. Thus, during the last decade, the European Union (EU) emerged as the world’s major trading bloc and as an economic giant. It is gradually moving towards greater European integration.
Member States of European Union
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OBJECTIVES OF THE EU:
Some of the major objectives of the EU are as follows:
Value Addition: Know It More Stages of European Integration 1949: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) signed. 1950: The Schuman Plan Proposed. 1951: The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) established with the sign of Treaty of Paris by the six West-European founding members (Belgium, Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands). 1952: The Nordic Council formed to augment cooperation among Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. 1954: The Paris Treaty setting up the Western European Union (WEU). 1958: The Treaties of Rome set up the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). 1960: The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was set up. 1973: Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom join the European Community (EC). 1974: The European Council created. The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) was set up. 1975: The Lome Convention was signed between the European Community (EC) and the African-Caribbean-Pacific (ACP) Group. 1978: The European Monetary System (EMS) was proposed. 1979: First direct elections to the European Parliament and the European Monetary System begin its operations. 1981: Greece becomes members of EC. 1985: The Schengen Agreement abolishes border controls among the EC members. 1986: Spain and Portugal joined the EC. 1989: The fall of Berlin Wall. 1990: East and west Germany reunite. The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development was set up to support the economic reforms and transition in the former Communist countries with major contributions from the EC. 1991: Sweden applies to join EU. 1992: The Treaty of Maastricht signed on 7th February 1992 establishing the European Union (EU). Finland and Switzerland apply to join the proposed EU. 1993: The Maastricht treaty comes into force on 1st November 1993. The European Union Came into existence and the single market was created. 1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden joined EU. 1999: The Treaty of Amsterdam comes into force. A step towards the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). 2000: The Treaty of Nice. 2002: ‘Euro’, the new currency was introduced in the 12 EU Members. 2004: Constitution of the European Union adopted on 19th June 2004 in Brussels (but never came into force). Ten new members, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia joined EU. 2007: Bulgaria and Romania joined EU. Slovenia adopts the Euro. 2013: Croatia joined EU.
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1) Establishing European citizenship (fundamental rights, freedom of movement, civil and political rights).
2) Ensuring freedom, equality, security, justice and human rights (cooperation in the field of justice and home affairs).
3) The creation of monetary union for the EU and promoting economic and social progress (single market, the common currency, job creation, regional development and environmental protection).
4) Asserting Europe’s role in the world (common foreign and security policy for member-states), common positions within international transactions.
5) Ensuring transparent and democratic institutions.
6) The creation of a European Policy Agency (EPA) to check various types of crimes, mainly in the border areas.
7) Fostering mobility, growth and stability in the economy.
8) Ensuring political and military unity in Europe.
The Institutions of European Union:
European Union: Institutions
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1. Commission of the European Communities: The Commission of the European Communities is the executive wing of the European Union which is composed of one appointee from each state, in consultation with the President. The Commission is led by
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a President who is nominated by the Council, in practice the European Council, and approved by the European Parliament.
European Commission Building
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This body has not only the responsibility to initiate proposal for legislation, to act as a “Guardian of the Treaties”, but also to be executor of the EU policies and international trade relationships. It has also deal with the day-to-day running of the EU.
2. Council of the European Union: The Council of the European Union which is often informally called the Council of Ministers is the principle decision-making institution of the European Union (EU). The Council is composed of 28 national ministers (one per state and one President-in-Office). However, the exact membership depends on the topic being discussed.
Council of the European Union
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Furthermore, as the EU operates on supranational and intergovernmental platforms, in some areas the Council is superior to the Parliament, having only to consult in order to get assent from the body. Its Presidency rotates between the states every six months, but every three Presidencies now cooperate on a common programme like a “triple-shaped presidency”.
3. European Parliament: The European Parliament is the highest bicameral legislative body within the European Union. It is the only directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union (EU) and has been described as one of the most powerful legislatures in the world. The European Parliament has supervisory, budgetary and some legislative powers which were increased by the Single European Act, the Treaty of European Union (Maastricht Treaty) and the Treaty of Amsterdam.
European Parliament
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The European Parliament has two meeting places: one at the Louise Weiss building in Strasbourg, France, which serves for twelve four day plenary sessions per year and is the official seat, and, and the other, the Espace Leopold complex in Brussels, Belgium, the larger of the two, which serves for the committee meetings, political groups and complementary plenary sessions. The Secretariat of the European Parliament is based in Luxembourg.
The Parliament is composed of 751 MEP’s (Members of the European Parliament), who serve the second largest democratic electorate in the world and the largest transnational democratic electorate in the world (492 million eligible voters in 2014). It is directly elected every five years by universal suffrage since 1979.
4. Court of Justice of the European Communities: The European Court of Justice (ECJ) is the highest court of the European Union and it has been established to ensure the uniformity of Union’s law in terms of its interpretation and effective application. In the European Union this Court also has the ultimate say on all the matters and has
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jurisdiction in disputes involving the member states, EU institutions, businesses, and individuals.
Court of Justice of the European
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The Court was established in 1952 and is based in Luxembourg. It is composed of one judge from each of the member states. The number of judges at present is 28, but only 15 of them can hear a case at any one time in the ‘Grand Chamber’. The Court is led by a President. Under the Single European Act, the Court is assisted by a lower court.
5. Court of Auditors: The European Court of Auditors is one of the important institutions of the European Union and it is composed of one member from each state appointed by the Council, every six years. Every three years one of them is elected to be the Parliament of the Court.
European Court of Auditors
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Though this Court has no judicial powers, but still it play a very significant role in terms of providing opinions and proposals on the financial legislation and anti-fraud actions.
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The Court has also provides an audit report for each financial year to the Council and the Parliament.
6. European Economic and Social Committee (EESC): The European Economic and Social Committee is a consultative assembly which was established in 1957 with the aim to provide advises on economic and social policies. The members of EESC include three groups of equal number: employers, employees and representatives of various other changing interests such as farmers, consumer groups, professional associations, and so on. The members are appointed by the Council, for four-year terms. The EESC shares the Delors Building in Brussels as its seat, with the Committee of the Regions.
Besides all the above mentioned institutions, the other prominent institutions of EU are the Committee of the Regions, European Central Bank, the European Investment Bank and the European Investment Fund.
As a supranational regional organization, the EU has also faced a number of challenges. The present challenges before EU are legitimacy gap, ‘widening’ and ‘deepening’, and the future of Common Foreign Security Policy (CFSP). As scholars have pointed out “the main challenge for EU is the current impossibility of creating a true parliamentary basis of democracy”. Although the European Parliament exists, it is regarded as the weakest of the main policy-making institutions. The Maastricht Treaty saw the introduction of the procedure of co-decision with the Council to give a greater say in the European Parliament in the legislative process, but this position of co-decision does not extend to all the policy areas. Therefore, there is a so-called democratic deficit in the EU. As a result of widening of the EU, there is a growing demand for reforms of the EU norms to distribution of powers between the member states. Further, deepening of European integration has been achieved through the process of economic integration. However, in the policy fields the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality still operate which are rather abstract and the difference between them is often blurred. The CFSP is another crucial challenge before the EU. It is said, “If one digs deeper into the structure and functioning, it (the CFSP) is neither common, nor foreign, nor dealing with security, nor can be called a policy. Yet, most observers and policy-makers use the acronym CFSP like a magic formula: it is enough to invoke the name and the EU turns into a major actor-if not a superpower-in world affairs. The paradox is that thus mantra effect is even stronger outside Europe than inside”.
The other kind of threats perceived by the EU range from international terrorism, weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), failed states, regional conflicts due to expansion of the EU to the conflict-prone zone in Central Asia and organized crimes.
BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa)
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Source: https://socioecohistory.files.wordpress.com/2014/07/brics-logo.png
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BRICS (formerly known as BRIC) is a grouping acronym that stands for the coalition of emerging powerful countries in world politics namely Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa. The BRICS Countries have 42% of world population and approximately 27% of world’s GDP. It was established with the aim to foster cooperation and mutual assistance among member countries to shape global developments and bring tanigible benefits to their people. Vladimir Putin, President of Russia, was the driving force behind the original cooperative coalition of developing BRIC countries. The term BRIC was coined by the British economist, Jim O’Neill in 2001.
Jim O’ Neill
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Value Addition: Did You Know Coining of the term ‘BRIC’ Jim O’Neill, a British economist and a former chairman of Goldman Sachs Asset management has coined the term ‘BRIC’ in 2001, the acronym that stands for Brazil, Russia, India, and China—the four rapidly developing countries that have come to symbolise the shift in global economic power away from the developed G-7 economies.
South Africa is officially admitted as a BRIC nation on 24th December, 2010 after being invited by China and other BRIC countries to join the group.
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Map of BRICS Countries
Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/BRICS.svg/863px-BRICS.svg.png
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OBJECTIVES OF THE BRICS:
Source:http://www.economywatch.com/files/u243/deena_20150715_1.jpg
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Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
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The main objectives of the BRICS are as follows:
1) To create an enabling environment for rapid economic development and to accelerate social progress.
2) To promote active collaboration and common positions on the issues of international importance.
3) To promote trade and investment opportunities among the member countries.
4) To promote cooperation in a broad range of areas, namely agriculture, climate change, culture, defence, energy, science and technology etc.
5) To provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities.
6) Ensuring transparent and democratic institutions.
8) Fostering mobility, growth and stability in the economy.
First BRIC Summit Leaders
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BRICS countries also hold regular Summit level meetings, since its inception. In April 14th 2011, South African President Jacob Zuma attended the 2011 BRICS summit in Sanya, China, as a full member and the theme was “Broad Vision, Shared Prosperity”. The main agenda of the Summit was current international scenario, international economic, financial and trade issues, challenges of sustainable development and cooperation among BRICS countries. The Summit focused on the following:
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1. Talks on anti-terror law under UN auspices that would curtail funding for illegal groups.
2. United Nations Security Council reform. 3. Withdrawal from loans in American dollars. 4. Libyan conflict among others.
India hosted the Fourth BRICS Summit 2012 from 26 to 29 March 2012. Discussions were held on broad theme, “BRICS Partnership for Global Stability, Security and Prosperity”. The Summit was held under the leadership of Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh. Ms. Dilma Rousseff, President of Brazil; Mr. Dmitry Medvedev, President of Russia, Mr. Hu Jintao, President of China; and Mr. Jacob Zuma, President of South Africa attended the Summit. An ambitious action plan was drawn which was adopted on the 29th March along with the BRICS Delhi Declaration. In this summit the BRICS countries has also proposed the idea for setting up the multilateral development bank for BRICS states as an alternative to the existing American and European-dominated World Bank and International Monetary Fund.
BRICS Development Bank
Source: http://schillerinstitut.dk/si/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/BRICS_DEV_BANK-630x354.jpg
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In the Fifth BRICS summit which was held in Durban, South Africa on 27 March 2013, BRICS leaders agreed to set up the New Development Bank (NDB), formerly referred to as the BRICS Development Bank operated by the BRICS states (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa). The goal of the bank is to “mobilize resources for infrastructure and sustainable development projects in BRICS and other emerging economies and developing countries”. The bank is headquartered in Shanghai, China. Each participant country holds an equal number of shares and equal voting rights, and none of the countries will have veto power.
Value Addition: Did You Know LIST OF BRICS SUMMITS Summit Date Host Country, City Host Head of
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State 1st BRIC 16 June 2009 Russia, Yekaterinburg Domitry Medvedev 2nd BRIC 16 April 2010 Brazil, Brasilia Luiz Inacio Lula Da Silva 3rd BRICS 14 April 2011 China, Sanya Hu Jintao 4th BRICS 29 March 2012 India, New Delhi Manmohan Singh 5th BRICS 26-27 March 2013 South Africa, Durban Jacob Zuma 6th BRICS July 2014 Brazil, Fortaleza Dilma Rouseff 7th BRICS 8-9 July2015 Russia, Ufa Vladimir Putin 8th BRICS 2016 India, New Delhi Narendra Modi
The BRICS Leaders in 2014
Left to right: Putin, Modi, Rousseff, Xi and Zuma
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The Seventh BRICS summit was held in the Russian city of Ufa in Bashkortostan on 8–9 July 2015 under the theme “BRICS Partnership – a Powerful Factor of Global Development”. Today, in the international community, the holding of regular summits by BRICS countries has also recognized it as an example of most powerful and successful regional organization.
JAPAN
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Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Regions_and_Prefectures_of_Japan_2.svg/2000px-Regions_and_Prefectures_of_Japan_2.svg.png
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In the post-Cold War era, Japan has emerged as an emerging economic superpower and an important international actor in international politics due to its excellent industrial or technological base. It is a small country of islands, the four largest being Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku and Hokkaido and it is situated in a very active earthquake zone. Japan also has its own currency called Yen.
Yen
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It is a very strong economy-the second largest in the world after the US in terms of nominal GDP-and a very active member of the G-8 industrial nations. After its victory in the Russo-Japanese war of 1905, Japan came to be recognized as a major power. It had enjoyed a big-power status in the world from the middle of the nineteenth century till the Second World War but after its defeat in the Second World War, it lost its status as a great power in military terms, but retained the status of an economic great power since the 1960s.
Post-Cold War Developments and Emergence of Other Centres of Power: Japan, EU & BRICS
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Japan’s Flag
Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/338px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png
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Value Addition: Know It Better Flag of Japan The national flag of Japan which is officially called Nisshōki (“sunmark flag”) or Hinomaru (“circle of the sun”) was adopted on February 27, 1870. It is a white rectangular flag with a large red disc (representing the sun) in the centre.
Japan was founded in the 7th century BC by the ancestral Emperor Jinmu. If one has closely looked at the Japanese history, it shows that its medieval era was characterised by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, called ‘Samurai’ and during the sixteenth century, traders and missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating the period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. In 1854, the United States forced the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa. The perceived weakness of the Shogunate led many Samurais to revolt, leading to the Boshin war of 1867-68. Subsequently, the Shogunate resigned, and the Meiji Restoration returned the emperor to power.
Teenager Meiji Emperor with Foreign Representatives 1868-1870
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Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Teenager_Meiji_Emperor_with_foreign_representatives_1868_1870.jpg/800px-
Teenager_Meiji_Emperor_with_foreign_representatives_1868_1870.jpg
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In Japan the early twentieth century saw a brief period of ‘Taisho democracy’ overshadowed by the rise of Japanese expansionism. The First World War permitted Japan to expand its influence in Asia, and its territorial holdings in the pacific.
Value Addition: Know It More TimeLine of Japanese History 1603: Tokugawa Ieyasu establishes the Edo shogunate. 1630: Japan closes country to Western Powers except for restricted trade with the Dutch. 1854: Japan and the USA conclude the Treaty of Peace, ending Japan’s seclusion. 1868: Restoration of Meiji. 1889: Meiji Constitution enacted. 1894-95: War between Japan and China. 1904-05: War between Japan and Russia. 1914-18: First World War and Japan joins allied forces. 1931: Japan’s invasion of China. 1941-45: The Pacific War. 1945: Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. 1946: The new constitution is promulgated. 1952: The Allied Occupation of Japan ends. 1946-52: US-led Occupation of Japan Reforms to democratise and demilitarise Japan. 1956: Japan becomes a member of the United Nations. 1964: Olympic Games in Tokyo, the first time in Asia. 1972: Normalization of relations to China. 1973: Oil crisis. 1997: Kyoto Protocol was adopted to regulate green house emissions.
In 1936, Japan signed Anti-Comintern Pact and joined Germany and Italy to form the Axis alliance. In 1937, Japan invaded Manchuria, which led into the second Sino-Japanese War. In 1941, Japan attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor, forcing America into the Second World War. After a long campaign in the Pacific Ocean, Japan lost its initial territorial gains, and the United States of America began its strategic bombing of Tokyo, Osaka and other major cities including the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan quickly agreed to an unconditional surrender to the Allies on 15 August 1945.
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Atomic Bombing on Japan
Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Atomic_bombing_of_Japan.jpg/1200px-Atomic_bombing_of_Japan.jpg
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In 1947, under the occupation authority, Japan adopted a new pacifist Constitution which proclaimed liberal democratic polices but forbids the use of force as a means to settle international disputes (Article-9). This article also prohibits Japan from maintain an army, navy or air force. Furthermore, today Japan is restricted by the provisions of its constitution to develop its military force, although Japan has acquired a unique position in terms of a very strong economy because of its aggressive industrial development and policy of protectionism which makes it a major power in the present international order.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, it could be argued that international politics is not something which is pre-given or pre-exists rather it has been continuously influenced by the actors and events of world politics. In other words, unlike the arguments given by the scholars of mainstream theories of international relations, international politics will not remain unchanging or static ever. The events of international politics also show the dynamic, progressive and comprehensive nature and scope of it. The changes or a shift in world order from balance of power system to unipolar with multi-polar tendencies has proved it.
Besides this, the emergence of new theories and critical perspectives of international politics has also provided a new platform to raise the issues of environmental protection, women representation in global decision making bodies, international law and human security etc. with more sincerity and which were ignored and paraded as secondary in the past but now become the issues of global concern.
In short, all of these changes and developments are so significant not only to get a nuance understanding of international scenario but also to predict the future events of world politics.
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GLOSSARY
Arms Race: Arms race is a situation or an effort when states are highly suspicious of each other and thus, tries to strengthen their respective positions by acquiring more and more arms.
Cold War: The term ‘Cold War’ was first used by an American statesman, Bernard Baruch. It denoted a state of intense mutual hostility, rivalry and suspicion that had emerged after World War II between the two different ideological blocs (Capitalist and Socialist) followed by the two superpowers (US and Soviet Union) and their respective allies.
Disarmament: Disarmament refers to a control and prohibition of the weapons or armaments of all categories. In other words, it is a commitment to do away with all kinds of weapons. It is considered as the most effective means to prevent war and maintain peace in the international system.
Marshall Plan: The Marshall Plan was the primary plan of the United States for re-building and creating a stronger foundation for the countries of Western Europe and repelling communism after World War II.
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): The Non- Aligned Movement (NAM) is an anti-imperialist movement of small and middle-sized countries of developing world, which were formerly the colonies of Great powers in international system. It was born in the backdrop of the Cold War tensions between the two superpowers and worked primarily aiming at changing the existing global structure and creating a more just, equal and peaceful world order.
Regional Arrangements: It refers to a grouping, association or pact of various sovereign states for fulfilling variety of interests and promoting cooperation, peace and security within a regional framework. For example: ASEAN, BRICS, European Union, Arab League etc.
Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP): Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP) is a kind of conditionality which has been imposed by World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) for giving aids to developing and under-developed countries of the world. These institutions have used it as an instrument for bringing ‘Good-Governance’ and promoting the agendas of Western developed capitalist world.
Sustainable Development: The term sustainable development is coined by the Brundtland Commission Report (1987). The idea of sustainable development is about to moving away from thinking development primarily in terms of economic growth. Thus, the idea of sustainable development refers to meet the needs of present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Third World: The term ‘Third World’ was coined by the French economist Alfred Sauvy on Aug. 14th, 1952. It refers to all the newly emerge developing and
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under-developed countries which are belonging to the Southern hemisphere and located in the continent of Asia, Africa and Latin-America. The countries of these continents were also the former colonies of other countries in the past and lay between the Capitalist and Socialist worlds.
ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
Question1. Analyze the major developments in the post Cold-War period that led to the emergence of new centres of power in World politics.
Question2. Identify the emerging issues and their significance in international politics today.
Question3. Examine the origin, objectives and development of the European Union (EU).
Question4. Briefly discuss the institutions of European Union (EU).
Question5. Discuss the role and importance of BRICS as an emerging economic arrangement. Identify the major obstacles it faces today in achieving its objectives.
Question6. Discuss the role of China and India as emerging centres of power in World politics.
Question7. The emerging centres of power have great potential to challenge the Unipolar world. Do you agree with this statement? Substantiate your arguments.
Question8. What makes a Japan a highly influential emerging power in contemporary world politics?
Question9. Identify some areas each of cooperation and disagreement among BRICS countries.
Question10. Write short Notes on the following:
a) American Dominance in World Politics b) European Union c) Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa (BRICS) d) Marshall Plan
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Choose the correct answer
1. Who has used the word ‘BRIC’ first time?
[A] Joseph Nye [B] Amartya Sen
[C] Jim O’Neill [D] Stphen Keohane
2. Who among the following adopted an ‘open door’ policy?
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[A] EU [B] Japan
[C] China [D] USA
3. Which among the following plan has influenced the establishment of the organization for European Economic cooperation in 1948?
[A] Marshall Plan [B] Schuman Declaration
[C] Truman Doctrine [D] Maastricht Treaty
4. The head quarter of ‘BRICS development bank’ is situated in which of the following city?
[A] Shangai [B] Masco
[C] New Delhi [D] None of these
5. At present how many members does EU have?
[A] 29 [B] 27
[C] 30 [D] 28
6. Who was not the founder person of Non-Aligenged Movement (NAM)?
[A] Kwame Nkrumah [B] Nikita Khrushchev
[C] Jawaharlal Nehru [D] Sukarno
7. What was the code name of the bomb dropped by USA on Hiroshima (Japan)?
[A] Fat Man [B] New Bomb
[C] Hard Ball [D] Little Boy
8. Name the treaty by which the European Union (EU) was established?
[A] The Treaty of Rome [B] The Treaty of Schengen
[C] The Treaty of Paris [D] The Treaty of Maastricht
9. Who has written a book “Multipolarity in the 21st Century: A New World Order”?
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[A] Donette Murray and David Brown [B] K.J. Holsti
[C] Steven L. Lamy [D] Palmer and Perkins
10. Arrange the following in correct chronological order: a) Establishment of the EU, b) Joining of South Africa as a BRIC nation, c) Indo-China war, and d) Formation of the European Economic Community.
Choose the correct sequence from above:
[A] a, b, c, d [B] d, c, a, b
[C] d, b, c, a [D] a, c, b, d
Answers: 1-[C], 2-[C], 3-[A], 4-[C], 5-[D], 6-[B], 7-[D], 8-[D], 9-[A], 10-[B]
SUGGESTED READINGS
(A) Essential readings:
Brezeznski, Z. (2005) Choice: Global Dominance or Global Leadership. New York: Basic Books, pp. 85-127.
Gill, S. (2005) ‘Contradictions of US Supremacy’ in Panitch, L. and Leys, C. (eds.) Socialist Register: The Empire Reloaded. London: Merlin Press. 2004, London, Merlin Press and New York, Monthly Review Press. Socialist Register, pp.24-47.
Therborn, G. (2006) ‘Poles and Triangles: US Power and Triangles of Americas, Asia and Europe’ in Hadiz, V.R. (ed.) Empire and Neo Liberalism in Asia. London: Routledge, pp.23-37.
(B) Additional Readings:
Baylis, J. and Smith, S. (eds.) (2011) The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations. Fifth Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 90‐123; 142‐159; 262‐277.
Bhattacharya, Purusottam, “ Globalization and New Regionalism: The EU Experience,” in Anindyo J. Majumdar and Shibashis Chatterjee (Eds.), Understanding Global Politics, Lancer Books, New Delhi, 2004, pp.175.
Couloumbis, Theodore A. and James H. Wolfe, Introduction to International Relations: Power and Justice, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 1981, pp.305.
Duncan, W. Raymond, Barbara Jancar- Webster and Bob Switky, World Politics in the 21st Century. Addison Wesley Longman, New York, 2002.
Fawcett, Louise, and Andrew Hurrell (Ed.), Regionalism in World Politics, Regional Organization and International Order. Oxford University Press, New York, 1997.
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Fink, Marcel and Jain Paterson, “The European Union: Its Past, Present and Future”, West Bengal Political Science Review, Vol. V, Nos. 1 and 2, January –December, 2002, pp.36-37.
Goldstein, J. and Pevehouse, J.C. (2009) International Relations. New Delhi: Pearson, pp. 81‐111.
Holsti, K. J., International Politics: A Framework for Analysis. Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 1978.
Jackson, Robert and Georg Sorenson, Introduction to International Relations. Oxford University Press, New York, 1999.
Kegley, Charles W., Jr. and Eugene R. Wittkopf, World Politics-Trends and Transformation, St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1981, pp.454.
Lieberthal, Kenneth, and Michel Oksenberg, Policy Making in China: Leaders, Structures and Processes. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1988.
Nayar, Baidev Raj, India in World Order Searching for Power Status. Cambridge University Press, New York, 2003.
Nayar, Baidev Raj and T.V. Paul, Contemporary: South Asia- India in World Order Searching for Major Power Status. Cambridge University Press, New York, 2003.
Palmer, Norman D. and Howard C. Perkins, International Relations- The World Community in Transition, A.I.T.B.S. Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, 1997, pp.559.
Tony, Saich, Governance and Politics of China. Palgrave, New York, 2001.
Wenger, A. and Zimmermann, D. (eds.) (2003), International Relations: From the Cold World War to the Globalized World. London: Lynne Rienner, pp. 54‐89.
Ziegler, David W., War, Peace and International Politics. Little Brown and Company, Boston, 1981.
USEFUL WEB LINKS
https://youtu.be/XgnXwrsMBUs
https://youtu.be/cI3j9hSXAIg
https://youtu.be/qccZ6FAgwGc
https://youtu.be/GxRYFYIVYgk
https://youtu.be/LUxxTW-DJH4
https://youtu.be/796LfXwzIUk
https://youtu.be/SdjB8rBCJno
https://youtu.be/IOGzqk_F4rE
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Aseema Sinha and Jon P. Dorschner , “India: Rising Power or a Mere Revolution of Rising Expectations?” Polity, Vol. 42, No. 1 (January 2010), pp. 74-99.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40587583
Leslie Elliott Armijo, “The BRICS Countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) As Analytical Category: Mirage or Insight?” Asian Perspective, Vol. 31, No. 4, Special Issue on “The BRICs Countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) in the Global System” (2007), pp. 7-42.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/42704607
S. Neil MacFarlane, “The 'R' in BRICs: Is Russia an Emerging Power?” in International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944- ), Vol. 82, No. 1, Perspectives on Emerging Would-Be Great Powers (Jan., 2006), pp. 41-57.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3569129
Wei Liang, “China: Globalization and the Emergence of a New Status Quo Power?” Asian Perspective, Vol. 31, No. 4, Special Issue on "The BRICs Countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) in the Global System" (2007), pp. 125-149.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/42704611
