REVIEW

Potential of Jatropha curcas as a Biofuel, Animal Feed and HealthProducts

Srinivasan Nithiyanantham • Perumal Siddhuraju •

George Francis

Received: 16 July 2011 / Revised: 30 November 2011 / Accepted: 27 December 2011 / Published online: 24 January 2012

� AOCS 2012

Abstract Jatropha curcas is a multipurpose plant with

numerous attributes. It can potentially become one of the

world’s key energy crops. Its seed weighs 0.53–0.86 g and

the seed kernel contains 22–27% protein and 57–63% lipid

indicating good nutritional value. The seeds can produce

crude vegetable oil that can be transformed into high

quality biodiesel. Several methods for oil extraction have

been developed. In all processes, about 75% of the weight

of the seed remains as a press cake containing mainly

carbohydrates, protein and residual oil and is a potential

source of livestock feed. The highly toxic nature of whole

as well as dehulled seed meal due to the presence of high

levels of shells, toxic phorbol esters and other antinutrients

prevents its use in animal diet. The genetic variation among

accessions from different regions of the world and rich

diversity among Mexican genotypes in terms of phorbol

ester content and distinct molecular profiles indicates the

potential for improvement of germplasm of Jatropha

through breeding programs. The extracts of Jatropha dis-

play potent cytotoxic, antitumor, anti-inflammatory and

antimicrobial activities. The possibilities on the exploita-

tion potential of this plant through various applications

have been explored.

Keywords Jatropha curcas � Biodiesel � Seed cake �Phorbol esters � Antinutrients � Genetic diversity

Introduction

Plant oils, in addition to being a food commodity, are

important as a renewable resource for both the fuel and

chemical industries [1]. Most of the crops grown today,

including oilseeds are annuals. Perennial crops have deeper

root systems, which help store more carbon, maintain soil

quality and manage water and nutrients more conserva-

tively. They have therefore been advocated as a potentially

more efficient way of farming, especially on marginal soils

[2]. For the production of plant oils, Jatropha is one species

that has received much attention recently [3].

J. curcas (further referred to as Jatropha) belongs to the

Euphorbiaceae family. It is considered as native to Central

and South America and is widely present throughout

Central America, Africa and Asia. Jatropha is a hard non-

edible oil-seed plant that can survive in harsh environ-

ments, adapt well to semi-arid marginal and wastelands and

hence has been treated as a potential alternative energy

source [4]. It can grow under a wide range of rainfall

regimes ranging from 200 to over 1,500 mm per annum. It

survives also on barren, eroded lands and under harsh cli-

matic conditions [5], but the viability of seed productivity

under such conditions remain to be proved. The plant can

be used to prevent and/or control erosion, to reclaim land,

grown as a live fence, especially to contain or exclude farm

animals and be planted as a commercial crop. Several

properties of the plant, including its hardness, rapid growth,

easy propagation and wide ranging usefulness have resul-

ted in its spread far beyond its original distribution [6]. The

plant shows articulate growth, straight trunk, thick bran-

ches with a soft wood and a life expectancy of up to

50 years. However, Jatropha cultivation can be taken up to

a maximum height of 1,000–1,200 m above sea level [7].

Much interest has been vested in the cultivation of Jatropha

S. Nithiyanantham � P. Siddhuraju (&)

Bioresource Technology Lab, Department of Environmental

Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641046, India

e-mail: siddhurajubrt@yahoo.com

G. Francis

Jatropower AG-MRP, Baar, Switzerland

123

J Am Oil Chem Soc (2012) 89:961–972

DOI 10.1007/s11746-012-2012-3

from both the public and private sectors, and a number of

public companies are now involved in Jatropha cultivation.

It can also help to increase income in rural areas and

support agro industries.

Plant Distribution

Jatropha is propagated through stem cuttings or seeds.

Cuttings are typically prepared with 1 year-old terminal

branches of 25–30 cm. It is an ideal practice to inoculate

stem cuttings with mycorrhizal fungi when establishing

them in nurseries. This treatment improves the quality of

the plant–fungal symbiosis in the field conditions espe-

cially in soil with poor fertility [8]. The number of leaves is

higher and the flowering time earlier when cuttings are

treated with IBA [9]. The advantage of stem cutting

propagation is that it offers the possibility to grow elite

accessions. In tropical, humid regions Jatropha comes into

bloom for a large part of the year. The fruiting season lasts

for 4 months per year and the fruit can be harvested three

times during this period, which complicates mechanization.

The low number of female flowers, reduced branching and

inadequate pollination are the major factors that limit

Jatropha seed production and the oil yield. Therefore,

honeybees play a positive role in the Jatropha pollination

[10]. Due to the high productivity of biomass, the plants

show high demands for nitrogen and phosphorus. The

maturation of the fruit takes 45–50 days, until it is ready

for manual harvest [4].

The number of Jatropha trees per hectare of planting

will range from 1,200 to 2,200, wider spacing is reported to

give a larger yield of fruit [11]. As reported by Zanzi et al.

[12] one hectare of land produces around 3,500 kg fruits

which include 1,000 kg of husks or fruit coats (29%) and

2,500 kg of seeds (71%). These seed comprise 1,025 kg of

shell (40–42%) and 1,475 kg (58–60%) kernel. The kernel

consists of 40–50% of oil [13]. Dry climate has been found

to improve the oil yield of the seeds, thought to withstand

times of extreme drought [14]. Jatropha is a monoecious

tree. Inflorescence is formed terminally on branches and

is complex, possessing main and co-fluorescences with

paracladia. The fruits are trilocular, ellipsoidal and subd-

rupaceous. The exocarp remains fleshy until the seeds are

mature and finally separates into three cocci. Each fruit

contains two to three (rarely 4) black, oblong seeds [15].

Common Usage

Surging fossil fuel costs along with the adverse environ-

mental impact from their use is leading to expanded pro-

duction and use of bioenergy. Physic nut (J. curcas L.) oil

may be used directly as fuel for slow-speed diesel engines.

Upgrading this oil by transesterification makes it a suitable

replacement for conventional diesel. However, extraction

of bio-oil from the physic nut results in agricultural waste.

Land fill, fertilization, incineration and animal feed have

been applied to manage this waste, with several logistical

problems. A more viable option would be on-site conver-

sion of this waste into a value-added product, such as

activated carbon, which can be used locally or sold as a raw

material for many industries. Potentials of Jatropha are

presented in Fig. 1.

Medicinal Uses

Jatropha fruit is used to treat diseases like dysentery,

hemorrhoids, gonorrhea, coated tongue, infertility, small

pox and other skin-infections [16]. The roasted nuts are

used as a purgative. The twigs are used for tooth brushing

when gums are swollen. The decoction of the leaves is

extensively used as a lactogogue in the Cape Verde islands.

The plant sap is used to cure toothache and as a styptic to

stop bleeding in West Africa. Fagbenro-Beyioku et al. [17]

reported the anti-parasitic activity of the sap and crushed

leaves of Jatropha. The ground root bark is used as a

dressing for skin sores. The leaf juice treated with lime or

lemon is used both for curing fever while the juice of

young leaves is boiled and drunk to cure fever [18]. In parts

of Asia, Jatropha root is used as an antidote for snakebite,

and in parts of Africa, Jatropha kernel is used for the ter-

mination of unwanted pregnancies [19]. The molluscicidal,

insecticidal and fungicidal effects of Jatropha seeds and

leaves have been investigated [20]. The bark of the plant

produces a dark blue dye, which is used for coloring cloth,

fishing nets and lines [21]. The leaves can be used as food

for tussle silkworms. Burnt root ash is used as a salt sub-

stitute [22]. The latex which contains alkaloids has anti-

cancer properties and is inhibitory to watermelon mosaic

virus [23]. Investigation of the coagulant activity of the

latex of Jatropha showed that whole latex significantly

reduced the clotting time of human blood. Diluted latex,

however prolonged the clotting time, at high dilutions, the

blood did not clot at all [24]. The root methanolic extract of

the Jatropha has been shown to exhibit antidiarrhoeal

activity in mice [25] and the same extract exhibited sys-

temic and significant anti-inflammatory activity in acute

carrageenan-induced rat paw edema [26]. The Jatropha

seeds are a good sources of phytate [27, 28]. Jatropha

proteins have interesting nutritional and biochemical

properties. For example, aquaporin and betaine aldehyde

dehydrogenase play a role in drought resistance and

b-glucanase has antifungal activity, as well as some having

pharmaceutical properties [29].

962 J Am Oil Chem Soc (2012) 89:961–972

123

Jatropha Oil

The oil content of the Jatropha seeds is *35% and the

kernel alone yields *60%. The oil extracted from the

Jatropha kernel contains approximately 24.6% crude pro-

tein, 47.2% crude fat and 5.5% moisture [16]. The seed oil

has a good oxidation stability compared to soybean oil, low

viscosity compared to castor oil and a low pour point (the

temperature where it starts to become solid) compared to

palm oil. Jatropha oil is used for the preparation of soap

and cosmetics in many tropical countries [30]. The oil was

traditionally known to be used for veterinary medicinal

applications [31] to treat skin diseases and for pain relief to

the patients suffering from rheumatism [20]. In China, the

oil is used to produce furniture varnish after boiling it with

iron oxide [32]. It is a non-edible vegetable oil and may be

an alternative substrate to food grade oils for bioplastic

production [33].

Seed Cake

The by-products of Jatropha, such as fruit coats, seed hulls

and the remaining de-oiled seed cake after pressing, may be

used for organic fertilization, or for the production of more

energy. Seed hulls can be burnt and the seed cake and fruit

pulp can be used for the production of biogas by anaerobic

fermentation [34]. The level of essential amino acids except

lysine in Jatropha meal protein is higher than those of the

FAO reference protein for a growing child of 2–5 years [27].

Enzymes such as lipases and proteases have been produced

using solid-state fermentation with Pseudomonas aerugin-

osa on seed cake [35]. Seed cake could also be a good sub-

strate for the production of other industrial enzymes.

Jatropha meal utilization for non-food applications, such as

adhesives, coatings and surfactants, has not been explored so

far. Jatropha press cake protein showed most promising

results on adhesive and emulsifying properties [36].

Jatropha curcas L.Water conservation/Erosion control

Hedge/Living fenceFirewood/combustibles

Green manure

FruitsFertilizer

LeavesMedicinal uses

Anti-inflammatorysubstanceFertilizer

LatexWound healing

Protease (Curcain)Medicinal use

Fruit coatsMedicinal use

Anti-inflammatorysubstanceFertilizer

SeedsInsecticide

Food/Fodder(Low toxic accessions)

Seed oilSoap production

BiofuelInsecticide

Medicinal uses

Seed cakeOrganic fertilizerBiogas production

Fodder(Low toxic accessions)

Seed shellsCombustibles

Organic fertilizer

Fig. 1 Potentials of J. curcas

J Am Oil Chem Soc (2012) 89:961–972 963

123

Biofuel Efficiency and Oil Extraction

Currently, about 84% of the world’s biodiesel production is

from rapeseed oil. The remaining portion is from sunflower

oil (13%), palm oil (1%), soybean oil and others (2%) [37].

By converting edible oils into biodiesel, food resources are

actually being converted into automotive fuels. Jatropha is

one of such non-edible oils, which has an estimated annual

production potential of 200,000 metric tones in India and it

can be grown on land that is normally not used for food

production [38]. The oil is used for illumination (it burns

without emitting smoke) and as a lubricant. It can also

serve as fuel for diesel engines. The oil extraction carried

out by a mechanical press is 40–55% for hulled seeds,

70–75% for kernel [39] and by manual ram presses is

60–65% [40] Solvent (n-hexane) extraction of the kernel

alone yields *60% oil [41]. An enzymatic method of

extraction has also been proposed [42]. It gives essentially

the same rate of oil extraction as that obtained with hexane,

but is reported to be 12 times faster. The two extraction

procedures mechanical and chemical, are quite well

established although there is still scope for further research.

Further research should investigate efficiency improvement

of mechanical oil extraction, the applicability of alternative

solvents and their economical viability.

Jatropha as a Fuel

The composition and characterization of the crude Jatropha

oil are given in Table 1. Qualitative and quantitative traits,

such as the amount of FFA (Free Fatty Acids), unsapo-

nifiables, acid number and carbon residues, show a wide

range of variation. This indicates that the oil quality is

dependent on the interaction of environmental and genetic

factors [43]. Jatropha oil is mainly transesterified to methyl

esters (biodiesel) and glycerol for use as a substitute for

diesel. In the transesterification processes for biodiesel

production, strong alkalis or acids are used as chemical

catalysts (Table 2). The catalyst can be a base such as

NaOH, KOH and NaOCH3 or an acid such as H2SO4. The

alkaline catalysis is much faster than the acid catalysis in

industry [44]. Oil conversion with an alkaline catalyst

usually reaches 95–99% after 1 h [45]. The drawback of

acid catalysis is that it is about 400 times slower than

alkaline catalysis [46] and typically needs *48 h at 60 �C

with a high alcohol to oil ratio (30:1) to achieve a 98%

conversion [47]. Jatropha oil is rich in FFA (sometimes up

to 15% in the current wild collected seeds because of

inadequate post harvest processing), therefore biodiesel is

sometimes produced through a two step transesterification

process [48, 49]. This process gives an average alkyl ester

Table 1 Physical, chemical

and fuel parameters of J. curcasoil and methyl esters

Foidl et al. [4]; Divakara et al.

[105]

S. No Parameters Unit Jatrophacurcas oil

Methyl esters of

Jatropha curcas oil

1. Density at 15 �C g/cm3 0.920 0.879

2. Viscosity at 30 �C cSt 52 4.84

3. Flash point �C 240 191

4. Neutralization number mg KOH/g 0.92 0.24

5. Cetane number – 46.3 57–62

6. Carbon residue % 0.38 0.18

7. Sulfur content % 0–0.13 0.0036

8. Calorific value MJ Kg-1 39.63 39.65

9. Acid number mg KOH/g 3.71 0.27

10. Iodine number mg iodine/g 101.7 95–106

11. Saponification number mg/g 195 202.6

12. Free glycerol % – 0.015–0.030

13. Total glycerol % – 0.088–0.100

14. Monoglycerides % Not detected 0.24

15. Diglycerides % 2.7 0.07

16. Triglycerides % 97.3 Not detected

17. Phosphorous ppm 290 17.5

18. Calcium ppm 56 6.1

19. Magnesium ppm 103 1.4

20. Iron ppm 2.4 0.9

964 J Am Oil Chem Soc (2012) 89:961–972

123

yield [99%. The use of plant esterase and lipases for the

transesterification catalysis of oil up to 98% alkyl esters has

been reported by Ozaki et al. [50]. The lipase producing

whole cells of Rhizopus oryzae immobilized onto biomass

support particles was used and found to be a promising

biocatalyst for producing biodiesel [51]. The supercritical

CO2 (SC-CO2) extraction of triglycerides from powdered

Jatropha kernels followed by subcritical hydrolysis and

supercritical methylation of the extracted SC-CO2 oil to

obtain a 98.5% purity level of biodiesel [52]. Based on the

available information, it is still difficult to conclude if

Jatropha biodiesel will meet the two essential minimum

requirements for biofuels to be a more sustainable alter-

native for fossil fuels i.e., (i) produced from renewable raw

material and (ii) their use has a lower negative environ-

mental impact [53]. Finally, most published research per-

taining to engine performance and emissions fails to use a

standard methodology, which should be implemented to

allow the comparison between tests and biofuels from

different origin [54].

Molecular Markers in Genetic Diversity Analysis

Germplasm characterization is necessary to enhance germ-

plasm management and utilization. Information regarding

the extent and pattern of genetic variation in Jatropha pop-

ulation is limited [55]. DNA based markers such as RAPD,

ISSR, AFLP and SSR can be used to confirm the center of

origin for Jatropha. Molecular techniques should also be

used to determine the genetic diversity in indigenous germ-

plasm and to investigate the distinctness of Jatropha in the

center of origin and other regions [11].

Molecular marker-based studies accomplished to assess

the genetic diversity in Jatropha [56, 57] using random

amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers.

Ranade et al. [58] applied a single primer amplification

reaction (SPAR) to evaluate the extent of genetic diversity

among 21 accessions of J. curcas. Sun et al. [59] applied SSR

and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP)

markers to study the genetic diversity among 58 accessions

(Table 3). Tatikonda et al. [60] carried out AFLP analysis to

assess the genetic diversity among 48 accessions of Jatropha

collected from six states of India. These studies showed a low

level of polymorphism in Jatropha, suggesting the need to

develop a large number of SSR markers which can be utilized

for germplasm characterization, saturated linkage map

construction and QTL and association mapping. Wen et al.

[61] reported that the high levels of genetic diversity were

revealed in the 45 Jatropha accessions analyzed with the 56

EST-SSR and G-SSR primer pairs that were utilized. Several

projects to collect germplasm have been carried out in Brazil

[62], India [63] and China [59] but systematic work on the

collection of germplasm and its evaluation is still in its

infancy. In general, diversity analysis with local germplasm

revealed a narrow genetic base in India [56] and South China

[59], indicating the need for widening the genetic base of

Jatropha through introduction of accessions with broader

geographical background and creation of variation through

mutation and hybridization techniques. Hence, molecular

diversity estimates combined with the datasets on other

agronomic traits will be very useful for selecting the

appropriate accessions.

Toxicity of the Seed Cake

Despite the seeds being rich in oil and crude protein, these

are highly toxic and unsuitable for human or animal con-

sumption. The toxic nature of oil and meal has been

demonstrated in a number of studies [64]. It has also been

reported that humans who had accidentally consumed

Table 2 Transesterification

profile of Jatropha oil

Juan et al. [118]

S. No Catalyst type Conversion (%) References

1. Homogeneous NaOH 90.5 [106]

2. Homogeneous NaOH 96 [107]

3. Homogeneous NaOH 98 [108]

4. Homogeneous KOH 97 [109]

5. Heterogeneous CaO 93 [110]

6. H2SO4/NaOH 90 [48]

7. H2SO4/NaOH 90 [111, 112]

8. H2SO4/KOH 99 [49]

9. H2SO4/KOH 90–95 [113]

10. (SO42-/TiO2)/KOH 98 [114]

11. SiO2�HF/NaOH 99.5 [115]

12. Burkholderia cepacia on Celite 98 [116]

13. Candida antarctica lipase B 98 [117]

J Am Oil Chem Soc (2012) 89:961–972 965

123

seeds showed signs of giddiness, vomiting and diarrhea

[65]. The toxic and anti-nutritive compounds from Jatropha

seeds which have been isolated, include curcin—a lectin

[66] and 12-deoxyl-16-hydroxyphorbol [67]. Lectin was

thought to be responsible for the toxicity of Jatropha [68],

however, Aderibigbe et al. [69] and Aregheore et al. [70]

have shown that lectin is not the major toxic compound in

Jatropha meal. Furthermore, lectin and trypsin inhibitor

activity can be suppressed through heat treatments [69].

The high concentration of phorbol esters present in Jatro-

pha seed have been reported as the primary substances

responsible for the seed’s toxicity [67]. The phytate content

of toxic and non-toxic genotypes is almost identical, and it

is very high (Table 4). The addition of phytase enzyme to

mitigate the adverse effects of phytate [71]. Similar levels

of saponins were observed in kernel meals from both toxic

and non-toxic genotype, and these saponins did not possess

hemolytic activity [72]. Tannins, cyanogens, glucosinolates

and amylase inhibitors have not been detected in any of the

Jatropha meals [69]. The seed cake contains hemicellu-

loses, cellulose and lignin in the percentages of 26.8, 13.5,

and 12.4 respectively. Lime pretreatment was effective in

removing lignin and hemicelluloses [73].

Phorbol Esters

Phorbol esters are naturally occurring compounds which

are widely distributed in the plant species of the Euphor-

biaceae and Thymelaeaceae. They are tetracyclic diterpe-

noids and esters of tigliane diterpenes [74]. The structures

of six phorbol esters have been determined using NMR

[75]. The phorbol esters are reported to mimic the action of

diacylglycerol, an activator of protein kinase C which

regulates different signal transduction pathways. They are

also co-carcinogens and have purgative and skin-irritant

activities. It has strong insecticidal and molluscidal prop-

erties [76].

Although most studies on tumor-promoting effects of

phorbol esters utilized PMA (phorbol 13-myristate

12-acetate) from Croton tiglium, the tumor promoting

effect for both Jatropha oil and one of its phorbol esters has

been demonstrated in mice [77]. Phorbol esters are also

known to activate the lytic cycle of the latent Epstein–Barr

virus [78]. Phorbol esters have been shown to have anti-

microbial activity, and results show that phorbol esters are

present in almost all parts of the Jatropha plant (Table 5).

Recently, the anti-HIV effect of 12-deoxyphorbol-13-phe-

nyl acetate, a compound synthesized from Jatropha phorbol

esters, has been demonstrated. It inhibits HIV entry into

target cells [79]

Table 3 Characterization of accessions using molecular markers

S. No Species/

accessions

Primers Number References

1. 142 AFLP – [119]

2. 5 RAPD 18 [56]

3. 22 RAPD

DAMD

7

4

[58]

4. 13 RAPD

ISSR

20

14

[120]

5. 7 RAPD

AFLP

52

27

[121]

6. 20 RAPD

AFLP

–

–

[122]

7. 43 RAPD

ISSR

400

100

[57]

8. 225 AFLP – [123]

9. 58 SSR

AFLP

30

7

–

10. 72 RAPD

ISSR

SCAR

SSR

400

100

10

17

[124]

11. 45 EST-SSR and SSR 241 [61]

12. 25 EST-SSR 51 [125]

Table 4 Important

phytochemicals in seed meal of

toxic and non-toxic variety of

Jatropha curcas

All data are on a dry-matter

basis

Makkar et al. [86]

S. No Component Toxic

variety

Non-toxic

variety

1. Phorbol esters (mg/g kernel) 2.79 0.11

2. Total phenols (% tannic acid equivalent) 0.36 0.22

3. Tannins (% tannic acid equivalent) 0.04 0.02

4. Phytates (% dry matter) 9.40 8.90

5. Saponins (% diosgenin equivalent) 2.60 3.40

6. Trypsin inhibitor (mg trypsin inhibited per g sample) 21.30 26.50

7. Lectins (1/mg of meal that produced

hemagglutination per ml of assay medium)

102 51

966 J Am Oil Chem Soc (2012) 89:961–972

123

Phorbol esters are heat stable, and hence heat treatment

is not effective at detoxifying kernel meal from the toxic

genotype [69]. The Jatropha kernel meal from the non-

toxic genotype could be an excellent protein source for

animals having the potential for high milk, meat and wool

yields. This would also be expected for the Jatropha kernel

meal from the toxic genotype once it has been detoxified.

Haas and Mittelbach [80] reported that traditional oil

refining methods like degumming, deacidification, bleach-

ing and deodorization can decrease the phorbol content of

the seed by about 50%. They concluded that the treatment

with alkali hydroxides during acidification as well as

bleaching with traditional bleaching earth had the most

influence on decreasing the amount of phorbol esters in the

oil. On the other hand, degumming and deodorization was

unable to significantly reduce the quantity of phorbol esters

in the oil. Aregheore et al. [81] reported that besides heat

treatment, several chemical treatment methods can be used

to reduce the concentration of phorbol esters. A range of

methods have been used to try and detoxify defatted seed

meal, including extraction with polar organic solvents, and

combined heat/NaHCO3 treatments using a combination of

both solvent extraction and heat/NaHCO3 treatment, a

48-fold reduction in phorbol ester content of seed meal was

obtained [30]. Makkar and Becker [82] reported that 80%

ethanol or 92% methanol reduced both the saponins and

phorbol esters by 95% after four extractions. The labora-

tory scale petroleum ether extraction reduced the phorbol

ester content in the Jatropha seeds by 67.69% [83]. Rakshit

and Bhagya [84] demonstrated the possibility of destroying

phorbol esters up to 90% by treating defatted meal with

chemicals. Remarkably, Joshi et al. [85] reported that solid

state fermentation (SSF) could be a viable approach for the

complete degradation of the toxic phorbol esters. This

study takes a step towards the development of detoxified

cake, and may pave the way for its use in animal feeds.

Animal Feed

Jatropha seeds are also rich in protein. The protein com-

position of Jatropha seed kernel meal has been analyzed,

and it has been shown to compare favorably with soybean

meal [86], containing a good balance of essential amino

acids with the exception of lysine. The ability to use

Jatropha meal as animal feed not only improves the eco-

nomics of Jatropha production, but it also indicates that the

crop would produce both fuel and feed.

The Mexican non-toxic varieties lack the most potent

toxin, phorbol esters, although other antinutrients such as

trypsin inhibitor, lectin and phytate are present in signifi-

cant amounts (Table 4) and their levels are similar to those

in the toxic varieties [86]. So, the non-toxic Jatropha seeds

are roasted and the kernels are consumed by humans in

certain regions of Mexico [70]. However when raw and

heat-treated Jatropha kernel meal from the non-toxic

genotype was fed to carp, both groups grew to an almost

identical extent [28]. These results suggest that the kernel

meal obtained from the non-toxic genotype is an excellent

fish feed, and is also expected to be an excellent protein

source for other high yielding farm animal species. The

carp is highly sensitive to toxins and can detect phorbol

esters at a level of 15 ppm [65]. When the defatted Jatro-

pha kernel meal from the toxic genotype was fed to carp, it

shows no changes in histopathological lesions in the

organs, and no changes in enzyme activities and normal

blood parameters were observed [87]. The defatted Jatro-

pha meal can replace 50% fish meal protein in carp diets

and rainbow trout without compromising growth and

nutrient utilization of fish. Phorbol esters, the main toxic

principle for Jatropha toxicity was not detected in fish

muscle tissues, suggesting the fish is safe for human con-

sumption [88, 89].

Studies with animals [64, 90–92] have shown that the

seeds are toxic. The seeds of Jatropha are known to be

toxic to mice [90] and rats [66]. Liberalino et al. [64] found

a high degree of toxicity in the raw, cooked or roasted

seeds of Jatropha. They found that all rats fed on diets

containing different nut fractions died, with feeding raw

nuts causing death within 23 days, raw or cooked nut oil,

within 68 days and with roasted nuts, within 14 days. The

acetonitrile extract of Jatropha (seed or oil) when given to

albino rats at an oral dose of 50 mg/kg body mass (single

dose) produced mild toxicological biochemical and histo-

pathological changes [93]. The acute toxicity of phorbol

esters was proved by intragastric administration for Swiss

Hauschka mice. The prominent lesions were mainly found

in lung and kidney [94]. El-Badwi et al. [92] reported high

mortality in chicks fed with a diet containing 0.5% Jatro-

pha seeds. Calves fed with 0.25 g seed per 1 kg of body

weight also showed a rapid onset of toxic manifestations

Table 5 Phorbol esters in different parts of the toxic Jatrophacurcas plant

S. No Parts Phorbol esters

(mg/g dry matter)

1. Kernel 2.00–6.00

2. Leaves 1.83–2.75

3. Stems 0.78–0.99

4. Flower 1.39–1.83

5. Buds 1.18–2.10

6. Roots 0.55

7. Latex Not detected

8. Bark (outer brown skin) 0.39

9. Bark (inner green skin) 3.08

10. Wood 0.09

Makkar et al. [19]

J Am Oil Chem Soc (2012) 89:961–972 967

123

and death occurring within hours of administration [91].

The same diet was shown to be lethal for 6–8 month old

goats between days 7 and 21. It caused blood diarrhea,

dyspnea, dehydration and hind limb paring before death.

Internal lesions included enterohepato nephrotoxicity,

pulmonary hemorrhage, emphysema and cyanosis, tracheal

froths, ascites and hydropericardium. These lesions were

accompanied by an increase in the activity of serum

aspartate aminotransferase, an increase in urea concentra-

tion, a decrease in total protein, albumin, anemia and leu-

kopenia [95]. Rakshit and Bhagya [96] concluded that the

higher kidney and brain weights observed following con-

sumption of Jatropha diets may be due to the deficiency of

essential amino acids in Jatropha proteins. The mortality of

animals was not only due to the toxicity of the phorbol

ester but also probably due to high contents of hull or

antinutritional constituents present in the Jatropha meal.

Further investigations are currently underway for complete

detoxification of Jatropha and to check the efficacy of

detoxification in animal models by using solvent extraction

process in our laboratory.

Phytoactive Constituents of Jatropha

The phytochemicals isolated from different parts of the

plant are shown in the Table 6. Jatropha leaves are used to

cure various diseases, anti-inflammatory compounds

isolated from leaves are flavonoids, apigenin and its

glycosides vitexin and iso-vitexin, the sterols stigmasterol,

b-D-sitosterol and its b-D-glucoside [97]. The Jatropha latex

has a proteolytic enzyme, curcain which was found to have

better properties for healing wounds than nitrofurazone

[98]. A novel cyclic octapeptide (Gly-Leu-Leu-Gly-Thr-

Val-Leu-Leu-Gly), curcacycline, has also been isolated

from Jatropha latex. This cyclic octapeptide has been

shown to inhibit classical pathway activity of human

complement, and proliferation of human T-cells [99]. The

Jatropha seeds are good sources of phytate [27, 28].

Several beneficial effects of phytate including cancer pre-

vention, reduction in iron-induced oxidative injury and

reversal of initiation of colorectal tumorigenesis and pre-

vention of lipid peroxidation have been reported [100].

Jatropha stem bark extracts revealed the presence of

saponins, steroids, tannins, glycosides, alkaloids and

flavonoids. These compounds are known to be biologically

active and therefore contribute to the antinutritional

activities. Tannins have been found to form irreversible

complexes with proline rich protein [101] resulting in the

inhibition of protein synthesis. Li and Wang [102]

reviewed the biological activities of tannins and observed

that tannins have anticancer activity and can be used in

cancer prevention, thus suggesting that Jatropha has

potential as a source of important bioactive molecules for

the treatment and prevention of cancer. Alkaloids which

are one of the largest groups of phytochemicals in plants

having wide-ranging effects on humans and this has led to

the development of powerful pain killer medications [103].

Flavonoids, another constituent of Jatropha stem bark

extracts exhibited a wide range of biological activities like

antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiangiogenic, analge-

sic, antiallergic, cytotoxic and antioxidant properties [104].

Table 6 Phytochemicals isolated from different parts of the plant

S. No Various parts Chemical composition References

1. Aerial parts Organic acids (o and p-coumaric acid), p-OH benzoic acid, protocatechuic acid, resorcylic acid,

saponins and tannins

[126]

2. Stem bark b-Amyrin, b-sitosterol and taraxerol saponins, steroids, tannin, glycoside,

alkaloids and flavonoids

[127, 128]

3. Leaves Cyclic triterpenes stigmasterol, stigmast-5-en-3b, 7b-diol, stigmast-5-en-3b, 7a-diol, cholest-

5-en-3b,7b-diol, cholest-5-en-3f1, 7a –diol, campesterol, b-sitosterol, 7-keto-b-sitosterol as well

as the b-D-glucoside of b-sitosterol. Flavonoids apigenin, vitexin, isovitexin. Leaves also contain

the dimer of a triterpene alcohol (C63H117O9) and two flavonoidal glycosides. Alkaloids,

Saponins, Steroids, Tannins

[127, 129–131]

4. Latex Curcacycline A, a cyclic octapeptide, Curcain (a protease) [99, 132]

5. Seeds Curcin, a lectin, Phorbol esters, Esterase (JEA) and Lipase (JEB) [27, 66, 67,

133]

6. Kernel and

Press cake

Phytates, saponins and a trypsin inhibitor [27, 134, 135]

7. Roots b-Sitosterol and its b-D-glycoside, marmesin, propacin, the curculathyranes

A and B and the curcusones A–D, diterpenoids jatrophol and jatropholone

A and B, the coumarin tomentin, the coumarino–lignan jatrophin as well as taraxerol

[136, 137]

968 J Am Oil Chem Soc (2012) 89:961–972

123

Conclusion

As Jatropha cultivation increases, it becomes more

important to develop new varieties that produce the max-

imum amount of oil and by-products with the minimum

amount of input. Jatropha oil is presently used as fuel, it

may be suitable for human consumption after further

detoxification. The toxicity of the stripped oil free of

phorbol esters should be investigated using rat and fish as

experimental models. The seed meal obtained from the

non-toxic genotype would find application as livestock

feed. On the other hand, the toxic genotype could also be

utilized as a fertilizer or as a substrate for the production of

industrial enzymes through fermentation processes.

Development of varieties which lack phorbol esters is

therefore a desirable goal. The identification of a molecular

marker associated with the absence of phorbol esters would

facilitate breeding programs. Genetic transformation and

gene transfer is certainly important for traits for which

variability is unavailable in the cultivated species. The

enhancement of productivity can be achieved through

development of pistillate plants and exploiting heterosis. It

is the need of the hour to research on biomedicinal aspects

of active principles contained in its different parts.

Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the Jatropower

AG-MRP, Switzerland for the financial support extended.

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