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PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF ACADEMIC
DISCOURSE: INSIGHTS INTO CODE-SWITCHING
By
S. Tehseen Zahra
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES
ISLAMABAD
March-2018
i
Pragmatic Analysis of Academic Discourse: Insights into
Code-Switching
By
S. Tehseen Zahra
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
In
(English Linguistics)
To
FACULTY OF LANGUAGES
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES, ISLAMABAD
S. Tehseen Zahra, 2018
ii
Name of Student
Name of Discipline
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES FACULTY OF LANGUAGES
THESIS AND DEFENSE APPROVAL FORM
The undersigned certify that they have read the following thesis, examined the defense, are satisfied
with the overall exam performance, and recommend the thesis to the Faculty of Languages for
acceptance:
Thesis Title: Pragmatic Analysis of Academic Discourse: Insights into Code Switching
Submitted By: S. Tehseen Zahra Registration #: 392-PhD/Ling/Aug 11
Doctor of Philosophy Degree Name in Full
English Linguistics
Prof. Dr. Wasima Shehzad ___________________________________ Name of Research Supervisor Signature of Research Supervisor
Prof. Dr. Safeer Awan ___________________________________ Name of Dean (FoL) Signature of Dean (FHS)
Maj. Gen. ® Zia Uddin Najam HI(M) ___________________________________ Name of Rector Signature of Rector
_______________________
Date
iii
CANDIDATE DECLARATION FORM
I S. Tehseen Zahra_____
Daughter of Naseem Raza________
Registration # 392-PhD/Ling/Aug 11_
Discipline English (Linguistics)___
Candidate of _Doctor of Philosophy at the National University of Modern Languages do
hereby declare that the thesis, Pragmatic Analysis of Academic Discourse: Insights into
Code-Switching submitted by me in partial fulfillment of PhD degree, is my original
work, and has not been submitted or published earlier. I also solemnly declare that it shall
not, in future, be submitted by me for obtaining any other degree from this or any other
university or institution.
I also understand that if evidence of plagiarism is found in my thesis at any stage, even
after the award of a degree, the work may be cancelled and the degree revoked.
__________________________
______________ Signature of Candidate
Date
S. Tehseen Zahra
Name of Candidate
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I owe sincere gratitude to my first and foremost inspiration, my mentor and supervisor, Prof. Dr.
Wasima Shehzad for her guidance, continuous support and encouragement in writing this
dissertation which I shall cherish throughout my life.
I learnt through discussions that helped me to polish my ideas and motivate me to evolve new
concepts of corpus studies and academic discourse. I feel indebted to Mr. Akhtar Abbas for
arranging discussions in that particular area.
Dr. Saima Shaheen’s and Dr. Qaisar Khan’s thought provoking comments and constructive
criticism help me to enhance my skills at different stages of writing this dissertation. I would like
to thank them for reading this research and providing valuable suggestions.
My gratefulness to Prof. Dr. Safeer Awan and Prof. Dr. Aysha Sohail for their sincere
cooperation in data collection. I would like to acknowledge the efforts of Dr. Ummaima Kamran,
Mr. Anmol Ahmad, Ms Fizza Farrukh, Ms Humera Fraz and Mr. Ahsan Cheema for helping me
from data collection to data transcription and analysis stages. In addition, my friends and
colleagues have been important part of this research, without their support, this would not have
been possible.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents, Mr. Naseem and Ms. Tehzeeb for
encouraging me throughout my life to work consistently and with patience and for supporting me
spiritually. Although my name appears at the top of this research, this task might not be achieved
without consistent support of my heaven, my family. I am thankful to my husband Azhar Raza
for sustaining me at every stage of my study and practical life. Yes, I believe that my children are
my strengths. They always make me feel that they are proud kids of a philosopher. I wish My
strengths, Fatima, Kisa, Raza and Haider to face all the challenges with confidence and dignity.
vi
ABSTRACT
Language use in academic discourse i.e. in classroom sessions and conference presentations is a
controversial issue among linguists and academicians as they carry contrasting perspectives
regarding use of language in academia. Some linguists believe that code-switching is an essential
part of academic discourse while some other suggests that mutual intelligibility may not be
possible if the learners switch their language during communication. The variation of the
viewpoints creates a niche to explore the use of language in Pakistani classroom sessions and
conference presentations. This study explores various purposes of code-switching in academic
discourse including elucidation, giving instruction, translation, change/introduce the topic,
asking question and building argument. Pakistan is a multi-lingual country and it has rich
linguistic diversity where people use provincial and regional languages and medium of
instruction in classrooms is a serious concern for academicians. Moreover, the study portrays
present situation and describes future implications from students’ perspective. The second main
objective of the study is to explore the contextual relevance, quantity of information and
perspicuousness in academic discourse (classroom session and conference presentation). To
conduct this study thirty classroom sessions and forty conference presentations were recorded
and transcribed. Furthermore, this research highlights the issues related to contextual use of
language, quantity of information and clarity of expression in academic discourse by giving
examples of transcribed data. The findings reveal the purposes of code-switching and contextual
uses of language in academic discourse with specific reference to pragmatic ideology. In the
light of the findings of the current study I propose Relative Relevance Model of Communication
which has potential to explore relevance and relative relevance in classroom sessions and
conference presentations especially. Moreover, this model may also be employed on other genres
in order to address pragmatic manifestations with special focus on relevance.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS THESIS/DISSERTATION AND DEFENCE APPROVAL FORM-------------- ii CANDIDATE DECLARATION FORM--------------------------------------------- iii PLAGIARISM UNDERTAKING ---------------------------------------------------- iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS------------------------------------------------------------ v ABSTRACT------------------------------------------------------------------------------ vi TABLE OF CONTENT----------------------------------------------------------------- vii LIST OF TABLES----------------------------------------------------------------------- xii
LIST OF FIGURES--------------------------------------------------------------------- xiv LIST OF GRAPGS---------------------------------------------------------------------- xiv
1 INTRODUCTION-------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 1.1 Purpose of the Study------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 1.2 Background of the Study-------------------------------------------------------------- 4 1.3 Statement of Problem ------------------------------------------------------------------ 8 1.4 Research Objectives------------------------------------------------------------------- 9 1.5 Research Questions--------------------------------------------------------------------- 9 1.6 Research Frame------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 1.6.1Theoretical Framework---------------------------------------------------------- 11 1.6.1.1 Grice Cooperative Principle------------------------------------------------- 11 1.6.2.2 Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Model of Code-switching----------------- 12 1.7 Rationale for Selecting Grice’s Maxims of Speech and Myers Scotton’s
Markedness Model--------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
1.8 Delimitation of Study------------------------------------------------------------------ 16 1.9 Significance of the Study-------------------------------------------------------------- 18 1.9 Chapter Breakdown/Thesis Disposition--------------------------------------------- 18 2 LITERATURE REVIEW----------------------------------------------------------- 19 2.1 Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 19 2.2 What is Pragmatics? ------------------------------------------------------------------- 20 2.2.1 Pragmatics and Meaning-------------------------------------------------------- 23 2.2.3 Functions of Language and Context------------------------------------------- 23 2.3 Scope of Pragmatics Analysis-------------------------------------------------------- 23 2.3.1 Societal Perspective------------------------------------------------------------- 23 2.3.2 Configuration / the Compositional Perspective------------------------------ 24 2.3.3 Relational Viewpoint------------------------------------------------------------ 25 2.4 Different Areas of Pragmatics-------------------------------------------------------- 25 2.4.1 Speech Acts----------------------------------------------------------------------- 26 2.4.2 Presupposition-------------------------------------------------------------------- 27 2.4.3 Conversational Maxims--------------------------------------------------------- 28 2.5 Cooperative Principle------------------------------------------------------------------ 28
viii
2.5.1 Maxims---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28 2.6 Explanation of Intended Meaning---------------------------------------------------- 30 2.7 Cognitive Linguistics and Interpretation Of Utterance---------------------------- 31 2.7.1 Cognitive Interpretation and Conversational Maxim----------------------- 32 2.7.2 Cognitive Elucidation of Gricean Theory of Maxims from---------------
Pragmatic Perspective
33
2.8 Pragmatic Model of Linguistic------------------------------------------------------- 34 2.9 Relevance Theory----------------------------------------------------------------------- 34 2.10 Pragmatic Marking--------------------------------------------------------------------- 35 2.11 Cognitive Aspects of Observance and Non-Observance Of Maxims----------- 35 2.12 Indirectness and Gricean Maxims---------------------------------------------------- 41 2.13 Language Contact ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 44 2.14 Language Contact And Pragmatics-------------------------------------------------- 44 2.15 Linguistic Interference Process And Pragmatics----------------------------------- 45 2.16 Code-Switching as an Adaptive Strategy in Pragmatic Context----------------- 46 2.16.1 Uses of Language in Classroom---------------------------------------------- 46 2.17 Discourse-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49 2.20.1 Supremacy of Speech over Writing------------------------------------------ 50 2.20.2 Planned or unplanned discourse---------------------------------------------- 50 2.18 Discourse Theory----------------------------------------------------------------------- 51 2.18.1 Academic Discourse----------------------------------------------------------- 51 2.19 The Arrangement of Classroom Discourse------------------------------------------ 52 2.20 Code- Switching------------------------------------------------------------------------ 56 2.20.1 Development of Code-Switching-------------------------------------------- 57 2.20.2 Convergence versus Preservation-------------------------------------------- 59 2.20.3 Grammatical Approach to Code–Switching-------------------------------- 59 2.21 Factors of Code Switching------------------------------------------------------------ 60 2.22 Types of Code-switching-------------------------------------------------------------- 61 2.23 The Markedness Theory Of Language Choice------------------------------------- 62 2.24 Sequential Analysis of Code-Switching--------------------------------------------- 63 2.25 Social Symbolism of Metaphorical Code-Switching------------------------------ 63 2.26 Difference between Borrowing and Code-Switching------------------------------ 65 2.27 Code-Switching In Bilingual Classrooms------------------------------------------- 67 2.28 Purposes of Code-Switching in Classroom----------------------------------------- 69 2.28.1 Clarification of Concept------------------------------------------------------- 71 2.28.2 Socialization--------------------------------------------------------------------- 72 2.28.3 Translation----------------------------------------------------------------------- 72 2.28.4 Fabrication of Grammatical Variation--------------------------------------- 73 2.28.5 Alternation of Topic------------------------------------------------------------ 73 2.28.6 Simplification of Expression-------------------------------------------------- 73 2.28.7 Teachers Linguistic Competence--------------------------------------------- 73 2.28.8 Cultural Representation-------------------------------------------------------- 74 2.28.9 Evaluation----------------------------------------------------------------------- 74 2.28.10 Repetition---------------------------------------------------------------------- 75
ix
2.28.11 Building a Sense of Ownership--------------------------------------------- 75 2.29 Relationship between Pragmatics and Academic Discourse---------------------- 76 2.30 Language Policy and Education------------------------------------------------------ 77 2.31 Linguistic Hybridity-------------------------------------------------------------------- 78 2.31.1 Linguistic Hybridity in Classrooms------------------------------------------ 79 2.32 Summary--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80 3 METHODOLOGY-------------------------------------------------------------------- 81 3.1 Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 81 3.2 Methodology---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82 3.3 Theoretical Framework---------------------------------------------------------------- 82 3.4.1 Cooperative Principle----------------------------------------------------------- 82 3.4.2 Myers-Scotten Markedness Theory of Code Switching-------------------- 84 3.4 Triangulation---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85 3.5 Ethnography of Interaction------------------------------------------------------------ 85 3.6 Sample Selection------------------------------------------------------------------------ 88 3.7 Survey------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 89 3.7.1 Constructing a Questionnaire-------------------------------------------------- 90 3.7.2 Questionnaire Lay out----------------------------------------------------------- 92 3.7.3 Pilot Study------------------------------------------------------------------------ 93 3.7.4 Reliability and Validity of Instrument---------------------------------------- 94 3.7.5 Data Collection Through Questionnaire-------------------------------------- 95 3.8 Recording of Material------------------------------------------------------------------ 96 3.8.1Recording of Conferences------------------------------------------------------- 98 3.8.2Difficulties in Recording the Data---------------------------------------------- 98 3.8.3 Rationale for Audio and Video Recording ---------------------------------- 98 3.9 Data Analysis---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 99 3.9.1 Analysis of Questionnaires----------------------------------------------------- 99 3.9.2 Analysis of Recordings---------------------------------------------------------- 100 3.9.2.1 Transcription of Recorded Data --------------------------------------------- 100 3.9.2.2 Recording of Lectures--------------------------------------------------------- 103 3.9.2.3 Recording of conferences----------------------------------------------------- 105 3.10 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis----------------------------------------------- 107 3.13 Delimitation----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 109 3.14 Ethical Considerations----------------------------------------------------------------- 110 3.15 Summary--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 110 4 DATA ANALYSIS-------------------------------------------------------------------- 111 4.1 Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 111 SECTION 1 : Description of Demographic Information--------------------- 112 4.2 Descriptive Statistic of Demographic Variables------------------------------------ 112 4.3 Learners Views about Language of Instruction------------------------------------ 118 4.4 Purposes of Code-Switching---------------------------------------------------------- 119 4.4.1 Elucidation------------------------------------------------------------------------ 119 4.4.2 Giving Instructions-------------------------------------------------------------- 122 4.4.3 Translation------------------------------------------------------------------------ 123 4.4.4 Change/Introduce the Topic---------------------------------------------------- 124
x
4.4.5 Ask Question--------------------------------------------------------------------- 125 4.4.6 Build Argument------------------------------------------------------------------ 128 4.4.7 Telling Jokes or Recreation----------------------------------------------------- 133 4.4.8 Providing Information----------------------------------------------------------- 138 4.4.9 Maintaining Relevance---------------------------------------------------------- 140 4.4.10 Clarifying Difficult Ideas------------------------------------------------------ 144
4.5 Students Perception about passing the exam and the Use of Language--------- 147 4.6 Disadvantages of Code-switching---------------------------------------------------- 151 4.6.1 Hindrance in English language Learning------------------------------------- 151 4.6.2 Hindrance in Creation of New Vocabulary/Lexical Items ----------------- 152 4.6.3 Lack of Vocabulary-------------------------------------------------------------- 153 4.6.4 Hinder Fluency------------------------------------------------------------------- 154 4.7 Medium of Instruction in Classrooms----------------------------------------------- 155 4.7.1Mother Language----------------------------------------------------------------- 156 4.7.2 Nationalism and Modernization------------------------------------------------ 157 4.7.3 Medium of Instruction in Schools and Colleges----------------------------- 158 4.8 Respondents Additional Comments-------------------------------------------------- 159 4.9 Code-switching in Conference Presentations--------------------------------------- 161 4.10 Pragmatic Analysis and Code-switching-------------------------------------------- 165 Section 2
GRICEAN MAXIMS AND ACADEMIC DISCOURSE--------------------
168 4.11 Maxim of Relevance------------------------------------------------------------------- 169
4.11.1 Sequential Relative Relevance Model of Communication---------------- 169 4.11.1.1 Logical or Direct Relevance------------------------------------------------ 170 4.11.1.2 Syllogism--------------------------------------------------------------------- 170 4.11.1.3 Sequential--------------------------------------------------------------------- 171 4.11.2 Relative/ indirect Relevance-------------------------------------------------- 171 4.11.1.3 Co relational/Quasi Relational--------------------------------------------- 171 4.11.1.4 Recreational------------------------------------------------------------------ 171 4.11.1.5 Situational-------------------------------------------------------------------- 172 4.11.1.6 Dimensions of Relevance--------------------------------------------------- 172 4.12 Logical or Direct Relevance in Classroom Sessions------------------------------- 172 4.12.1 Example 1----------------------------------------------------------------------- 172 4.12.2 Example 2----------------------------------------------------------------------- 174 4.12.3 Example 3---------------------------------------------------------------------- 175 4.12.4 Example 4---------------------------------------------------------------------- 177 4.12.2 Example 5---------------------------------------------------------------------- 179 4.13 Logical or Direct Relevance in Conference Presentation------------------------- 182 4.13.1 Example 6---------------------------------------------------------------------- 182 4.13.2 Example 7---------------------------------------------------------------------- 184 4.13.3 Example 8---------------------------------------------------------------------- 184 4.13.4 Example 9---------------------------------------------------------------------- 185 4.13.5 Example 10---------------------------------------------------------------------- 186 4.13.6 Example 11---------------------------------------------------------------------- 189
xi
4.14 Relative Relevance in Conference Presentations----------------------------------- 192 4.14.1 Example 12--------------------------------------------------------------------- 192 4.14.2 Example 13--------------------------------------------------------------------- 192 4.14.3 Example 14--------------------------------------------------------------------- 193 4.15 Relative Relevance in Classroom Sessions----------------------------------------- 194 4.15.1 Example 15--------------------------------------------------------------------- 194 4.15.2 Example 16--------------------------------------------------------------------
4.15.3 Example 17---------------------------------------------------------------------
195
196 4.15.4 Example 18--------------------------------------------------------------------- 197 4.15.5 Example 19--------------------------------------------------------------------- 198 4.16 Maxim of Quantity--------------------------------------------------------------------- 199 4.16.1.1Ideology of Ideal Speaker---------------------------------------------------- 201 4.16.2 Ideology of Ideal Speaker and Delivery of Information in Academic
Discourse-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 202
4.16.3Limitations of Maxim of Quantity-------------------------------------------- 210 4.16.3.1 Measurement of Quantity of Information--------------------------------- 211 4.16.3.2 Classroom Activities -------------------------------------------------------- 211 4.16.3.3 Need of the Students--------------------------------------------------------- 212 4.16.3.4 Delivery of Words in Various Contexts---------------------------------- 213 4.16.3.5 Limited Presentation Duration in Conference-------------------------- 213 4.17 Maxim of Manner---------------------------------------------------------------------- 214 4.17.1 Strategic Use of Lexical Items and Sentences------------------------------ 216 4.17.2 Ease in Expression------------------------------------------------------------- 216 4.17.3 Use of Ambiguous Words----------------------------------------------------- 217 4.17.4 Hedges--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 218 4.17.5 Indirectness---------------------------------------------------------------------- 219 4.17.6 Irony------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 221 4.18 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 222 5 SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND-------------------------------
RECOMMENDATIONS 227
5.1 Summary of Results-------------------------------------------------------------------- 227 5.2 Findings---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 229 5.3 Conclusion/s----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 230 5.3.1 Relative Relevance Model of Communication-------------------------- 232 5.4 Limitations of the Study--------------------------------------------------------------- 233 5.5 Recommendations and Implications------------------------------------------------- 235 5.6 Recommendations for Instructors---------------------------------------------------- 235 5.7 Recommendations for Presenters----------------------------------------------------- 237 5.8 Implication for Further Research----------------------------------------------------- 238 REFERENCES------------------------------------------------------------------------ 241
xii
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Pattern of language choices (Spanish and English) in classrooms------ 68 Table 3.1 Reliability of Instrument------------------------------------------------------ 94 Table 3.2 Number of Respondents of Survey------------------------------------------ 95 Table 3.3 Gender Distribution of Respondents---------------------------------------- 95 Table 3.4 Selected Disciplines for Lecture Recording ------------------------------- 97 Table 3.5 Data Collected Conference Presentations --------------------------------- 98 Table 3.6 Detailed View of Transcribed Data of female Classroom Sessions ---- 103 Table 3.7 Detailed View of Transcribed Data of male Classrooms Sessions ----- 104 Table 3.8 Details of presentation of male presenters of ‘The Literary Present
and the Post-Colonial Condition’-------------------------------------------- 105 Table 3.9 Details of presentation of male presenters of ‘The Literary Present
and the Post-Colonial Condition’-------------------------------------------- 106 Table 3.10 Details of presentation of male presenters of “First Kashmir
International Conference on Linguistics”---------------------------------- 106 Table 3.11 Detailed view of presentation of female presenters of “First Kashmir
International Conference on Linguistics”---------------------------------- 107 Table 4.1 Gender wise sample for questionnaires------------------------------------- 112 Table 4.2 Age group wise Distribution of sample ------------------------------------ 112 Table 4.3 Regional Languages Used as a Medium of Instruction in Schools and
Colleges------------------------------------------------------------------------- 114 Table 4.4 Languages Used for Communication with Classmates in
Universities--------------------------------------------------------------------- 115 Table 4.5 Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Teachers in
Universities -------------------------------------------------------------------- 115 Table 4.6 Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Staff in
Universities -------------------------------------------------------------------- 115 Table 4.7 Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Family --------- 115 Table 4.8 Regional Languages Commonly Used for Communication with
Classmates, Teachers, Staff and Family ----------------------------------- 116 Table 4.9 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 1---------------- 117 Table 4.10 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 2---------------- 118 Table 4.11 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 3---------------- 127 Table 4.12 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 4---------------- 132 Table 4.13 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 5---------------- 133 Table 4.14 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 7---------------- 135 Table 4.15 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 8---------------- 136 Table 4.16 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 9---------------- 137 Table 4.17 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 13--------------- 137 Table 4.18 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 14--------------- 140 Table 4.19 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 15--------------- 143
xiii
Table 4.20 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 16--------------- 144 Table 4.21 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 17--------------- 145 Table 4.22 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 18--------------- 146 Table 4.23 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 19--------------- 146 Table 4.24 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 10--------------- 147 Table 4.25 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 11--------------- 148 Table 4.26 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 12--------------- 148 Table 4.27 Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 6---------------- 152 Table 4.28 The Translation of Different Words in Urdu Language----------------- 153 Table 4.29 Use of Language in Classrooms from Students’ Perspective --------- 155 Table 4.30 Regional Languages Selected by The Students for the Medium of
Instruction in Classrooms---------------------------------------------------- 155 Table 4.31 The Detailed Description of Male Instructors----------------------------- 203 Table 4.32 The Detailed Description of Female Instructors-------------------------- 204 Table 4.33 The detailed description of male presenters ------------------------------- 205 Table 4.34 The Detailed Description of Female Presenters In ‘The Literary
Present And The Post-Colonial Condition’-------------------------------- 206 Table 4.35 The Detailed Description of Male Presenters In ‘First Kashmir
International Conference on Linguistics’---------------------------------- 207 Table 4.36 The Detailed Description of Male Presenters In ‘First Kashmir
International Conference On Linguistics’---------------------------------- 208 Table 4.37 WPM of Male and Female Participants----------------------------------- 209 Table 4.38 Total Time, Total Words and WPM of Male And Female
Participants--------------------------------------------------------------------- 209
xiv
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Layout of Questionnaire------------------------------------------------------ 93 Figure 4.1 Relative Relevance Model of Communication---------------------------- 170 Figure 4.2 Overall Lesson plan of Example 3------------------------------------------ 176 Figure 4.3 Overall Lesson plan of Example 4------------------------------------------ 178 Figure 4.4 Overview of the Equation Discussed in Example 5----------------------- 181 Figure 4.5 Overall Lesson plan of Example 10----------------------------------------- 189 Figure 4.6 Overall Lesson plan of Example 11----------------------------------------- 191
List of Graphs
Graph 4.1 Use of languages in School-------------------------------------------------- 113 Graph 4.2 Use of languages in college ------------------------------------------------- 113 Graph 4.3 Use of language in University----------------------------------------------- 114
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Language use in academic discourse is a bourgeois altercation among linguists
and academicians as they carry different points of view regarding use of language in the
academia (Lins, 2016). Some linguists believe that code-switching is an essential part of
academic discourse as it is an important communal mechanism which sets specific social
roles and boundaries of communication and controls social networking from functionalist
perspective, while other suggest that mutual intelligibility may not be possible if the
learners switch their language during communication (Recanati, 2010). These
paradoxical approaches of communication, therefore, create a need to explore the
implications of use of language in academic settings. In this regard, linguists (such as
Briner and Ward, 2006; Mackay, 2003; & Cooke, 2005) have found pragmatic analysis of
considerable value to interpret human discourse articulated in speech form.
Academic discourse refers to the use of language in academia and code-switching,
an important aspect of spoken language and is widely discussed by linguists in the light
of their research experiences (Storch & Wigglesworth, 2003), can add to the
interpretation of human speech and behavior when analyzed pragmatically. Moreover, it
is a significant social mechanism which sets specific social roles and boundaries of
communication and controls social networking from functionalist perspective. Linguists
have studied code- switching from two perspectives: first it supports arguments and
develops variability into any grammar; secondly, it brings universal linguistic categories
(Heller, 1988). Therefore, addressing code-switching in academic discourse can offer an
insight into cognitive and pragmatic implications in the academic milieu.
This pragmatic nexus between academic discourse and code-switching can be
explored by considering Grice’s (1976) maxim of relevance. These maxims are also
known as cooperative principles which can be exploited to probe relevance, truthfulness,
1
copiousness, uncertainty, and orderliness with regard of nature of any discourse. Hence,
there is a need to explore whether Gricean maxims of relevance, quantity and manner are
effective in determining the relevance to the topic, quantity of information, clarity of
ideas, ambiguity of expression and orderliness in discourse in general and academic
discourse in particular. So, the current study attempts to explore the effectiveness of
Gricean maxims of relevance, quantity and manner with reference to academic genres
having special focus on classroom sessions and conference presentations. These two
genres are significant representative of constellation of spoken academic genres as the
former belongs to classroom genre colony and the later represents habitus of research
genres.
According to Hymes (2009) discourse is not static rather it is related to the social
life of human beings and represents individual’s social identity. Similarly, academic
discourse ascribes the ways of perceiving and thinking and suggests the use of language
in academia. There are different ways to present academic discourse though various
genres which mainly are of two kinds i.e. classroom genres and research genres (Hyland,
2009). The former includes class sessions, discussions, lectures, and presentations and the
latter comprises of theses/dissertations, synopsis, research articles, patent and conference
presentations. The current study focuses on classroom sessions and conference
presentations only owing to their optimum representativeness of their respective genre
classes.
Storch and Wigglesworth (2003) found code-switching as the integral part of academic
discourse. According to them, sometimes teachers motivate first language (L1) use in
classroom because the students who use L1 in classrooms can express themselves with
confidence which reduces anxiety and can build social solidarity with the other students.
Contrary to this, Eldridge (1996) suggested that code-switching is not an effective
strategy as mutual intelligibility may not be possible if the learner switches his language
during communication with the native speaker of the target language. Sert (2005) added
that the repetitive function of code-switching may lead to students’ undesired behaviors.
He added further that the students might feel bored and lose their interest in listening to
the previous instruction (in the target language). So, the question arises whether the
2
speakers remain relevant, informative, truthful and intelligible when they code-switch;
therefore, this research focuses on a special aspect of language i.e. code-switching which
can be a prominent aspect of academic discourse in a multilingual society such as
Pakistan. Grice conversational Maxims (1976) and Myers-Scotton’s Markedness theory
(1984) were employed as theoretical frameworks for this research. The main focus of the
current study is to explore the issues related to code-switching in academic setting
including classroom sessions and conference presentations to ascertain whether the
speaker through code-switching remains informative, relevant and intelligible. This goal
is accomplished by employing Gricean Maxims of relevance, quantity and manner to
academic discourse. Besides, the study intends at deliberating on pedagogical
implications of code-switching in academic setting.
1.1 Purpose of the Study
In Pakistan, English is taught as a compulsory subject. Urdu is national language
of Pakistan and English is official language of Pakistan. Medium of instruction in
classrooms is still not defined which leads to an unclear status of languages in
educational institutes. In private schools and colleges, English is the preferred medium of
instruction while in some government institutes, English and Urdu languages are used as
a medium of instruction (Rahman, 2003). In such a situation, code-switching can be
observed as an important part of academic discourse. Although, I found many research
studies regarding use of language in academic discourse especially classroom discourse
in developed countries while I did not find much or detailed studies regarding the use of
language in conference presentations. These two genres (classroom discourse and
conference presentations) are still unexplored in Pakistani context. Keeping in view the
need of the hour, I decided to get an insight regarding the use of language in classrooms
and conference presentations without interrupting the natural setting of classrooms and
conference presentations. Liebscher & Dailey-O Cain (2005) said that a classroom is a
group of people having communicative competence which leads to variability in
performance as well. The idea of competence and performance favors the contextual use
of language. So this research focuses on the contextual use of language and purposes of
code-switching in classrooms and conference presentations.
3
Martin-Jones (1995) asserted that there is a need to explore various issues
regarding code-switching as code-switching in bilingual classrooms is shaped by social
factors working in different classrooms. In response, code-switching performs various
purposes in any discourse and finally becomes the strategy to achieve certain goals. In
Pakistan, inadequate attention is paid to the use of language in academia. Moreover,
academic discourse is a broad field of inquiry; hence I delimited my study to use of
language in classrooms at postgraduate level and conference presentations of Linguistics
and Literature. This research is an effort to highlight various issues regarding language
use in academic discourse.
1.2 Background of the Study
In four provinces of Pakistan, different languages are used for communication.
Census Report of Pakistan 1998 showed that majority of the speakers used Punjabi
language as their mother tongue with 44.15 % of the whole population followed by
Pashto with 15.42 %, Sindhi with 14.10 %, and Balochi 3.57 %. The geographical
distribution of the speakers shows that the majority of the Punjabi speaking population
lives in urban areas of Punjab, Pakistan while the proportion of other languages like Urdu
and other regional languages is 26.33. According to ethnologue (2011), Urdu is second
language of more than 105 million people. Nonetheless, each group has cultural
differences which show the identity of that particular region. Haque (1983) described the
regional distribution of languages in the provinces of Pakistan, like regional languages of
Punjab are Punjabi, Siraiki, Potohari and Pahari. The population of rural Sindh uses
Sindhi, while the population of urban Sindh uses Urdu language and Gujrati is used by
some influential minorities. Pashto is one of the influential languages in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, while Hindko is used in one district of Hazara. One of the interesting facts
is that multiple languages are used in Balochistan like Balochi, Brahvi, Pashto with some
vocabulary items of Siraiki and Punjabi. English is used as a language of instruction in
many public and private sector educational institutes of Pakistan, so the contact of
English with other languages has increased and this supports the concept of bilingualism.
Being national language of Pakistan, Urdu is considered as the language of high prestige
4
and after English. The use of Urdu with English in educational institutes of Pakistan is
quite obvious (Rahman, 2004).
The description of distribution of languages suggests that in different regions of
Pakistan, people use three languages: regional languages are used in specific region for
the business or domestic conversations, Urdu is used as national language and English is
used as an official language of Pakistan. These latter two languages are used for official
and educational purposes. Keeping these facts in view, it can be assumed that Pakistani
academicians (students, teachers and presenters) speak three languages and in educational
institutes and conference presentations two languages are used; English and Urdu. Talat
(2002) substantiates this perspective as she states that English is used in a trilingual
setting in Pakistan. Moreover, this study delimits itself to code-switching (from English
to Urdu and Urdu to English) in academic discourse (classroom sessions and conference
presentations). The mother tongue of the students, teachers and presenters is not explored
and discussed as a part of this research.
Talat (2002) mentioned that sixty-nine languages are spoken in Pakistan while
considerable and widely used languages are not more than fifteen. Furthermore, Urdu is
national language of Pakistan and one of the prominent lingua franca which is widely
used and understood for the purpose of communication in different regions of Pakistan.
Moreover, Qadir (1996) said that Urdu is mother language of the people (minority group)
who migrated from India and hold prominent stature in the power hierarchy of those
times, in response created a linguistic unity among the people who used Urdu as mother
language. Since then Urdu has been used in educational institutes for the purpose of
reading and writing as well. So it can be inferred from the above discussion political,
social and historical factors brought English to the focus of public attention. The
indecisive situation and lack of knowledge in language policy and planning provided
English a pivotal status in Pakistan importantly in academic discourse. There can be
different factors that support and promote in uplifting the status of English in Pakistan.
Gulzar (2009) informs that during colonial rule of British Empire, English was
transplanted in the subcontinent. English language embedded in the bureaucratic mode of
communication so it was not possible to change the mainstream system. Since then
5
English has been enjoying a high status and occupying a higher rank in power domain
hierarchy. But Rahman (2002), giving a different perspective in this respect, says that
English and Urdu, both languages are enjoying high status in Pakistan currently. On the
other hand, regional languages have a large number of speakers exercise less importance
as their use is restricted to homes and specific community. Urdu and English have
occupied a greater space and due to media promotion, these languages are flourishing to a
greater extent for public and official use. In addition to that, English and Urdu are taught
as compulsory subjects in schools and colleges and are used as a medium of instruction.
Rahman (2002) elaborated that the role of English language cannot be ignored in
civil and military bureaucracy; it is playing its role in the domain of power. Abbas (1998)
informed that bilingual writing is evident in lower courts and superior courts i.e. high
court and Supreme Court. English language is also used in defense forces like Army,
Navy and Air force and modules for the training are developed in English language.
Although, the use of English as a spoken language is less dominant in offices but still it is
flourishing. There is inherent contradiction between Pakistan’s declaration of Urdu as
national language of Pakistan and the real policy where English has been declared as
official language of Pakistan and considered as the “language of power” (Rahman, 2002).
Gulzar (2009) stated that Pakistan is a multilingual and multicultural society; it is
difficult to specify one or two languages as a medium of communication. Rahman (2002)
stated that medium of instruction in educational institutes is a problematic issue since
independence as the political instability hinders the appropriate decision regarding
language of instruction in academia. The situation is rightly described by Pattanayak
(1990) that the use of two languages is problematic, three languages are uneconomic and
many languages are absurd. Haque (1983) explained the whole situation in two points.
Language planning is under the influence of two factors. First factor is the selection of
national official language for the purpose of unification and operational efficiency. Urdu
language fulfills the criteria of nationalism while the criteria of official efficiency is
fulfilled by English as the upper strata i.e. military and bureaucracy are instructed and
trained in English language. In response, English occupied the place of official language;
the reason may be its strong link with East Pakistan. The constitution (1973) of Pakistan
6
clearly describes the motif of policy planners regarding the use of Urdu language at
national and provincial level. The three points of article 251 states that policy planners
want to replace English with Urdu language and prefer Urdu as national and official
language of Pakistan. Three points of article 251 of Pakistani constitution 1973 are as
follows:
1. “The National language of Pakistan is Urdu and, arguments shall be made for it
being used for official and other purposes within fifteen years of the commencing
day.
2. Subject to clause (1), the English language may be used for official purposes until
arrangements are made for its replacement by Urdu.
3. Without prejudice to the status of the national language, a Provincial Assembly
may by laws prescribe measures for the teaching, promotion and use of a
provincial language in addition to the national language.”
Although, it was the part of the article 251 that policy was supposed to be revised
after fifteen years of the commencing day of this constitution but Mansoor (2005) said
that clauses regarding the use of Urdu as national and official language of Pakistan
remained same in all three constitutions of Pakistan. It shows that no attention was paid
to the issue of language use so far and English is still enjoying the high status in Pakistan
as considered official language of Pakistan. Talat (2002) said that the declaration of
English as an official language of Pakistan greatly affected the medium of instruction in
Pakistani educational institutes as English speaking upper strata promote the use of
English language in educational institutes of Pakistan. The extension period of the use of
English as an official language stretched so long that policy makers seemed to forget the
social and political realities. Moreover, Talat (2002) said that the significant social factor
affecting the status of English and Urdu is vague description of the designing and
implementation of medium of instruction in educational institutes.
Article 251 (clause 3) of 1973 constitution shows that the place of regional
languages is conditional to the status of national languages and Gulzar (2009) says that
promotion of regional languages just proved a lip service in this regard. Through
legislation, Sindhi has been declared as a medium of instruction till primary level and
7
more or less, there is no legislation to promote the status of other regional languages in
other educational and official spheres of Pakistan. Spolsky (1998) said that language
choice as the national language or the medium of instruction is the biggest issue and its
importance cannot be negated. Skutnabb-Kangas & Cummins (1976) added that the
choice of language in academic discourse plays a significant role; it creates a sense to
respect and the values, traditions and culture among participants. Moreover, it makes
them feel proud of their language which is associated to their identity, culture and origin.
“Determinants of language choice and code-switching in classroom are necessarily more
complex than can be legislated by language policy on medium of instruction.” (Merrit et
al,1992, pg.12). Developed countries have already devised different models for bilingual
education program to address the issues of language use in classrooms.
Rahman (1999) stated that they have English language proficiency as they
(military and bureaucracy) have been using in educational institutes and academia. Their
educational and interactional policies support the idea of using English language.
Canagarajan (1999) opined that English language has a strong background of imposition
based on social, political and material situation of various areas and consequently
appeared in competition with national languages. Rahman (1999) further added that this
fact cannot be ignored that English has been enjoying the elitist status since the beginning
of Pakistan and English language cannot be replaced with Urdu language. It is also
undeniable that Urdu is second language of the most of the Pakistani speakers and it is
serving as a lingua franca in Pakistan. This ambiguity leads to the unclear vision towards
the use of language in academia. I believe that this ambiguous situation is raised due to
non-implementation of the clause of 251 of 1973 constitutions and unawareness of the
causes of rapid spread of English languages in private and government institutes. The
statuses of national and regional languages are still ambiguous and unresolved. The
background study of emergence and use of languages in Pakistan helps in identifying the
problems regarding the use of language in academic discourse within Pakistani situation.
1.3 Statement of Problem
English is language of higher education in Pakistan which also enjoys prestige as
de-facto official language of the country. Despite this status of English language in
8
education and official pedestals, Urdu as national language and other regional languages
are also used as marked and/or unmarked choices in these settings especially in class
rooms of higher educational institutes. Though, all of these inextricably interwoven
languages with English language on a priori assumption are conceptualized merely as a
socio-linguistic phenomenon focusing on revealing purposes of code-switching,
generally, in informal settings. However, epistemological exploration of this phenomenon
from the perspective of its cognitive effects within the theoretical underpinnings of
pragmatics also needs serious attention of the researchers especially with regard to this
practice in more formal settings such as classroom sessions and conference presentations.
1.4 Research Objectives
The objectives of this study are:
1. To explore the purpose(s) of code-switching in classroom sessions and conference
presentations
2. To identify the advantages and disadvantages of preferring one language(s) over
other in academic discourse (in classrooms and conference presentations)
3. To examine the authenticity of Gricean maxim of relevance in determining the
contextual relevance of the language(s) used in classrooms and conference
presentations
4. To examine the authenticity of Gricean maxim of quantity in determining the
quantity of information delivered through languages used in classrooms and
conference presentations
5. To examine the authenticity of Gricean maxim of manner in determining the
perspicuousness of language used in classrooms and conference presentations
6. To delineate the contextual use of language in classrooms and conference
presentations
1.4 Research Questions
This study focuses on the issues of language use in academic discourse. It is
observed that in postgraduate classrooms and conferences, instructors usually use English
9
and Urdu language in classrooms and conference presentations. Academicians in
Pakistani postgraduate classrooms and conference presentations, academicians usually
switch the code from one language to another (i.e. English to Urdu and Urdu to English).
The current study aims at exploring the purposes of code-switching in academic
discourse. For this purpose, the data has been collected from postgraduate classrooms and
conference presentations. Grice cooperative principle states four maxims. This study
intends at focusing on the relevance, quantity of information, clarity of expressions and
with reference to the theory given by Grice. By keeping in view the while Pakistani
situation, following research questions are devised to explore the facts.
1. What is/are the purpose/s of code-switching in academic discourse (in classrooms
and conference presentations)?
2. How is the ‘Gricean maxim of relevance’ advantageous in determining the
relevance of languages used in classroom sessions and conference presentations?
3. How is the ‘Gricean maxim of quantity’ advantageous in determining the quantity
of information delivered through languages used in classroom sessions and
conference presentations?
4. How is the ‘Gricean maxim of manner’ advantageous in determining the
perspicuousness delivered through languages used in classroom sessions and
conference presentations?
5. How do the academicians (instructors and presenters) use languages according to
the context (with reference to maxim of manner, maxim of relevance and maxim
of quantity) in academic discourse?
1.6 Research Frame
This purpose of the study is to analyze academic discourse with the prism of
pragmatics. For this purpose, the data was collected from postgraduate classrooms of
three universities of Pakistan, Quaid-i-Azam University, National University of Modern
Languages and Air University, Islamabad and two international conferences were
recorded to collect the data. Research was conducted in classrooms that contain fifteen
10
male instructors and fifteen female instructors. Forty presenters of two international
conferences were recorded. The recoded data of classrooms and conference presentations
was transcribed and further evaluated and analyzed using quantitative and qualitative
techniques.
1.6.1 Theoretical Framework
Myers-Scotton’s Markedness model of code-switching (1984) and Grice
cooperative principle (1975) used as theoretical framework for this research.
1.6.1.1 Grice Cooperative Principle
Grice (1975) presented “Cooperative Principle” which is elaborated by sub-
principles called maxims. The cooperative principle states that during conversation,
speaker should make his conversational contribution as required. To elaborate his point
of view he presented four maxims, maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of
manner and maxim of relevance. This study has been delimited to explore the maxims of
quantity, manner and relevance only.
1. Maxim of quantity states that during conversation, speaker should be as
informative as required. He should not give any additional information and he
should not make his contribution less informative.
2. Maxim of relevance states that speaker should be relevant and he should not
deviate from the topic or the discussion and he should speak according to the
context/situation.
3. Maxim of manner states that speaker should be brief and orderly and he should
avoid obscure and ambiguous expressions.
Non-observance is defined as “the failure to observe the maxims”. Grice (1975)
said that the reason of this failure may be “blatant or unostentatious”. Brumark (2006)
observed non-observance of Gricean maxims in family dinner table. He said that non-
observance also plays a role in communicating meaning as it helps in commenting on and
managing and controlling the verbal and non-verbal behavior. Non-observance has been
created through different pragmatic tools like humor, irony, sarcasm etc.
11
Brumark (2006) stated that non-observance is significant in creating specific
pragmatic effects of irony or sarcasm and it is usually perceived as irony and humor by
the listener as well (Ohlsson, 2003). In highly informal discourse (family dinners), it is
used to alleviate or enhance the functions of non-observance. Sperber and Wilson (1998)
said that irony refers to “saying something else and meaning something else” and it
serves as a pointing device of implied meaning. Pexman and Olineck (2002) said that
sarcasm is ruder and malevolent form of irony and even more face threatening than irony.
Similarly, jokes are also considered as a form of irony and humor and Giora (1995) said
that both irony and humor are the devices to break (non-observe) the maxim of quantity,
quality and manner.
1.6.2.2 Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Model of Code-switching
Keeping in view of Grice Cooperative Principle (Grice, 1975), Myers-Scotton
Markedness Theory (1984) emerged. Scotton (1998) considered language which a
community use as a set of “rights and obligation” (RO sets) and these RO sets depend
upon speakers social realization of the use of language and social knowledge. She
described the variation of Linguistic choices through this model. According to Scotton
(1998) while using language in a discourse, speakers have certain choices and speakers
use new codes and these “marked choices are speaker’s strategic use of new code”.
Myers-Scotton pointed out four types of Code-switching under her Markedness
model:
1. Code-switching is a sequence of unmarked choices
Language is used as unmarked choice due to contextual or situational requirement
of conversation.
2. Code-switching itself as the unmarked choice
Language is used by bilingual speakers who may be peers as well.
3. Code-switching as a marked choice
Expected social or contextual/situational norms are not observed due to
Interlocutors’ code-switching from one language to another as marked choice.
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4. Code-switching as an exploratory choice
Sometimes the choice of code during conversation is not clear in a given situation.
Code-switching is merely used to maintain the balance during conversation.
Myers-Scotton (1998) argued that this model is applicable to all languages. She
believed that in almost every speech community, there is always more than one way of
communication i.e. they use more than one language and sometimes more than one
dialect of a language is used. Language use, styles and dialects are related to social
groups and contexts in which speakers use language. In a community, not everyone
possesses same linguistic competence and performance for a certain language.
Markedness is related to the choice of language in a community and Myers-Scotton
elaborated that speakers have choices to select the language according to context and
these are considered as marked choices to send the intentional messages. Individuals have
the choice to select specific conversational patterns which can exist in their mind to make
a convenient conversation process and can be used occasionally.
Myers-Scotton (1998) presented the idea of marked and unmarked language
choices. The selection of marked or unmarked choices depends upon the context and their
uses adhere to the community of interactants. Markedness model emphasized marked
versus unmarked language choices as a theoretical construct to explain language choices
in certain contexts based on psychological and social motivations in selecting particular
codes in various contexts. According to Myers-Scotton (1998) marked choices adhere to
the community norms while unmarked choices do not adhere to the community norms. It
is the innate quality of human beings to judge the choice of language as marked and
unmarked choices and they focused on social and psychological perspectives of language
use.
Rose and Van Dulm (2006) pointed out the functions of unmarked choices as
these serve as a linguistic variety and a symbol of identity. Unmarked choices considered
as conventional and normal and adhere to the social group ideology as it is believed that
it does not carry any extra social meaning. Marked choices communicate extra social
meanings and provide extra information, although it comes under the ideology of
contextual use of language. According to Markedness Model, speakers have sufficient
13
knowledge about the use of these marked and unmarked choices in any conversation.
Speakers make marked or unmarked choices based on the relationship with one another
and are well aware of the consequences of these choices. It is assumed that speakers
usually make unmarked choices as it is considered as a safer way of communication and
it initiates an expected interpersonal relationship. But, a speaker need not to maintain
unmarked choices to adhere the social norms of a community, marked choices are also
very important and speaker ought to know the effects, potential costs and rewards of
marked choices. So, the choice of language depends upon the rewards, benefits and needs
of the time and situation (Myers-Scotton, 1993).
The markedness model focuses on the linguistic behavior of speakers when they
engage in switching code from one language to another. Myers-Scotton (1993) identified
various fields which support this model including sociology, psychology, pragmatics,
social anthropology and linguistics anthropology. There are communicative intentions
which motivate the speakers to select marked or unmarked choices. Myers-Scotton
(1998) states that marked or unmarked choices are intentional and these are made to
achieve some goals. The philosophy of cost and need can define the idea of code-
switching. The speakers switch their code when they feel that there are more benefits
relative to cost invested or code-switching can reward them than using only one
language. There is another concept of need as well; code-switching is a way of getting
things done and fulfills the communicative purpose. Speakers adopt and adapt the best
possible strategy to communicate for specific interaction. For example, the speakers can
switch to their L1 to build string arguments and in return to reap the reward and lessen
the threat of losing the arguments as code-switching is considered as a floor holding
technique.
Myers-Scotton (1993) revealed that communicative competence is the tacit
awareness present in the mind of speaker and it is more than the grammatical structures
of languages. The Markedness model is based on the markedness metric which gradually
becomes the part of the language and plays an important role in communicative
competence. This idea enables speakers and hearers to make all the relevant codes a part
of language and these codes can be utilized occasionally. The choice of codes depends
14
upon the specific community where some language choices are preferred over the other.
In a community, language choices are analyzed in terms of marked and unmarked
choices. Conceptualization is very important to use marked and unmarked choices. The
speaker can use from marked to unmarked choices or unmarked to marked choices.
Speakers’ choice of language depends upon the context and the use of choice depends
upon the exposure of particular language choice in a community.
The main theoretical framework of Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Model is
supported by Rights and Obligation sets (RO sets). These RO sets depict the norms and
behavior and in return the use of language in a community. Myers-Scotton (1998) said
that the choice of unmarked RO sets depend upon the context and situation in any
interaction. There are some factors which contribute to the selection of these RO sets.
These are ethnic group, gender, age, occupation and socioeconomic condition. The
markedness model is based on the understanding of the messages send during any
interaction and Myers-Scotton (1998) believed that it is not just the decoding of
messages; it is rather the extraction of meaning through inference which is the essence of
pragmatic ideology of meaning.
Markedness model is explained by Myers-Scotton carried two filters. First filter is
called structural constraint which deals the social factors, identity, age, gender, mother
language and characteristics of discourse (i.e. setting, purpose, time). Myers-Scotton
(1998) believed that these ‘surface discourse structural characteristics’ further identify the
structural constraints. These structural constraints help in building different structures and
identify which part of language (vocabulary) is important, beneficial and influential. This
is called sequential organization in language. There are different kinds of constraints
based on these structural constraints. These structural constraints identify speakers’
linguistic repertoire which can be the key factor in determining different discourse
strategies. This first filter is helpful in selecting various languages as a language choice
for the speakers. The second filter is called Elster Rational choice or Rational Actor’s
model, provides the opportunity to the speaker to use these structural constraints to get
particular outcome. Speakers consciously deal with the cost benefit analysis and
eventually opts the language which can be beneficial for them. Myers-Scotten used this
15
theory to analyze discourse and said that individuals select the language according to
their own temporary benefits; depends upon their own motivation (subjective motivation)
and opportunities (objective opportunities). Sometimes speakers use particular language
to get their ordinary goals and neglect their prior language choice. So every speaker has
marked and unmarked language choices. Myers-Scotten used this model to analyze code-
switching in conversation. She believed that researcher can easily identify marked and
unmarked choices in any conversation and even speakers can identify marked choices
during conversation. These codes or linguistic alternatives have multidimensional work
in specific continuum; it can be from the more marked to the more unmarked. The order
may vary. Myers-Scotten said that these codes work alternately due to the language
contact of two linguistic systems. As a result speakers acquaint the quality to interact in a
community and use two language systems which depends upon the priority of the
language use in specific context and these codes are socially accepted. Here the example
of cost-benefit is very significant where the speakers use specific codes for their own
benefits and these codes are socially accepted.
1.7 Rationale for Selecting Grice’s Maxims of Speech and Myers
Scotton’s Markedness Model
Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Theory was emerged in 1984 in a critical and
evaluative response to Grice Cooperative Principle (Grice, 1975). Both of these theories
share epistemological standpoint on the use of language from the perspectives of
pragmatics in sociolinguistic milieu. I also feel the same need of establishing nexus
between both of these perspectives in academic discourses produced in settings of
academic discourse community. Therefore, to explore academic discourse in two settings
i.e. classroom sessions and conference presentations of academic discourse community to
bring forth an insightful contribution of the current study, the models of Myers Scotton
and Grice are selected to discuss underpinnings of code-switching from the lens of
pragmatics. Furthermore, as Grice’s cooperative principle deals language with the prism
of pragmatic inquiry i.e. contextual use of language, code-switching is an important and
unavoidable phenomenon in multilingual cultures like in Pakistan. This phenomenon is
also observed as an integral discursive part of academic discourse like classroom sessions
16
and conference presentations. Keeping multifaceted nature of the phenomenon, this
research aims at exploring the purposes related to the use of language in classrooms and
conference presentations from inquisitive framework of pragmatics. And Gricean
cooperative principle and Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Theory offer robust ontological
basis for inquiry of the problem dealt in the current study.
1.8 Delimitation of Study
Keeping in view the limited time and resources, this study is delimited to the
following factors:
1. Postgraduate level covers multiple disciplines, so I delimited this study selected
disciplines as mentioned in chapter three. As far as conferences are concerned,
two international conferences on Linguistics and Literature were recorded and
twenty male participants and twenty female presenters were selected randomly for
this research.
2. This study focuses on the switching from English to Urdu and Urdu to English as
observed that in classrooms and conference presentations, these two languages are
used by instructors, students and presenters within the collected data. The term
bilingualism is used with the understanding that it does not exclude
multilingualism as Calwell & Mansoor (2005) stated that multilingualism cannot
be segregated from bilingualism as these are used interchangeably in literature for
the knowledge of two languages. He said that multilingualism is the magnified
version of bilingualism and both can be used to analyze language through societal
and individual perspectives. It is significant to mention that the term bilingualism
here is used to refer to the use of two languages i.e. Urdu and English in academic
discourse (classrooms and conference presentations).
3. Furthermore, this study is delimited to oral code-switching in academic discourse
and written code-switching is not the part of the discussion. So the literature
review extracted from different sources is comprised of oral code-switching
specifically.
4. Grice (1976) put forward his cooperative principle which is covered by four
maxims of quantity, quality, relevance and manner. Due to limited time this study
17
focuses on maxims of quantity, relevance and manner only. Maxim of quality is
deals truth value i.e. speaker should make not provide false information and
should not say what he/she believes false; it is difficult to evaluate whether
someone is telling the truth or not and whether he/she has evidence of what he/she
is saying. So, maxim of quality is not included in this study. Moreover, this work
has no intention to criticize and compare the teaching and presentation styles of
bilingual instructors and presenters i.e. one who code-switches or who do not
code-switch in classrooms and presentations.
1.9 Significance of the Study
This study brought into light the utmost important areas of academic discourse i.e. use of
language in classrooms at postgraduate level. Pakistan is a multilingual country where
speakers use different regional languages while Urdu is national language of Pakistan and
English is official language of Pakistan. In this scenario, medium of instruction in
academia is the topic of great importance. Code-switching is observed as an important
part of academic discourse. So this study is useful in elaborating the purposes of code-
switching in academic discourse. Pragmatic inquiry is another feature of this research as
I explored the relevance, quantity of information and perspicuousness in academic
discourse (classrooms and conference presentations) through practical implication of
Grician maxim of relevance, quantity and manner. I believe, this study will be beneficial
for both academic discourse community and pragmaticians.
1.10 Chapter Breakdown/Thesis Disposition
This thesis is divided into six chapters. The first chapter provides the brief
introduction to the study. The chapter two reviews the previous literature related to this
research and explains theoretical and conceptual frameworks applied and investigated by
the scholars previously. The literature review covers the concepts of bilingualism,
Gricean maxims and code-switching. Third chapter describes the methodology selected
to conduct this research and explain the theoretical framework foregrounding this
research. Grice Cooperative principle (1976) and Myers-Scotten Markedness Model
(1984) are used as theoretical frameworks and both research techniques; qualitative and
18
quantitative techniques are used to collect and analyze the data. Chapter four and chapter
five deal with data and result interpretations. Chapter four deals with the purpose(s) of
code-switching in academic discourse and effectiveness of Grice cooperative principle in
determining the contextual relevance, the quantity of information and the
perspicuousness of the languages used in academic discourse i.e. classrooms and
conference presentations. Throughout the chapter four, contextual use of language in
classrooms and conference presentations is elaborated with examples. Lastly, chapter five
describes the conclusion. This chapter reexamines the research questions and relates it to
the results of the study followed by the practical and pedagogical implications of this
study. Finally, the summary of findings, the limitations of the study and
recommendations are described briefly.
19
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter literature review and conceptual framework are discussed in
which I scrutinized relevant literature. It deals three main areas pragmatics, discourse
analysis with relevant concepts of academic discourse and code-switching. Taking into
account the importance of pragmatics, the purpose of pragmatic analysis, its importance,
cooperative principle and its cognitive aspects brought into consideration. After that I
reviewed relevant literature of bilingualism, its impact, categories and its use in
classrooms. The aim of this study is to explore purposes of language used in academic
discourse so a separate section is allocated to discourse which deals discourse, discourse
analysis, discourse theory and arrangement of classroom discourse while code-switching,
its factors, types, and purposes are discussed in separate section.
2.2 What is Pragmatics?
Biletzki (1996) pointed out two types of definitions of pragmatics; intentional
and extensional. To elaborate his point of view, he presented the definitions of
pragmatics given by different linguistics like pragmatics is the study of the relationship
between sign and observer/interpreter (Morris,1938, p.84), it is the study of “indexical
rules” to build a relationship between linguistic form and context (Bates, 1976, p. 3), it
creates a relationship between language, its core ideas and its users (Martin, 1971, p.
138), pragmatic analysis develop a theory of relationship between “language structures”
and its users(Apostle, 1971, p. 33), it is the scientific study of language use (Haberland
and May, 1977, p. 1). On the other hand Anat Biletzki elaborated the examples of
extensional point of view as Pragmatics is the study of presupposition, deixis, speech
20
acts, implicatures and various aspects of discourse analysis (Levinson, 1938, p. 27). In a
natural discourse, the basic concern of pragmatics is presupposition, implicatures,
illocutionary force and “cotext dependent acceptability” (Gazdar, 1977, p. 2).
Levinson (1983) said that the most recent term of Pragmatics inferable to Charles
Morris (1938) as he was studying the relationships among semiotics, syntax and
semantics. He related these three most distinctive branches of Linguistics to Pragmatics;
as pragmatics is the study of language with specific reference to the interpreter and
reveals different signs according to its use in specific context by the speaker. Morris
noticed that different interjections, commands and different rhetorical devices are used
under specific circumstances by the speakers. These matters are still under consideration
by many linguists. He put forward his “Behavioristic theory of semiotic”; in this theory
he described different integral forms of semiotics with its psychological, social and
biological signs. Today these are specified as psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and
neurolinguistics. Carnap put forward his idea if the expressions and meanings of the
speaker’s speech are analyzed; we are in the field of semantics and if the chain of
expressions is analyzed then it will be syntactic analysis.
Different linguists have defined pragmatics in different ways. Haberland and Mey
(1997) have defined it as Pragmatics is the science of language and it is the study of
language in action. Yule (1996) said that Pragmatics is one of the integral branches of
Linguistics which creates a link between linguistic forms and speakers of those forms.
Pragmatics allows the researcher to analyze the implicit and intended meanings, the true
and false assumptions of the speaker and hearer, objectives or goals of the speaker and
presupposed true or false assumptions of the speaker and hearer. Sometimes it may be a
quiet hectic task to analyze and evaluate the reality by keeping in view the sense and
mind of the speaker and hearer.
Yule (1996) said that pragmatics is the study of meanings which is the integral
part of communication and meanings are inferred by the speakers or writers and
interpreted by the listener or reader. The basic concern of pragmatics is to analyze the
utterances in specific context rather than utterances only. Yule stated that pragmatics is
one of the most interesting level of language as it is helpful in exploring the unsaid which
21
is actually the part of speech or communication. The contextual study of language leads
to the choice of language i.e. what is said and what is unsaid and why does the speaker
leaves certain arguments for the listener to interpret. According to Yule, it depends upon
the relative distance of speaker and the listener. This distance can be physical, social,
psychological, or it may be shared experiences. So the distance manages how much ideas
are said or unsaid during conversation. Language is a learned behavior and people usually
follow almost the same and familiar expression during conversation as in Saudi Arabia
People use the expression “All praise to Allah” rather than I am fine in response to the
question how are you?(Yule, 1996)
Thomas (1995) informed that in 1980, linguists were concentrating on pragmatics
as the study of meaning and meaning in context and these definitions are quite precise
and meticulous but nowadays modern linguists are concentrating on the speakers
meaning and the interpretation of speech. There are different levels of meanings by which
one can explore different layers of meaning. He divided these three levels as abstract
meaning, contextual meaning and force. Abstract meaning can be explored through
dictionary or any other book of meaning, contextual meanings is a sense conferring
process which is undertaken by the observer by keeping in view the whole situation while
force is related to the speaker’s intention. In Pragmatic analysis, linguists move from
abstract meaning to contextual meaning and then to force. All these three levels are
related to the study of meanings of phrases, clauses and even whole sentences.
2.2.1 Pragmatics and Meaning
Khan and Bughio (2012) stated that in latter half of twentieth century pragmatics
emerged as a significant branch with a hope that linguistic analysis will pace the steps
beyond syntactic analysis because certain connotations and forms cannot be understood
in the limited syntactic analysis of sentences. Thus new fields of study like socio
linguistic, cognitive linguistic, pragmatics, discourse analysis, and functionalism have
cropped up. All these new fields are reciprocal and interlinked and sometimes it is very
difficult to discriminate one from the other because of the fact that they all have almost
same denominator. Thus, this study deals with classroom discourse with the lens of
pragmatics to explore the contextual use of language.
22
Archer, Aijmer and Wichmann (2012) added that in pragmatics, meanings include
presumptions and inferences which can be extracted from its structural and literal
meaning. For example, a single sentence “it is too hot here” can be a true statement/
statement of fact or it can be a request to open the window or open the fan. So a sentence
constitutes two types of meaning, sentence meaning and speakers meaning.
2.2.2 The Functions of Language and Context
No doubt, language performs different functions. Halliday (1970) pointed out
three main functions of language as ideational, interpersonal and textual. Ideational
function specifies language as a tool to experience and interpret the world while the two
later functions are related to the use of language. Interpersonal function is related to the
study of language as a mode to express feelings, emotions and attitudes and its effect on
the attitudes of the hearer. Textual function identifies the role of language in the
construction of text and in building arguments.
Pragmatics opened new vistas to analyze the contextual use of language. The
variation in the use of language depends upon the context. We use language to refer to
different things depends upon whether we are in office or in home. The linguistic context
has a limited approach because its main focus is the use of grammatical structures and it
cannot explain the diversified and vast use of language. Pragmatics blessed new spirit to
the limited approach by analyzing language with special reference to speaker, hearer and
situation. Language is playing its role in shaping identity and clarifying the social role
(Archer et al, 2012). So, this study also explores contextual use of language with specific
reference to speaker, hearer and situation.
2.3 The Scope of Pragmatics Analysis
Bublitz & Norrick (2011) said that Pragmatics is closely related to the use of
language in particular setting rather than to develop any theory or to analyze any data for
specific research questions. Bublitz & Norrick (2011) discerned that it is the point of
view of the researcher which ascertains or shape the reality rather than any other device.
So the introspection and observation are the most important skills which a pargmatician
should exhibit. Various archetype of pragmatics conferred diversity to arts, humanities,
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philosophy, economics, psychology, education, and computer sciences. Bublitz &
Norrick (2011) have presented three perspectives of pragmatics which are as follows.
2.3.1 Societal Perspective
The pragmatic analysis conducted by a pragmatician is quite different from
linguistic analysis. The pragmatic analysis is connected to the background of the speaker
as well and conversation is analyzed implicitly and explicitly. Societal pragmatics
examines the social framework of a society which involve in the production and
interpretation of speech sound. It depicts that language and social structures are
interconnected and the depiction of social status/roles and identities are the heart of
societal pragmatic analysis. Speakers try to maintain their status and identities through
the ways they deliver messages. So this social dimension of pragmatics introduced it as a
separate level of linguistics and most of the linguists recognized it different from
semantics (Bublitz & Norrick, 2011).
2.3.2 The Configuration / the Compositional Perspective
Pragmatics in concerned with the analysis of language (spoken or written). Birner
and Ward (2006) said that grammar (syntax) is one of the essential parts of pragmatic
analysis and different levels of language like phonology, semantics, morphology, and
discourse are considered as a part of formal and formal pragmatics. The compositional
point of view is basically related to the internal form and construction of language and
deals the context and the use of language in an explicit manner. So this compositional
perspective is different from the societal perspective as in the compositional perspective
tends to focus on the linguistic context and the physical components (speaker and hearer,
time and place) are attached to the compositional perspective. The core areas associated
to compositional perspective are deixis, reference, presupposition, speech acts,
implicatures and discourse markers. So pragmatics differentiates and relates the implicit
meanings to the linguistics/structural meaning.
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2.3.3 The Relational Viewpoint
Although societal perspective and linguistic perspective have specific frame of
investigation in their field as societal perspective explore the social context and issues as
key concepts while linguistic perspective investigate the uses of language (linguistic
context) and cognitive aspects in a specific context. The relational perspective
investigates the relationship between societal and linguistic perspective as both are
concerned with the utilization and expression of words in a particular context, venture to
form a triangle of form, function and meaning.
The relational perspective examines the speech at two levels, micro level and
macro level. At micro level sounds and morphemes are observed while at macro level a
holistic orientation is analyzed by in depth study of language at phonological,
morphological and syntactic level. The later level does not spotlight the object, it is
closely associated with the connectedness of speech with its particular context and how
does a speaker tune his speech accordingly. Archer et al (2012) argued that pragmatics is
considered as one of the important aspect of linguistic communication including
phonetics, semantics, syntax and lexicology.
2.4 Different Areas of Pragmatics
It is important to get an idea about text and context while doing pragmatic
analysis. Text refers to both formal and informal conversation and discourse, interviews,
articles etc while context maintains and build the structure of the text by implementing
formal rules of linguistics, as identified by David Cryatal (1997). Alba Juez (2009)
identified seven different components of text as cohesion, coherence, intertextuality,
situationality, informativity, intentionality and acceptability. Cohesion and coherence are
internal qualities of text while the rest are external qualities. Furthermore, coherence and
cohesion are the part of text while the other five are the part of context. Both text and
context are the part and parcel of pragmatic analysis and both play its role in the
communicative part of an utterance. In terms of discourse text only provide the static
sematic meaning of the utterance while context keep in view the people with their
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specific background, individuality, belief, aims, situation, knowledge and social and
cultural identity.
The intensive study of Pragmatics liable the linguists to analyze language
pragmatically. Pragmatics covers speech act theory, conversational maxims,
presupposition, discourse markers, deixis, politeness principle and different approaches
towards language and its use.
2.4.1 Speech Acts
Tsohatzidis (1994) informed that language performs different functions during
communication and during conversation these specific acts may be stating, abusing,
warning, wishing, promising etc. These acts are labeled as speech acts. J.L Austin (1962,
as cited in Searle, 1969) formulated his theory of speech acts and presented three kinds of
speech acts: locutionary acts, illocutionary acts and perlocutionary acts. Austin notified
that locutionary acts are certain noises of a particular language which carry meaning and
have specific reference. Speaker’s intention plays a vital role in this regard which is
displayed by the speaker’s use of language. Language is one of the important methods of
intercommunication and it proves itself as the essential part of culture and society. It can
be used to persuade, agree, obey, accept, reject, or cheer etc. These all aspects are
discussed in perlocutionary act. Perlocutionary acts explore how multiple aims and
objectives are achieved through the use of language and how does a language help us to
create particular effects on the hearer. The component which are related to the
perlocutionary acts are external to the locutionary act while the components which are
related to the illocutionary acts are internal to the locutionary acts. Illocutionary acts are
also known as illocutionary force and it is related to the social significance of the
utterance. Searle (1969) suggested that there will be no communication or there will be
communication gap if there is no illocutionary force. Allen identified illocutionary force
at two levels; lexical level and grammatical level. The lexical level can be explained
through the examples like “I promise you that I will come tomorrow” or “I warn you that
I shall punish you”. Words like promise and warn are performative verbs and are usually
used to transfer illocutionary force. Present, past and future participles are included in
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grammatical category like “you go to school”, “you went to school” and “Did you go to
school”. In these sentences “go” and “went” give the idea of time.
Moving towards cooperative principle, observance and non-observance of
maxims of quantity, relevance and manner is quite ambiguous; when Grice says that
speakers non-observe the maxim of relevance, it means that speakers speak but the
utterances are not relevant which does not fit into the pragmatic ideology of context and
meaning, non-observance of maxim of quantity states that speaker should be as
informative as required while there is no scale to measure information and it is quite
relative, depends upon the hearers; how he/she perceives the given information and
maxim of manner states that the speaker should be orderly and brief, should avoid
obscure and ambiguous expression. In academic discourse, if the speakers non-observe
Grician maxims, there will be no communication. This idea does not fit into the
pragmatic ideology of relevance in contex. Hence, this study proposes a wayforward to
resolve the issue through a model that describes academic discourses through direct and
relative relevance.
2.4.2 Presupposition
Yule (1996) said that Presupposition is one of the important areas of study of
pragmatics in which implicit supposition is delivered by the speaker and it is assumed
that the hearer already has some idea about that implicit presumption. There are different
types of presupposition like lexical, potential, factual, and structural. Potential
presupposition is the assumption which is meaningful when it is used in specific context.
Existential presupposition is present in possessive cases like your car, his book etc. In
factual presupposition, information is treated as fact. For example “everybody knows that
he is a thief”. Non factitive presupposition is not considered as a fact e.g. I dreamed that I
was in heaven. In structural presupposition some structures are considered as true and
relevant to the previous happenings like “when did he go to school?” In this example it is
already assumed that someone went to school.
All these aspects of language mentioned above are part of discourse and important
to analyze spoken discourses. This study apply conversational maxims on academic
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discourse i.e. classroom lectures and conference presentation to explore observance and
non-observance of language in academic discourse.
2.4.3 Conversational Maxims
Grice (1989) differentiated two types of conversational implicature: generalized
and particularized. Generalized conversational implicature do not give importance to
context while particularized conversational implicature give importance to context. Grice
strived to draw a line between semantics and pragmatics by elaborating the concept of
“saying” and “implicating”. He said that the basic concern of semantics is to find “what is
said” and it is truth conditional content while pragmatic interests are more wide and
explore “what is implicated” and it is non-truth conditional content. (Recanati: 2010)
When speakers describe the truth conditions of arbitrary sentences, it is called the
semantic level of language analysis and it is related to competence. It is assumed that the
study merely at semantic level is not sufficient; there is a need of contextual based
analysis. Grice emphasized that it is the intention of the speaker which manifests the
meaning of utterance. The study of language with specific reference to the intention of
the speakers is pragmatic competence; it is the ability to identify and explain the behavior
of people by identifying and explaining their intentions (Recanati, 2010, pg.2). As far as
understanding of conversation is concerned, Pfister (2009) said that the speaker should
not misguide or confuse the hearer instead he should cooperate and guide the hearer. This
presumption clearly explains Grice Cooperative principle.
2.5 Cooperative Principle
Paul Grice (1975) formulated his idea about conversation and presented
cooperative principle. He stated that speaker should make his contribution such as is
needed and should have specific purpose and direction to deliver the idea to the hearer.
Grice idea is applicable to communicative events and conversation. In a natural
conversation, speaker wants to deliver the idea. By participating in a conversation
speaker may deliver a message whether he is agree, disagree, happy, sad, cooperative,
disjoint or helpful etc. speakers implicitly endorse the meaning which he cannot say
directly. Yule (1996) added that the essence of Cooperative principle is that the speaker
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should be cooperative to deliver the idea to the hearer and the mutual cooperation will be
helpful during conversation.
2.5.1 Maxims
Conversational maxims are also called the sub principles of cooperative theory.
These are also stated as the contribution of the speaker during conversation which is
required to communicate the specific idea. Grice elaborated his point of view and put
forward four kinds of Maxims.
i. The maxim of quantity
Yule (1996) elaborated the maxim of quantity as the information provided by the speaker
should as much as required and speaker should not make his contribution more
informative than desired or required. Grice (1967) explained it as the speaker should
provide the required information to the hearer. It should not be so brief not to deliver the
specific idea and it should not be extra or lengthy to distract the attention of the hearer.
ii. The maxim of quality
The second maxim of quality covers the truth value during conversation. It restricts the
speaker not to provide the untrue or fallacious information and he should not
miscommunication or rather should not provide that information which lack sufficient
evidence. Yule (1996) and Cruse (2000) have elaborated the idea of the maxim of quality
as the speaker should try to make his contribution true and he should not deliver the idea
which is deficit in adequate evidence. Cruse (2000) argued that the first idea run side by
side with the second idea that the false statement will have inadequate evidence.
iii. The maxim of relevance
The third maxim of relevance talks about the relevance of utterances with the context
which is under consideration during conversation. It stresses that relevance is the vital
part of the conversation which moves the conversation in specific direction.
iv. The maxim of manner
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Yule (1996) identified the fourth maxim of manner is related to speaker’s
perspicuity. He should not use obscure and ambiguous expressions and he should be brief
and orderly. Mooney (2004) said that maxim of manner concentrates on the order or
organization and brevity. He suggested that the speaker should avoid obscurity in
expression and fuzzy sentence construction during conversation.
Attardo (1993) said that sometimes these maxims of cooperative principle are not
followed by the speakers in natural conversation on superficial level. This does not mean
that the speaker is unaware of them. This flouting may be in action at deeper level.
Greenall (2009) explained that the speakers willingly flout the maxims to convey more
than what he said. So speaker infers the meanings though unsaid utterance. Grice (1989)
argued that the listener infers meaning and in turn give response to the speaker in which
speaker is more inclusive. This goal is achieved through conversational implicature.
Cooperation is also followed in such assumption or supposition of the listener. So Kelink
(2010) said that the implicit meanings are extracted by the speakers keeping in view the
context, background, purpose, the type of relationship (between listener and speaker),
encyclopedic etc.
Implicatures do not infer the contextual meaning always; sometimes a generalized
idea is presented and this is termed as scalar implicature. In scalar implicature,
conversation follows a specific scale and pattern such as to present quantity, different
words like few, many, all, mostly often etc. Mooney (2004) told that the extensive uses of
implicatures designate them as a part and parcel of communication. Implicature is not
“what is said”; rather it is the part of what is communicated. Implcatures provide the
opportunity to the listener to mere correct, review or reconsider the implicated utterance.
Bach (1994) said that there are different points in conversation in which saying one thing
may convey a different idea or meaning (intended meaning). It creates a specific pattern
and develops the whole argument.
2.6 Explanation of Intended Meaning
Davies (2007) presented his view that many linguists, who worked on cooperative
principle and conversational maxims, focus their views on the broader aspect of the
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theory of implicature. By the same time, it has widened the scope of pragmatic analysis
by analyzing, understanding and interpreting the speaker’s intended meaning and the
hearers understanding of the intended meaning in a specific context. The traditional view
of Grice is to explore the system of the perception of speakers implicit or possible
meaning beyond the superficial and literal meaning and it is base of almost every
pragmatic analysis. This does not mean that Grice is solely interested in hearer’s
interpretation. Davies explained the cognitive philosophical approach to pragmatics with
specific reference to Grice’s philosophy. He said that the basic concern of Grice is
“saying and meaning” and Grice examined the speaker in a way that speaker knows that
how to transfer the information implicitly and how speakers understand that the implicit
meanings have been transferred to the hearer. In spite of the focus of Grice on speakers’
utterance, the observer may be unable to analyze the complexity, ambiguity and the
specific purpose or perspective of the speaker.
Levinson (2006) said if we look at the individual level of communication, we
found that speakers follow grammatical and cognitive interactional principle rather than
interactional and sociocultural principle. Mooney (2004) identified the importance of
“what is in the text” and what is the purpose of writing a specific text and how can reader
interpret a specific text through Gricean maxims of conversation. Levinson (2000)
pointed out different morphological, lexical and syntactic structures that the speaker used
and in this research the main focus of Levinson was on generalized conversational
implicature.
2.7 Cognitive Linguistics and Interpretation of Utterance
Cognitive linguistics opened the new vistas of pragmatic analysis by providing a
cognitive interpretation of speaker’s utterance. Thus the cognitive analysis not only
analyzes the utterance at structural level but on contextual level as well by applying
particularized conversational implicature. Kleinke (2010) said that it is very
advantageous and desirable because there is quite limited and selected work on linguistic
and conceptual application of particularized conversational implicature.
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2.7.1 Cognitive Interpretation and Conversational Maxim
Kleinke (2010) said that the cognitive approach to conversation and linguistic
utterance gives more importance to the speaker. The production and reception
(interpretation) of utterances are analyzed with specific connection to the cognitive
abilities or potential and psychological phenomenon which depicts the general attitude of
the speaker and hearer towards the world and its happenings in a specific context.
Langacker (2000) pointed out the natural tendency and inborn capacity to different
experiences such as emotions, taste, reactions towards colors, sense of time, focus of
attention, direction of attention, or to design themes in terms of pictures. These all
abilities vary from person to person. The variability of cognitive and psychological
abilities allows the speaker to interpret and perceive the situation and utterance in specific
context.
The subjective notion of “construal” is quite relevant to the utterance production
in cognitive linguistics. Lagacker (1987) believes that every utterance is the result of
construal relationship between speaker and the context or scene. The speaker builds
specific situation content viewing different parameters such as scene or context, the
specific position selected by the speaker in that context and the variation of the level of
abstraction which the speaker uses to describe the whole situation or scene. Langacker
(1987) emphasizes the active role of the speaker and active role play and turn taking
during conversation. The speaker and hearer build the context and decide their position
and at last establish a construal relationship between him and the scene.
No doubt, human cognitive or psychological abilities are used to explain different
aspects of communication. Kleinke (2010) suggested that these abilities help them to hold
the floor in different contexts, to build specific scenes, to focus and direct the attention of
the hearer and to maintain the sense of comparison and association with the context and
the hearer. These cognitive abilities are the explanation of the role of the speaker in
production of utterances on broader level and the same concept is devised by Grice to
explain the speaker’s intention with philosophical and logical pragmatic perspective.
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Langackar (1987) said that encyclopedic knowledge is very helpful in production
and interpretation of utterance. The encyclopedic background not only represents an
individual but the whole speech community as well and may be presented as a cultural
model and in that model speaker usually flout maxims to deliver his idea implicitly.
Grice’s cooperative principle and theory of maxims may be portrayed as a cultural model
from cognitive linguistic perspective.
Grice (1989) pointed out different linguistic structure to explain them as one of
the important part of conversation like “to cut long story short” is an example of maxim
of quantity, “I believe” is an example of maxim of quality, “by the way” is an example of
maxim of manner and “then”, anyway” and however are the example of maxim of
manner”. Grice believes that all these linguistic structures are the part of conversation and
clarify the importance of cooperative principle and conversational maxims. Cooperative
principle and conversational maxims are believed as a cultural model and quite helpful in
understanding the implicit meanings in linguistic structures to elaborate pragmatic
implication in everyday communication. Levinson (1983) said that if a speaker tries to
violate or deviate from conversational maxims, still he follow cooperative principle.
Kleinke (2010) informed that cognitive elucidation deals speaker’s utterance at
two levels; micro level and macro level. Micro level deals the single utterance and the
speaker’s intention. This is related to general cognitive proposition. Macro level deals the
relationship of that utterance with culture. This cognitive aspect helps to elucidate the
cooperative principle and conversational maxims at broader level and stays in contact in
western culture; provide a space to flout maxims in order to strengthen the idea that
conversational maxims are the part and parcel of everyday communication.
2.7.2 Cognitive Elucidation of Gricean Theory of Maxims from Pragmatic
Perspective
Different linguists have given different opinions on “saying and meaning”. The
basic concern of Levinson (2000) is refinement of cooperative principle and maxims and
he stick to the idea of speaker’s intention and speaker’s violation of maxims due to
intended meanings. On the other hand Wilson and Sperber have elaborated their concept
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from hearers’ perspective. They argued that inferential comprehension based upon the
principle of relevance which is considered as a general principle of human cognition and
cognitive linguistics and that cannot be violated by the speaker deliberately. But it is not
considered as true in all contexts because it depends upon the speaker whether he adheres
to the statement or not.
Kleinke (2010) identified three important development of Gricean conversational
maxim and if we look at broader level, it is one of the most important additions in the
field of pragmatics. First important factor is speaker’s point of view, second is
association of cognitive process and the understanding of the utterance, third is the
development of the concept of pragmatic marking (particularly for generalized
conversational implicature).
2.8 Pragmatic Model of Linguistic
Levinson (1983) said that the analysis of speakers’ utterances is solely related to
generalized conversational implicature. He presented the pragmatic model of linguistic
politeness to elaborate his idea, in which he observed the face model of both; the hearer
and the speaker and revised the theory of conversational maxims presented by Grice in
1975. He put forward the idea that speaker and hearer can be handled in generalized
conversational implicature. So he rearranged the Gricean principle and concentrated on
two maxims of Grice; maxim of quantity and maxim of manner. His views about
speaker’s oriented imperatives are more detailed than the hearer’s perspective. He
described the speaker’s choices on morphological, syntactic and lexical level and
developed a wide variety of generalized conversational implicature. Thus one may
assume that according to Levinson, speaker’s speech may be analyzed in term of different
kinds of utterances during conversation.
2.9 Relevance Theory
Sperber and Wilson (1995) have identified the importance of cognitive processes
and the capacities of hearers in understanding utterances. The theory of Relevance by
Wilson and Sperber is one of the important arguments to bridge the gap between
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cognitive approaches to language or conversation and pragmatics. They have rejected the
idea of Gricean maxims and cooperative principle to achieve the required goal. So they
replace the Cooperative Principle with Relevance Theory. Principle of Relevance is
considered as universal psychological principle and it is quite devoid from cultural norms
and expectations. Sperber and Wilson (1995) built the relationship between the
contextual effects of an utterance and cognitive process. According to them, speaker has
some previous knowledge which is saved in his mind. The speaker or hearer revises his
old knowledge and draw new conclusions on the basis of his previous ideas or
knowledge. Sperber and Wilson have included two different sub theories in their model.
First is proto type theory which claims that frames and script are the part of speaker’s
encyclopedic knowledge and also effect on the inferential system of the hearer. The
second important aspect is context change according to the mind and mood of the hearer
which is controlled by his mind and it is also called conceptual blending theory. So the
main focus of Wilson and Sperber in Relevance theory is mostly confined to the hearer’s
subjective experiences.
2.10 Pragmatic Marking
The concept of pragmatic marking is very important in the functioning of maxims
as it deals the relationship between non default and default with prototypical behavior or
prototypical utterance which is considered as a part of communication. In cognitive
linguistics, it is believed that the speaker may have some prototypical behavior in his
mind and psychologically, he tries to behave prototypically. The concept of “pragmatic
marking” is introduced by Horn (1984) and afterwards used by Levinson to elaborate his
idea of generalized conversational implicature. Levinson (2000) pointed out that
pragmatic marking give the idea that common and every day utterances carry special
meanings which go beyond to the superficial or apparent meanings. To explain his point
of view, Levinson pointed out three heuristic functions which language performs. First
point is what is not said may not be a part of utterance. Second point is if the speaker
describes something, it is stereotypically exemplified. Third is the illogical statement is
meaningless or does not deliver any idea. Levinson’s heuristics were limited to
generalized conversational implicatures and some specific implicature only (maxims of
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quantity and manner) while the most diverse aspect of linguistics like particularized
conversational implicature and maxims of quality and relevance while later are more
context bound. Greenall (2009) also second the idea of pragmatic marking and
highlighted the new aspect of Gricean theory as theory of flouting and implicature. The
main focus of Greenall was imposed thematic relevance and this type of relevance can be
observed when uncommon, unfamiliar and unexpected element occurs in known and
familiar environment.
2.11 Cognitive Aspects of Observance and Non-Observance of Maxims
Speakers observe and flout the maxims by using different strategies during
conversation and these strategies may relate to cognitive or psychological strategies. In
another way these strategies may be helpful in the construction of meaning in a specific
context and represent the cultural and cognitive working of groups. Grice (1989) said that
pragmatic literature usually focuses on the conventionalized cases and the use of
figurative language like irony, metaphor, hyperbole and sometimes intensely/highly
conventionalized speech acts are also included in pragmatic analysis. Grice explained this
phenomenon with examples like “you are the cream of my coffee” and “nice girls love
the sailors” (Grice, 1989, p. 34). Holtgraves (1998) identified different conversational
maxims in every day speech.
A: What is your view about my presentation?
B: It is very difficult to give a good presentation. Mother: How were your marks in
this semester?
Son: I don’t think teacher evaluates fairly.
Kleinke (2010) discussed the pragmatic literature from cognitive perspective. He
collected his data from public internet discussion board BBC-TalK and the Wellington
Corpus of New Zealand English. He argued that two cognitive aspects are very important
as far as Maxims of quantity is concerned. First is categorization of entities and it can be
important or less important for the speakers. Second concept is absorption or specifity.
These two concepts are interlinked. He said that when we treat entities, we deal them at
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two basic levels, subordinate and superordinate level. It depends upon the communicative
needs. The basic level is directly related to the cognitive process of the hearer because it
can be the direct information provided by the speaker. Kleinke (2010) explained that
phenomenon with examples:
A: What pet do you have?
B: Yes, I have a bird.
This is straight forward information provided by the speaker and hearer can understand it
easily.
A: What pet do you have?
B: I have a blue crown hanging green parrot/ a rainbow lorikeet.
In this example the speaker provide extra information as well and can evoke
different questions cognitively in the mind of the hearer and it may provide a chance to
the hearer to elaborate his point of view and experience while the former example
provide direct information and pet can be dog, cat or rabbit. In subordinate level, speaker
provides too less information and sometimes he deliberately doesn’t want to provide
sufficient information. Cruse (2000) provided example to elaborate this phenomenon.
A: What will you eat in lunch?
B: Food.
In this example, speaker B do not want to provide the relevant/specific
information so the speaker exploits or violates the maxim of quantity and this is called
non observance of maxim of quantity. Cruse (2000) said that interpretation of the
message is relative. If the speaker A says “he is tall”. The speaker B may assume that the
person may have the height of six feet while the hearer C may assume that the person
may have height of five feet and eight inches.
Kleinke (2010) said that the maxim of quantity may be related to three major
aspects of cognitive processing. First is the sequence or the development of encyclopedic
background information, metaphorical decoding or processing, and metonymic
interpretation. Coherence and understanding of speaker’s idea depends upon speakers and
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hearers encyclopedic background knowledge, ideas and beliefs. Sometimes speaker gives
clear idea because he has correct estimate of the required data. Cruse (2000) elaborated
the same idea with examples:
A: What will you eat in lunch today?
B: Irish stew.
A: How many books do you need now?
B: twenty two.
Cruse (2000) elaborated the idea of observance or nonobservance of Gricean
Maxims by identifying the parameters of temperature, quantity, size, fraction and shape.
The schema related to the mind of the speaker delivers the idea which may match to the
schema of the hearer and in this way idea may be delivered from the speaker to the
hearer. Sometimes the broad range of context may deliver a clear idea which is related to
previous talk or issue which is understood by the hearer if he will be able to build the
connection through his schema.
Maxim of quality is also related to the speaker’s and hearer’s encyclopedic
background knowledge. Levinson (1983) said that flouting of maxim of quality usually
occurs when there is a rift of understanding between the speaker and the hearer. Secondly
he pointed out the difference of belief of the speaker and the hearer. In pragmatic
literature this flouting is discussed with specific reference to the figure of speech i.e.
irony, metaphor etc. Levinson (2000) believed that metaphor explains the cognitive
working of the speakers. Kleinke (2010) observed that the violation of maxim of quality
is due to the encyclopedic background knowledge of the speaker. When this background
knowledge is arranged in larger chunks and when speaker utter his certain words. These
words may be beyond the understanding of the hearer. So misunderstanding may be
created because the hearer may be unable to understand the idea of the speaker. The
theory of frame and scripts explained how knowledge is organized in the mind of the
speaker. Shank and Abelson identified two major classes of knowledge; general
knowledge and specific knowledge. Both types of knowledge are concerned to the
everyday use of language in less or more standardized situations or context. Both general
and specific knowledge is helpful in creating and understanding utterances. Fillmore
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(1985, p. 223) identified it as particular frameworks of knowledge and schematization of
observation and experience. Knowledge is encoded in brain by the words or through the
observation and then decoded when the speaker speaks or use his previous experiences
and observations. Kleinke (2010) explained the idea with different examples:
Daughter: who has bought these books?
Mom: Dad bought these.
Daughter: who has bought these books?
Mom: Santa Claus.
In these two examples, Kleinke (2010) explained that knowledge is already built in the
mind of the speaker and mother may reply by utilizing the previous or encyclopedic
knowledge of her daughter. In second example, it seems that speaker may not want to tell
the actual buyer of the book.
A: How many books I can buy?
B: A million.
In this example the answer is not clear. There is exaggeration in it and the Speaker B used
hyperbole. This may be misleading for the hearer A or it may simply indicate that the
amount of books in not limited. Some devices like metaphor, irony, metonymy,
hyperbole etc are used to violate the maxim of quality. Through the use of metaphors,
speaker wants to send an implicit idea which is understood by the hearer. Although
different metaphors are used in everyday life but goes unnoticed because these metaphors
have become the part and parcel of regular communication. Kleinke (2010) pointed out
different examples in everyday communication like “foot of the valley”, “head of the
department” etc. The use of “fresh metaphors” is becoming a keen interest of
pragmaticians. Kleinke (2010) elaborated this concept with examples:
A: Will you please tell me the mood of boss?
B: The lion is roaring.
What the speaker B said is not obviously true but these metaphorical expressions are used
to deliver the implicit idea or this exaggerated expression is used to deliver the sense that
the boss is in his worst mood. The understanding and interpretation of the metaphors in
spoken language depends upon the encyclopedic background of the hearer. Lakoff
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(2003) identified some domains in which human beings usually talk; these are age,
gender, marital status, education, emotion, cultural and regional affiliation etc. Cohen
(1979) discussed when speaker violates the maxim of quality; comprehension depends
upon the level of formality and mutual understanding.
Metonymy is a figure of speech in which different words are used for specific
things or concepts. The speaker selects the alternative words depending on his
background knowledge and context. Kleinke (2010) explained the concept with an
example like “the orange juice wants his coffee”. In this example the phrase “the orange
juice” refers to the consumer of the orange juice which is expressed as the subject of the
sentence.
No doubt, the maxim of relevance is one of the most important maxims discussed
by Grice. Winson and Sperber said that it is one of the relevant maxims to analyze the
cognitive perspective of the conversation. Grice (1989) said that the speaker hardly flout
the maxim of relevance completely, it may happen when speaker completely shift or
jump from one topic to another. Kleinke said that relevance depends upon the frame and
the window of attention during conversation. Sometimes speaker switches from one topic
to another due to certain reasons like he may not want to discuss the specific topic
because he is no more interested in that or further discussion may create
misunderstanding or ambiguity. Grice (1989) said that switching one topic to another is
exception in everyday natural conversation. The speaker may switch from one topic to
another because he may not want to discuss the issue further or do not want to poke in
politically sensitive topic. He explained the idea with an example.
A: Mrs. Y is an old bag.
B: Weather is quite good today. Isn’t it?
In flouting of maxim of relevance domain plays a very important part. Langacker
(1987) said that a single word may represent different domains like flower can be a thing
for gardening, a type of plant, an object for decoration, flowers as present, flower shop or
as graphic patterns. By considering the meaning of words and their use according to
context shows that in certain context some themes are highlighted through the use of
different words while other goes to background because these are less highlighted.
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The maxim of manner suppose to perform a major function as Grice (1898) said
that maxim of manner is not related to what is said; it is related to how it is said. Every
person select words during conversation and these stylistic variations depict the style of
man. Grice identified maxim of manner as a generator of implicature as open to
questions. Violation to maxim of manner is obvious and it is hard to estimate whether this
violation is intentionally created by the speaker or it is unintentional.
2.12 Indirectness and Gricean Maxims
Brumark (2006) suggested that the concept of indirectness and the cooperative
principle of Grice are two interrelated concepts. Since last two decades the concept of the
regularity and universality is under consideration by many linguists. They are
concentrating on the situational and socio cultural aspects of the uses of indirectness in
daily conversation. Brown and Levinson said that indirectness is related to power and
proximity (distance) between addresser and addressee. The indirectness may be related to
gender or inequality between male and female. Brown and Levinson (1987) said that the
popular presumption that women are more indirect than man is not proved empirically.
However Blum-Kulka (1990) researched on indirectness in family and said when women
talk to children they are more polite and use syntactically indirect expression than men.
Grice (1898) said that indirectness elaborate the concept of non observance of maxims as
it requests someone that one should be brief, to the point, relevant, informative and clear
during conversation. Rundquists (1992) study on parents (spouses) and kid’s
conversation gave the idea that men flout the maxims more frequently than women
during family discourse. Men have some special reasons for flouting the maxims like
they want to show humorous attitude to the children, show off or to give sarcastic or
ironic comments to create a good family environment.
Indirectness is usually perceived as variation in meanings of utterance in a
specific situation. Blum-Kulka (1990) explained the concept of indirectness that
indirectness arises when speaker’s utterance and sentence meaning can be interpreted in
various ways by hearers. So there can be a difference in meaning of not only of speakers,
hearers can also be explained from this perspective. He suggested that sometimes what
the speaker speaks carries some more meanings than the speaker delivers or says. Such
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utterances generally cause less or no harm to the hearer as these are not direct and
pointed. During conversation when speaker speaks (locutionary act), they sometimes add
extra or supplementary illocutionary force to deliver the message. Searle (1969)
explained that with an example, “Can you pass me the salt please?” If the salt is available
to the addressee or he may pass that, there is no need to question the salt passing ability
of the addressee.
Sometimes, meanings are not easy to understand and especially, if one is not the
part of conversation or context. Brown and Levinson (1987) have explained that with an
example, the child is leaning over the table and father says “you look so cute while sit
like that”. In this case the utterance carries semantic indirectness and difficult to
understand even by an experienced addressee.
Grice (1975) explained the concept how we can explain and understand the
indirect and implicit meanings of conversation. He assumes that people remain very
cooperative during conversation. This concept is stated in his Cooperative principle. He
explained the concept through his four maxims: of quantity, quality, relevance and
manner. These maxims are related to production and interpretation of message.
Whenever, speaker remains unsuccessful in observing any one or more maxims, the
listener may still interpret the message and can infer the implied or implicit meanings
through the situation or context. Grice (1975) named it as conversational implicature.
Indirectness and implication are becoming the part and parcel in every day
conversation and one may not denounce the fact. Thomas (1998) stated that there are
certain reasons of indirectness and implication such as desire to show one’s language
more or less interesting, politeness and to enhance the force and effects of the message.
Brumark (2006) explained the first reason as it is used to imply meaning is natural
discourse to avoid redundancy by less or no repetition of information which comes across
through information, similar background knowledge and contextual clues. If someone is
too implicit or too explicit, there is a possibility of violation of maxims of quantity and
manner. Brumark (2006) said that the in some contexts explicit utterances may spoil the
purpose of utterance. He explained the idea with a famous Swedish joke as one person
asked from the second person “would you like to go to woodshed with me?” The second
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person replied “No, I have to drive the car” It seems interesting and funny rather to say
explicitly to drink wine in woodshed. So some jokes are socio-cultural as they are only
understood by the people associated with that particular culture.
There are some cases in which speakers pretend that there is no mutual
understanding between speaker and listener. For example “A” asks from “B” “How was
the school yesterday” and B replied OK. There is probability that speaker may want to
report what happened in school and this may not be clear to the hearer. For the hearer B,
this question may not be significant or sincere. The minimal response from B shows the
mistrust of B about the motif of the question. This may be regarded as the violation of
quantity.
The deviances from maxims are not always based upon the difference of
background knowledge and lack of mutual understanding of addresser and addressee.
Thomas (1998) said that in both; formal and informal communication, social issues are
involved. For example in family discourse, this can be due to something internal forces of
society. He pointed out three main points to avoid from ambiguity during conversation.
Firstly, you should not impose. Secondly, you should give options. Thirdly, you should
be friendly with others. By acting upon these principles, interlocutors are able to avoid
imposing utterances or reduce them through indirectness by changing the syntax or by
using synonyms or alternatives of words.
According to Brown and Levinson (1987), there are different activities which can
be helpful in avoiding directness which may be called as “face-threatening act”. The
implied meanings carried by the speech is related to illocutionary and perlocutionary
force. For example, requests carry emphasis on certain point and utterances are
constructed both syntactically and semantically. The contextual and social factors depict
the role of addressor and addressee.
There are different uses of indirectness and implication. Thomas (1995) said that
the indirect utterances and implications are very useful to enhance and affect the force of
the utterance. Jenkins (1985) pointed out that indirect and implicit utterances sometimes
evoke the elements of irony and humor. It may use to point out the shortcomings of the
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people or just to cheer up the conversation according to the context. The irony and jokes
which are used implicitly are based on culture and society in that particular context.
Specific type of jokes and humor are understood in that specific society. So humor in
implicit utterances is culture oriented. Indirect speech and implicit language are used to
strengthen the bond between sub groups. This practice is very common among young
people.
2.13 Language Contact
Language contact is considered as a peripheral area of Linguistics. It is sometimes
glanced as linguistic though and sometimes considered as anecdotal or marginal. The
concept of language contact is prevailing in the field of linguistics and giving the
scientific qualities to it. Argente and Payrató (2010) have declared three major aspects of
language contact studies. First is diachronic study of language. Second is structural point
of view and third is sociolinguistic point of view. The concept of structuralism was
dominant in the first half of 20th century. After that sociolinguistic got its place.
Weinreich (1953) drew the line between the concepts on structuralism and
sociolinguistic. He said that language contact starts from a structural account and it got
hold in sociocultural background of contact. In the same time period, anthropological
linguistic emerged in USA which is considered as the result of ethnography of
communication. Psycholinguistics emerged in Europe. At that time the main concern of
psycholinguistic was bilingualism and code-switching and was nearly mid twenties of
this century. After the development of psycholinguistic, many linguists relate it with the
recent growth of neuron linguistic.
2.14 Language Contact and Pragmatics
Argente and Payrato (2010) said that during the last ten decades, pragmatics was
not considered as a significant tool to analyze code-switching, bilingualism,
multilingualism and eventually language contact. They believed that code-switching is
very fruitful in viewing language problems and the contextual use of language. They
identified the use of pragmatics at three levels. First level is macro sociolinguistic action
of language maintenance and shift. Second level is the exposure and emergence of
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contact varieties with reference to specific social groups (like L2 varieties, pidgins or
creoles). Third is micro sociolinguistic process of interaction or communication in which
specific language choices are dominant like code-switching. Argente and Payrato (2010)
believed that in this way pragmatics is very helpful in opening the new vistas for the
language study, the analysis of linguistic facts and the views, attitudes and values of the
speakers. This concept is related to micro socio linguistic processes which leads to macro
socio linguistic processes in response to speaker’s choice of language and attitude
towards specific language. Like language choice and code-switching shows the use of
one language more than the other and this action leads to language shift from the minimal
use of one language to the maximal use of the other. This idea was also observed by
Verschuren (1987). He concentrated on micro linguistic level and found that it is the
constant result of the communicative or interactive activity and based on language choice
in code-switching. Argente and Payrato (2010) said that pragmatics aspects and
perspectives are very significant in analyzing language contact. It includes many factors
of language like its origin of language, uses of language, bilingualism, multilingualism.
2.15 Linguistic Interference Process and Pragmatics
Traditionally, the concept of code-switching and code mixing are included in
linguistic interference. Kleinke (2010) said that linguistic interference is a continuous
process of language change and in this process different foreign elements become the part
of a particular language. These foreign elements become the part of that particular
language which is used by the speakers. The reason behind the use of that particular
element can be the knowledge of the foreign linguistic items and the linguistic
competence of the particular linguistic elements. Sometimes these linguistic items are
mixed randomly to create meaningful sentences and produce a logical conversation.
Argente and Payrato (2010) believed that interference give strength to language as it
plays a vital role in explicitness, functionality and the use of wide resources in the
production and understanding of language. Weinreich (1953) said that interference is
such a vast field that it scarcely obeys any one rule. In this regard, it can be one of the
ideal filed for the pragmatic analysis as it logically deals the social and cognitive
elements of language. Interference may be observed as an individual interference or
45
interference in social code used by speakers in a community. He arranged three different
factors to depict the use of interference. First is sociocultural values and background of
languages. Second is the quality and capacity of the speakers to keep two different traits
of languages and the attitudes of speakers towards these languages. Third is the
contextual use of languages and the relationship between interlocutors.
Inference starts with borrowing different lexical items and it is usually perceived
as language maintenance process and accepted by the people who show resistance to
adapt new vocabulary item or language shift. As a result, this code-switching or inference
moves from dominant to recessive language. Argente and Payrato (2010) pointed out
different functions of inference or code-switching. Inference or code-switching facilitates
learning. It can be the cause of the emergence of new language variety. They believed
that code-switching is more significant than code borrowing as code borrowing restricts
the use of new words for the specific period of time and it does not facilitate the learning
of new language.
2.16 Code-Switching as an Adaptive Strategy in Pragmatic Context
Argente and Payrato (2010) said that code-switching is one of the effective tools
to convey social meaning and it is a strategy or rhetorical device used in the construction
of discourse. The mingling of two languages is automatic, sometimes unintentional and
structurally accepted mechanism.
2.16.1 Uses of Language in Classroom
There are various points of views and approaches to language use in classrooms.
Grammar translation method of teaching was first introduced in 1783. The proponents of
this method were agreed on the limited use of L1. The grammar translation method
promoted the use of L1 in classrooms and emphasized that the instructions should be
given in L1. The Reform movement and Palmer have voiced the neutral views. The
matter of the use of language in classrooms is under consideration by many linguists and
it is rather a bone of contention since last two centuries. In this regard the idea of the use
of L1 in classrooms cannot be neglected. Cook (2001) said that the use of L1 in
classrooms introduced by the proponents of the direct method and talked about the use of
46
L2 in classrooms nearly at the end of the nineteenth century. They raised the question
regarding the use of language in classroom i.e. which language should be used in
classrooms? and Which language can be beneficial for the learners? This study tries to
explore students’ point of view regarding use of language in classrooms.
Turnball (2001) said that previously many linguists advocated the use of the target
language but now linguists are in favor of the use of L1 in classrooms. They even believe
that the use of L1 is helpful in learning second language. Corder (1983) provided a
different point of view and said that learners have already a language system in their
minds as they have learned L1 and when the instructor use L2 in classroom, L1 help them
to process L2. Heller (1988) researched on bilinguals in French speaking Canadian. She
said if you are teaching in ESL classroom to minority learners at the expense of their
mother language or first language (L1), you are doing linguistic genocide.
Sridhar (1988) said that the use of more than two languages does not disturb the
system of languages. So in bilinguals, each system of language rather supports the other
system of language. Learners learn the language according to his need. Macswan (1999)
said that the way of instructions play a vital role in understanding the point of view of the
instructor. The use of L1 in English learning classroom helps the students to improve
their competence in L2. Nunan and Lamb (1996) said that in most of the institutes
instructors avoid to use L1 and prohibit the use of L1 for the learners as well which is
practically not possible. Dornneyi and Kormos (1998) said that learners use L1 in
classroom to compensate their competence and deficiency in L2 or target language. Auer
(1995) highlighted the positive impact of L1 in classroom. He identified different uses of
L1 in classroom. L1 may use for classroom management, to analyze language,
elaborating rules, to discuss inter and intra cultural issues, to give instructions, to explain
errors and to check comprehension. Skutnab-Kangas (2000) said that bilingualism has
positive impact on students’ language skills and educational development. He believed if
children develop their language proficiency in more than one language in very early stage
or primary level, they get high proficiency in language understanding as how to use it
effectively. Schweers and Hudders (2000) researched in Spanish classrooms to observe
the use of two languages by the teachers and students. The results demonstrate that
47
Spanish should be used with English language. He negated the idea that bilingualism
confuses the learners. He rather supported the idea that bilingualism enhances and
support cognitive flexibility.
In Pakistan, situation is quite different. It was declared in Pakistani constitution
that Urdu will be used as a medium of instruction and will be taught as a compulsory
subject till class 12. As far as higher education is concerned, English will be used till that
time Urdu material will be developed. Urdu should be opted on priority basis and English
should be taught or used as a foreign or second language. Rahman (2002) suggested the
language choices in classrooms that English should not be used as a medium of
instruction in classrooms and even it should not be taught as a compulsory subject in
classrooms. The same suggestion is proposed by UNESCO (1997) that one of the core
causes of poor academic record of minority group is the difference of languages of homes
in educational institute. Srivastav (1990) second the idea that education should be
introduced to children in their mother language. He supported the literacy model for
minority children in India. He advocated the idea that curriculum should be introduced in
mother language. When the learners got the fundamental skills then curriculum should be
transferred to the formal language of literacy. Rahman (2002) argued that only one
educational policy should be introduced and all the learners should face the same method
of teaching. In Pakistan, two streams (public and private sectors) are working right now.
These two streams are working in entirely opposite directions. The private educational
systems are following totally English medium systems while the educational policy of
public sector is ambiguous. They do not know which system should they opt? Although
English is taught as a compulsory subject but the status of English is not clear or finalized
by the relevant authorities. In private schools, English is used as a medium of instruction
for the sake of learning English as a second language while in public sector schools, it is
merely taught as a compulsory subject. Rehman (2002) said that equal opportunities
should be provided in both streams of literacy.
Philipson (1996) criticized the monolingual education system which was
introduced at primary and secondary school level in earlier British colonies. He viewed
that the use of only one language is the basic cause of avoiding and ignoring local
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languages. Johanson (2002) identified monolingual fallacy that the speakers start using
two languages. The speakers become bilingual and do more and more code-switching.
They even replace their first language (L1) with their second language (L2). Even they
start using L2 in their daily routine where they used to use their first language. At last L1
is replaced by L2.
Bourne (2001) said that learner’s minority group usually uses their first language
covertly to complete their educational tasks in classrooms. They usually explain and
share educational ideas in their own language (L1). School administration should
embrace which is taking place naturally. This is one of the major causes of language and
identity in Pakistani context. Rules should be provided in education policy regarding the
use of language in private and public sectors educational institutes. There should be
proper maintenance of ethnolinguistic identity in educational policy of Pakistan as it is
maintained in other developed countries. It is said when official language is specified in
certain culture or community in a particular place that can be a cause of partial or
complete alienation from home environment or from education system. Qadir (1996) said
when different languages are used in homes and classrooms or offices, two streams of
consciousness are created and it is the main cause of the creation of two classes in
society. The dominant classes estrange and they marginalized the subordinate class. So
that is the cause of stratification as well.
In Pakistan majority of the learners are bilingual and educational policy of
Pakistan is not clear as far as the use of language is concerned. Keeping in view the
present situation of Pakistan, this research was conducted to explore the purposes of
using Urdu and English in Pakistani classrooms from students’ perspective.
2.17 Discourse
The word discourse, according to Encarta Dictionary originated from Latin word
“discursus” and its meaning is moving “to and from”. It is related to written and oral
communication. Different linguists have defined the term discourse in different ways,
some linguists emphasize on its written value while the others argued on its spoken value.
In this way, discourse has very wide scope in all the spheres of human life. Crystal (1997)
49
elaborated the term as the extension of oral speech which is higher than the level of a
sentence and it sometimes carries a meaningful and coherent speech like sermon, story or
joke. De Beaugrande (1981) evaluated seven different qualities of written and spoken
discourse. First is cohesion which is mainly related to the sentence structure that sentence
structure should be appropriate to deliver the complete sense. Second is coherence which
is related to the logical order of the conversation or speech. It is also known as the top
down organization of the text or speech or the logical scheme of communication. Third is
intentionality, means message should be delivered intentionally or deliberately. Fourth
quality is acceptability; the message should be delivered to the audience and the
information should be accepted satisfactorily to the hearers. Fifth quality is
informativeness; means some new information should be transferred to the audience so
they feel some interest in it. Sixth is situationality; the utterance or speech should be
according to the situation or context. Irrelevant speech will not adhere to the mind of the
listeners. Seventh is intertextuality which refers to the context or the outside world of the
text.
2.17.1 Supremacy of Speech over Writing
Crystal (1997) said that spoken language as one of the significant source of
transmitting message and prefers spoken language over written language. Sapir favored
that language is auditory and these auditory symbols evoke our responses. On the other
hand Bloomfield said that writing is not language in true sense. It is just a way to
preserve the spoken language or it is a way to keep the record or audible symbols.
2.17.2 Planned or unplanned discourse
Lindley (2016) said that discourse whether it is spoken or written can be planned
(formal) or unplanned (informal). As far as spoken discourse is concerned Chafe
identified two types of discourses formal spoken discourse and informal spoken
discourse. He elaborated the concept with examples like family dinner table conversation
is informal spoken discourse while classroom or academic interaction is formal spoken
discourse.
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2.18 Discourse Theory
Most of the researchers were interested in division of classroom events and the
development of discourse model and theories but this research tried to investigate
different issues related to the participant’s interaction in classroom. The main focus is
contextual study of academic discourse. For this purpose I recorded classroom sessions
viewing two perspectives, emic perspective and etic perspective. Emic perspective is
related to the meanings and view point of the participants in the classroom while etic
perspective is the study of external, social and psychological perspective of interaction
(Buckley, Chapman, Clegg & Gajewska-De Mattos, 2014).
Graham and Beardsley (1986) said that during 60s to 70s, the oral communication
was under consideration by many researchers and it was under the strong influence of the
branch of language research theory and it is also called as discourse theory. In linguistics,
the basic concern of discourse theory was spoken language which is generally above the
level of the sentence and particularly related to interaction and verbal exchanges. Mackay
(2003) said that in sociolinguistics, discourse reefers to oral communication and the order
of utterances between speakers and listeners. Gee (1999) discussed different aspects of
communication like the context, contextual use of language, social identity and social
relationships. He distinguished different types of discourse with “D” and “d” like “D”
refers to the use of language by a member of society in different contexts while “d” refers
to written, spoken or signed language or it can be any extension of language to deliver
any idea or sense. Gee delivered the idea that meanings are always context dependent and
the participants use language in a specific context which depends upon their experiences
and perceptions. As Halliday (1985) and Van Lier (1988) said that language use in
classrooms depends upon the situation and culture.
Gumperz (1970) considered the students as member of specific communities who
have particular social roles and they use language to achieve self-identification and to
fulfill their needs. Gee (1996) said that classroom discourse refers to the use of language
by specific people in particular classroom that have specific customs, beliefs, and values
and they socially harmonize their attitudes during interaction according to the context. So
it can be concluded that discourse is more than the knowledge of language. Gutierrez
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(1993) said the instructors who are teaching the students of different backgrounds should
know more than the language of instruction. Because of linguistic diversity learners may
belong to different ethnic background and they use different languages. So instructor
should use that ways for communication which are feasible for the students or classroom
discourse community. These suggestions are applicable in Pakistani education system.
Although there are some researchers who have worked on classroom discourse but there
is hardly any research which highlights the use of two languages in classrooms and the
purpose of the use of these two languages. Considering all the aspects of the uses of
language in classrooms, I tried to explore the observance or violation of Gricean maxims
in classroom and academic discourse. There are many issues related to language policy in
our country and it is very difficult to build and sustain a relationship between social
discourse and classroom discourse. As academicians and students use different languages
in classrooms and in their homes. If both (academicians and students) have to use English
language in classroom, there should be proper exposure to native English language. Gee
(1989) suggested that the goal of native English language exposure can be achieved by
making them (students) familiar with the native customs and traditions. The instructor
should introduce different techniques like role play in English language, use of authentic
material (newspapers), watching English dramas etc. These activities may create a bridge
between social discourse and academic discourse. Talat (2000) stated that the
educationist in Pakistan do not allow proficiency in English like native speakers.
In the following section, I explain that there are many interactional patterns.
Moreover there are many issues regarding interactional behavior of the instructors and
the learners in bilingual classrooms discourse. After reviewing the vast scope of
discourse theory, I elaborate the major concept of classroom organization and different
speech patterns in classroom discourse.
2.19 The Arrangement of Classroom Discourse
The classroom discourse provides an opportunity to get the idea about social and
cultural aspects. Discourse help to build the relationship between the contributors in the
classroom and their ways of experiencing and performing. The notion of discourse or
classroom discourse is considered to be closely connected to the social and cultural
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practices that identify social and cultural differences. So there is a close relationship
between the different theories and ideas of discourse and social realities which are
applied in specific contexts or classrooms for interaction. This research brings into
consideration different discourse patterns and multiethnic participants in classrooms.
Potter (1996) elaborated the view point of classroom discourse is a set of interaction in
the form of actions and interactions in a particular context in which individuals have their
own social practices which effect the construction of meaning. So the construction of
meaning in a specific context can be personal or social. Communicative practices in
classroom discourse are associated to the production and extraction on meaning in a
specific context that is associated to the society and culture of the interactants.
Participants opt the strategy of sharing meanings and their shared knowledge helps them
in understanding meanings. Potter (1996:96) said if a researcher want to analyze
classroom discourse, it is necessary to concentrate on the social practices and the
researcher should have idea about “actions and intentions” of the interactants and in this
way interactants are not only act as students and teachers but also as a part of certain
social groups. So classroom discourse may be explained by keeping an account of many
other discourses simultaneously.
Halliday (1978) presented his model and said that language and social actions in a
particular situation should be taken as a whole. Language structures determine social
structures in a society. Academic discourse is quite different from other kind of social
discourse or social interaction.
Sinclair and Brazil (1982) said that there are different ranks in classroom
interaction. This rank consists of “lesson”, “transaction”, “exchange”, “move” and “act”.
They have defined it as “teaching exchange” which has three different phases, an
initiative move, a responding move and a follow up move. Sinclair and Coulthard (1975)
said that in classroom interaction (between teacher and a student), this sequence is quite
significant. They observed that after responding move, there is follow up move which is
feedback from teacher’s side and it is also called evaluation to check students
understanding. The feedback move is very important because if reflects students
understanding and clarifies the relevant knowledge in lecture. Wells (1998) said that I-R-
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F or I-R-E sequence is very important in classroom interaction. This organization model
opened the vistas for more ideas as Mehan (1979) argued that students should have some
liberty to express their choice (yes or no) and they should have opportunity to express
their ideas. Edwards (1976) said that in Sinclair and Coultahrd work, the students play the
role of passive respondents. Some researchers (Hammersely, 1990 & Mehan, 1979) have
brought the more advanced form of classroom interaction by modifying the role of the
students as active participants. Mehan (1982) explored different routines of these
interactional phases of these three moves.
Van Lier (1998) identified various types of classroom interaction. First type is
when teacher does small talk or some private talk and he/she does not control and topic or
activity. Second type is when teacher makes an announcement, gives instruction or
delivers a lecture and teachers controls topic but does not continues any activity. Third
type is when teacher elaborate his point of view with examples and he/she controls both
subject matter and activity or subject exercises. Forth type is when students do their
activities independently and teacher controls the activity not lecture. Van Lier (1988)
paid close attention to Halliday’s (1975) three functions of classroom discourse.
Ideational function refers to explanation of the facts, ideas and experiences. Interpersonal
faction refers to the use of language which maintains the relationship among people.
Textual function refers to clarify, summarize, signal connections and boundaries etc.
Little (1990) said that in natural classroom discourse, the interaction between teachers
and students are distorted due to teachers’ dominance in classroom environment. Riley
said that there should be fluid role in classroom interaction which can be maintained
through equal participation in communicating and understanding meanings.
Mukhopadhyay and Parhar (2001) called the present lecturing style a ‘tragedy’. He
favored active participation of the students and in this way the teacher can monitor
student’s comprehension in particular subject. Although Flanders named it as ‘tragedy’
but traditional teaching style is followed by Pakistani teachers in classrooms.
Goldenberg (1991) said that in classrooms, teachers usually ask closed ended
questions like “what is the capital city of Canada” and they usually avoid open ended
questions like “what are your views on quality of television”. Furthermore Goldenberg
(1991) said that this kind of method is common in American schools but the instructors
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are more frequently using this method of teaching to low income minority children. In
Pakistani context, teachers are still following the old traditional techniques of teaching
where teacher is dominant in classrooms, instructs the students and delivers the particular
information and students usually listen, answer the questions. It is usually assumed that
teachers have to deliver the lectures and students have to listen that. In this situation, the
interaction in the form of dialogue is very difficult to build and unfortunately, in this
situation, there is less participation of students.
Martin-Jones (1998) researched on classroom discourse and found that in
classroom interactions, between teachers and students exchange their ideas and
vocabulary in a regular intricate routinized way. They try to understand each other’s
vocabulary and contribution to the interaction. Mehan (1982) believed that mutual
synchronization of behavior and performance is still lacking in this interaction. Paulus
(1999) analyzed students and teachers interaction in classrooms, stated that the main
problem in classrooms are question as too many questions are asked by the teachers
which are usually unmodified and time is not sufficient for the appropriate answers.
Gulzar (2009) said that teachers in bilingual classrooms used open ended questions to
increase their cognitive power or to exercise authority. During the lecture, teachers
usually maintain the discipline in classrooms which maintains limited discussion on
certain topic. Because of this, the lecture based methods are not recommended. On the
other hand, another drawback of this controlled academic discourse is that it lessens
students’ cognitive working and provokes cramming. Gulzar (2009) observed that during
classroom interaction, teachers’ contribution in interaction is almost double from
students’ utterances. Benson (2004) said that the limited contribution of the students is
hindrance in improving student’s language skills and confidence.
As far as text books are concerned, Qadir (1996) viewed that in Pakistan students
usually concentrate on text books or the notes given by the teachers. If someone asks any
conceptual question, students usually start pondering on them and try to recapitulate the
answers. The text book or notes memorization is emphasized by the teachers. This
situation demands attention. Edward (1994) said that in teachers dominated classrooms,
the students have less liberty to introduce their ideas. The overall environment of the
class remained under control of the teachers.
55
Cormack, Wignell and Nicholas (1998) stated that some researchers have focused
on students’ attitude and attention in teachers directed or teachers dominated classrooms.
Brock and Birgit (1998) said that in different classrooms, learners may belong to different
cultures and they speak different languages. In this situation the majority of the learners
complied with teacher’s point of view. Brooker et al (2005) have commented on the
relationship between task and talk. They said that students usually share their knowledge
and experiences with the other students who have same beliefs, culture, ethnic
background and gender. This mutual understanding also affects students’ interests in any
task. On the other hand, Alvermann (1990) observed that sometimes teachers task based
work pressurize the students and prohibit the students to utilize their effectual learning
strategies. He believed that there is a need of in depth studies of all these issues of
classroom. There are many assumptions in this respect and there is a need to explore and
resolve different issues in academic discourse.
The next section reveals different issues related to code-switching in academic
discourse. For this purpose, I have discussed different theories, different issues and
different point of views of theorists, linguists and academicians. The detailed review of
literature on code-switching will be helpful for me to understand the purpose of code-
switching in academic discourse.
2.20 Code- Switching Code-switching occurs when languages come into contact with each other in
bilingual or multilingual communities. Code-switching is an important aspect of
pragmatic and cognitive analysis. Different researchers have identified and discussed
code-switching in different ways. Gumperz (1970) defined code-switching as it is the
juxtaposition of two languages in a specific speech event having two different
grammatical systems. Ferguson (2016) said that code-switching is one of the important
features of bilinguals who alternate between two languages in a linguistic repertoire.
Gardener-chloros (2009) and Gardener (2009) identified code-switching is a process in
which speaker simply move from one language to another and it is quite different from
“language choice” because in “language choice”, one code is selected according to the
situation, sociolinguistic context and circumstances. Gardener-Chloros (2009) argued that
the conceptual literature on code-switching has been increasing since last thirty years. He
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identified three core areas in the study of language and research. First is sociolinguistic
and ethnographic study of bilingual speech where code-switching is one of the integral
parts. Second is pragmatic or discourse analysis where meanings are tied to the speech
events and choice of language. Third is grammatical analysis of bilingual speech where
sentence structure matters a lot and emphasize on how languages are combined to
construct meaning.
Gardener-chloros (2009, p 10) recognized three essential basics of research.
Researcher should focus his studies on sociolinguistic and ethnographic studies where
code-switching is obvious. The techniques of pragmatic of conversation analysis should
be used in which choice of words or the sequence of language depends upon the context.
2.20.1 Development of Code-Switching
The sociolinguistic study shows that three major events have caused a significant
impact on the uses of language and speech community. The first of these are Spanish
Civil War (1936-1939). In this war many Spanish speakers escaped to British territory as
refugees. This served to restrict the use of Spanish as a medium of communication and
instruction and paradoxically this effect their attitudes as this led to distrust Spanish state.
The second event is shifting of women and children to Gibraltor
In past, the use of two linguistic codes was not under consideration by most of the
linguists. The importance of code-switching is increasing day by day whether it is teacher
cantered class rooms or learner centered classroom. Martin-Jones (1995) researched on
this phenomenon and explored that code-switching plays a vital role in teaching and
learning process and teacher-student interaction. The use of two languages in bilingual
class show the cultural background and values of the learners and the learners who have
same cultural background try to use same language. Teachers and learners usually do
code-switching to establish the idea of different types of discourse, to share the shred
experiences to communicate the specific idea.
Jacobson (1990) is considered as a pioneer in the study of code-switching
variation. His studies focused on English migrants in San Antonio, Texas. He designed a
spectrum which shows different “modes” and ranges from Spanish dominant to English
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dominant. The change was symmetrical and gradual. He correlated these two different
“modes” with age, sex and gender. Backus (1992) studied three generations of Turkish-
Dutch bilinguals in the Netherlands. He found that first generations mostly utilized only
NPs during conversation. In comparison, the youngest generation mostly do inter and
intra sentential code-switching. The youngest generation even constitutes the Dutch
matrix language (as used by Myers-Scotton, 1993) in their Turkish constituent with
almost the same proportion as Turkish was made the matrix language in Dutch
syllabus/constituent. Jacobson (1990) and Backus (1992) research proved that
bilingualism is one of the significant factor in developing the factor of code-switching
and finally brings the code-switching variation. In both studies, the youngest generation
plays their role in adopting the language of the host country through code-switching. The
same results are shown by Li Wei in his research. He studied Cantonese -English
bilinguals in New Castle and found the element of frequent code-switching in the
youngest generation which leads them to English proficiency. On contrary, Berk Seligson
(1986) researched the Spanish-Hebrew bilinguals in Jerusalem and found that although
there is the difference of bilingual proficiency but code-switching patterns are almost
same.
Auer (2002) told that it is observed that, during the last two decades, Linguists
took more interests in bilingualism; particularly in code-switching. In a bilingual
conversation it is utilized in a meaningful way. Auer (2002) believes that code-switching
occurs between two closely related varieties. It was assumed that E.Haugen was the first
writer who used the term of code-switching but it has observed that Hans Vogt had
already employed this term in 1953 in one of his article while in 1952 Roman Jacobson
developed the relationship between language switching and juxtaposition of two
phonological systems.
Myers-Scotton (1995) believes that almost all over the world, bilingual speakers
do code-switching. Like Hispanics in Texas who switch between Spanish and English in
informal conversation, West Africans may use two languages Wolof and French in the
same conversation and the dwellers of the Swiss capital of Berne move back and forth
from Swiss German and French in their service exchange. Mayer said that this code-
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switching is not the cause of language. It can be used in many “stable” bilingual
communities. Code-switching is not a tool to get settled in socioeconomic life margins of
society in which people use different languages in their homes and business repertoires,
the later can be dominant. The people in offices who have same linguistic repertoire often
switch their codes.
Li Wei (1998) believed that code-switching emerged from variety of different
contexts and it moves from adaptation to deviation and language maintenance to
language change and then language shift. So the language sued by a community shows
it’s social and cultural and deviation and change.
2.20.2 Convergence versus Preservation
Some linguists believed that language varieties which come close to each other
preserve their own characteristics. Thomason (2001) stated that there is no direct
relationship between two languages, instead of that each language variety preserve its
qualities. Language change can be a different phenomenon. She concluded that language
change is a very complex phenomenon. When minority groups come close to majority
groups and ratify the features of L2 and become bilingual. For example Greek that was
spoken in Asia, minor groups borrowed the features of Turkish language. Thomson
evaluated the general rule that majority group adopted the features of minority group
rather than vice versa. She elaborated her point of view further and said that usually elite
class belonged to minority groups which adapt some features of subordinate or majority
group which are larger in number (majority group). Thomson identified that some
Turkish have also learned the Greek language and they started using the mixing these two
languages.
2.20.3 Grammatical Approach to Code-Switching
Gumperz (1970) presented the idea of grammatical categories of code-switching.
In 1970s researchers were interested in finding different facts about code-switching and
these grammatical categories were not under consideration at that time. The more
advanced work presented by Myers-Scotton (1988) and said that during code-switching,
one language is dominant and the other language is subordinate. This idea and her theory
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is core concern in this research and I have discussed it in detail in later section of
literature review.
Before getting into the idea of code-switching, it is necessary to get the idea of different
types of code-switching. Poplock (1988) and Rao, Wang & Bender (2016) elaborated
different types of code-switching.
1. Extra-sentential switching is also called tag switching. Romaine (1989) believed
that it is commonly used by monolinguals like it can be the infusion of tags in one
language like “he knows, I mean”.
2. Romaine (1989) said that in inter-sentential switching, speakers usually switch at
a clause or at a sentence boundary. Inter-sentential switching needs more fluency
in both languages and speakers should have idea about the rules of both
languages. For example in Urdu/English discourse, speaker said: “you have to do
your work, kyn kay hamaray pas class may ziada waqt nhi hota”
3. Romaine (1989) said that intra-sentential codes-witching occurs within a sentence
and bilinguals usually use this intra-sentential code-switching. He believed that
intrasentential code-switching is the biggest syntactic risk. Hammer (2000)
explained the Punjabi-English conversation in Britian which is recorded by
Romaine (1989). He gave the example; “kyn kay six,seven hours tay school day
vich hi spend karday nay, they are using English all the time” (They are speaking
English all the time because they spend most of the time in school)
2.21 Factors of Code-switching
Gardener (2009) reported that there are three types of factors that contribute to
code-switching in a particular occurrence.
1. First factor is independence of individual speaker and specific circumstances in
which the particular varieties is used and it affects all the individuals in a
particular linguistic community as Bordieu (1997) gave his concept of economic
and linguistic “market” and Gal (1989) associated it with a particular way of life
in which one language may be dominant or the other may be recessive.
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2. Second factor is related to the individual as individual may have the competence
in different languages and he may use that in different contexts. Similarly, social
networks, competence, ideology and attitudes matter a lot in the use of language.
3. Code-switching acts as a conversational appliance in which speaker try to switch
from one code to another to form and to build conversation rather than
monolingual.
2.22 Types of Code-switching Gumperz (1982) identifies two types of code-switching, situational and
metaphorical. Situational code-switching refers to the use of different languages which is
related to situation and sometimes participants, setting and the type of task or activity
play a vital role. For example, in Sauris, Italy, people use different languages in homes
and work places or educational institutes. They used localized German dialect in homes.
On the other hand, they used Italian dialect in church, workplace and educational
institutes. I also found the same situation where learners use regional languages in their
homes or in informal situation while they use Urdu and English in formal situation or in
classrooms.
Bonvillain (1993) said that many bilingual speakers use the code of prestigious
language in order to demonstrate that they have sufficient knowledge of that prestigious
language. The use of these specific codes show that they are educated and have high level
as far as stratification is concerned. He exemplified that idea with an example like
“education system hi asa ha” (Education system is like that). Now a days, this is a
common fashion that people deliberately use the language of prestigious code to
distinguish them from other people.
Nishimura (1995) studied Japanese-English code-switching in second generation
Canadians and found those individuals’ code switched in order to demonstrate
individuality and group, ethnic and generation identity. Sometimes individuals code
switch to create special effects. Gumperz (1982) identified this type of code-switching as
metaphorical code-switching. He considered metaphorical code-switching a way to
maintain the interpersonal relationships. Li Wei (1994) identified two studies which are
closely related to Gumperz metaphorical code-switching. First is Myers-Scotton’s
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Markedness theory and second is sequential analysis of language alternation by Auer
(1991).
2.23 The Markedness Theory of Language Choice: Myers-Scotton presented this theory in 1986. She (1986) said that both bilinguals
and multilingual speakers follow congenital or inborn theory of socially relevant
markedness and indexicality. They use different languages and they have language
choices. They usually follow normative framework and they do not limit their language
choices in interpersonal communication. The basic concern of markedness theory is
communication which administers and guides the speakers to choose the vocabulary
items of their speech. For this purpose, Scotten put forward his ideas in the form of rights
and obligation.
Myers-Scotton (1995) suggested that there are four different reasons and rather
ambitions for code-switching during conversation as far as markedness model of
language choice are concerned. Firstly, code-switching develops a series of unmarked
choices where speakers use different codes during conversation. At last these codes
become unmarked or the part of language for the bilingual or multilingual speakers.
Secondly, these unmarked choices show the social identities of the speakers associated
with these codes. Therefore, the speakers show their proficiency in respective languages
to give rise simultaneous identities. Thirdly, there is situation when speakers use marked
choices when he wants to show partial or complete separation from unmarked rights and
obligations and he talked about change in society and the social practices of people.
Fourthly, code-switching can be exploratory choice for the speakers when he/she wants
to precede his interaction with the novel participants or speakers want to get information
about the participants.
Myers-Scotton (1992) believed that speakers code switch to show solidarity with
the other participants. She explained this phenomenon with an example of clerk and
customer in Nairobi. The unmarked choice for then was swahii. In the beginning, the
customer spoke unmarked swahii and later he switched to Luo as Luo was their common
or shared indigenous and ethnic language. They felt easy while conversing in Luo. The
use of Luo showed the social solidarity with the clerk and the customer also demanded
some extra help from clerk.
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Carol Myers-Scotton’s markedness model is based on code-switching motivations
and application in daily life. He pointed out that speakers use the language that clearly
gives them and marks them the set of rights and obligation and if the speakers do not find
any set of rights and obligation and they have no clear and unmarked language choice,
they use other languages and eventually practice code-switching.
To explore the purposes of code-switching, I used Myer Scotten’s markedness
model as yard stick. Marked and unmarked choices are important features of code-
switching and analysed it with refence to pragmatics i.e how do speakers do code-
switching in various situations.
2.24 Sequential Analysis of Code-Switching As far as micro interactional perspective is concerned, Auer (1988) carried out
sequential analysis of code-switching and it is context based study. Auer proposed that
instead of investigating the linguistic choices of the speakers, there is a need to
investigate the contextual cues in which speakers perform code-switching. Gumperz
(1982) introduced the term of contextualization which is closely associated to the use of
linguistic and non-linguistic activities which are conducted in different contexts.
Gumperz (1982) named these cues as contextualization cues.
Auer (1988) said that the functions and meanings of code-switching can be
interpreted through the sequential analysis of language choice. He distinguished
discourse related and participant related code-switching as discourse related code-
switching is associated to the sequence of events while participant related code-switching
is associated to the speaker’s competence and performance in one or the other languages.
However, Auer said that the contrast between the two terms is not clear cut. He believed
that the study of code-switching requires contextualization cues which is studied
according to the context. The meanings of contextualization cues are conveyed through
the proper sequence of events or interaction and cannot be discussed and elaborated
without the conversational context.
2.25 Social Symbolism of Metaphorical Code-Switching Gumperz (1982) distinguished between ‘we code’ and ‘they code’ to identify the
social symbolism of metaphorical code-switching. ‘We code’ is related to ethnically
specific minority language which is used usually in informal conversation. Sometimes,
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majority use specific code during conversation and it usually becomes the part of formal
conversation and it is stiffer than ‘we code’. The ‘we code’ refers to group informal
communication. Romaine (1995) elaborated his point of view with Punjabi-English code-
switching as “asi angrezi sikhi ay tay why can’t they learn” (We learnt English so why
can’t they learn). In this example, the speaker wants to say that Punjabi speakers need to
learn English but they don’t need to learn their own language (Punjabi). In this example,
speaker switches from Punjabi to English language, he draws a boundary between ‘them’
and ‘us’. Speakers in Pakistani society are usually multilingual and the speakers who
belong to the rural areas usually use different languages in groups that are referred to
group code (we code). Indeed Pakistani classrooms are not free from the use of different
codes. Students’ code-switch in classrooms and use their regional languages in
classrooms usually in informal situation.
The next sub section briefly deals the continuum of code mixing and code-
switching because the focus of this study is to investigate the purpose/s of code-switching
at postgraduate level.
Romaine (1995) said that code-switching, mixing and borrowing is one of the
integral phenomenon of language contact and different researchers have used that in
different ways which makes the comparison across studies tough. Kamwangamalu (1992)
said that the juxtaposition of languages can be divided into code-switching and code
mixing. Grosjean (1982) said that alternation of language of juxtaposition of language is
across sentence boundaries are recognized as code-switching while language alternation
within a sentence is known as code borrowing.
Hammers and Blanc (1989) said that it is possible to observe code mixing and
code-switching simultaneously while code mixing is embedded in code-switching but not
vice a versa. Clyne (1969) and Kachru (1978) said that there is no absolute distinction
between code-switching and code-mixing because there are many examples which can be
listed in either category of code mixing or code-switching. For example in Urdu, there are
many words which are borrowed from English language and even they are used in by
uneducated people like mobile, biscuit, cookies, chip etc. and with the passage of time ,
these words become the essential part of that language. When these words are used
consistently in language, they start maintaining their phonological and morphological
64
characteristics in that language. Hammers and Blanc (1989) try to distinguish between
code mixing and code-switching. They said that code borrowing is related to lexical items
and their quality is that they may be assimilated or not completely well assimilated while
code-switching ranges from lexical level to sentence level and it is well assimilated. Code
mixing and code borrowing is considered to be associated to the lack of lexical items and
code mixing compensates that deficiency.
In the next section I tried to distinguish code borrowing from code-switching. The
main focus of this research is to analyze code-switching in academic discourse. Although,
the teachers have used many expressions in their speech in which code borrowing was
evident, I have not analyzed these utterances because these are not the part of research
objectives.
2.26 Difference between Borrowing and Code-Switching It is important to differentiate between borrowing and code-switching. The major
difference between borrowing and code-switching is that, borrowing has L1 history
(diachronic aspect). Some lexical items are used by bilinguals initially and later on
monolinguals even recognize them as a part of their language. This aspect is discussed by
Weinreich, Labov and Herzog (1986, as cited in Vaughn-Cooke 2005) and they named it
as ‘transition problem’. Language development is a continuous process and in this
diachronic process, no one can estimate, at what time a particular lexical item borrowed
by users in any recipient language. Poplock (1989) believed that in urban context the
language change or borrowing is very quick and this aspect creates a difficulty in
analyzing language variation synchronically. There are two different groups; one group
was with Poplock (1989), who argued that borrowing or loaning lexical items from
comparatively larger parts of switches in any language. Many other researchers like
Myers-Scotton (1998) and Bentahila and Davies (1983) said that the difference between
these two processes does not create hindrance in analyzing bilingual speech.
Furthermore, the former group of researchers named one lexical item addition as
insertion and multiple words addition in certain language as alternation.
Poplock (1989) and her followers said that borrowing and code-switching based
on different mechanism. She identified three standards to find the role of non-native
language in bilingual utterance. These are phonological, morphological and syntactically
65
put together in base language. Scotten (1988) rejected the idea as the base of
distinguishing borrowing and code-switching as she considered them the part of same
continuum. She said that there is no need of categorical distinction. She suggested the
idea of frequency which links the borrowed lexicon with the recipient language. She
disagreed with the idea that lexical items are borrowed to fill the gaps in language. She
said that all the words are not borrowed to be the part of certain language to fill the gaps
in recipient language. Furthermore, she proposed two types of borrowing, cultural
borrowing and core borrowing. Cultural borrowing are those lexical items which fill the
gaps in recipient language while recipient language has no words substitute for those
particular lexical item while core borrowing are the lexical items with duplicate elements
as these words are already present in the recipient language but still they are used in that
recipient language. In this way Myers-Scotton presented borrowing and code-switching
as a continuum and view code-switching as to loan language items in particular language.
She did not view code-switching and borrowing as two distinct procedures like Poplock
and her followers.
Gumperz (1982) and Kamwangamalu (1992) said that borrowing is third form of
language alternation. It is one of the important strategies utilized by both bilinguals and
monolinguals. At last these borrowed lexical items or phrases become the part of the
second language and get merge into it. Gumperz (1982) defined borrowing as the
insertion of single word or idiomatic phrases from one variety to the other variety. Brice,
Rose-Berry and Macikibin (2001) said that borrowing is one of the important tools to fill
the gaps and maintains the vocabulary of certain language. For example Spanish
vanquishers did not have any word for hurricanes in their language and when they faced
hurricanes, they borrowed the word from Mayans and incorporated it into Spanish. The
process of borrowing may be followed by both, monolinguals and bilinguals.
Pfaff (1979) emphasized that code-switching must be distinguished from borrowing
carefully while Hill- Hill said that it is very difficult to separate the concept of code-
switching with borrowing. He believed that practically it is very difficult to analyze the
causes of both separately. Eastman (1992) said that it is difficult to analyze the social,
cultural and cognitive aspects of code-switching and borrowing from separate perspective
and especially if we want to analyze the process of language contact.
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This section shows ideas of different linguists on code-switching and code
borrowing. The next section is specified for the functions and purpose of code-switching
in classrooms as the purpose of this research is to explore the functions of code-switching
at postgraduate level.
2.27 Code-Switching in Bilingual Classrooms Murray and Barnett (1999) said that code-switching is one of the important
aspects of bilingualism and the process of code-switching is common and quite normal.
The alternative use of two languages (code-switching) demands organized, cognitive and
linguistic manipulation of two languages and these languages work simultaneously.
Valdes (1978) identifies three preconditions for language alternation during
communication. First is both (speaker and hearer) should be bilingual. Second is both
(speaker and hearer) should be the member of the same speech community or both should
know the rules that govern two languages. Third is both (speaker and hearer) should have
the linguistic resources to use the codes of two languages in a certain community.
Brice (2000) stated that the communication solely in English language can be a
barrier in understanding the main idea of the subject as English is used as the main
subject or as a medium of instruction in classrooms. Gulzar (2009) stated that in Pakistan
English is taught as a major subject in classrooms and also used as a medium of
instruction in institutes. Macswan (1999) said that students usually do code-switching
because they have less proficiency in certain language and they are unable to use the code
of certain language completely. So they use the chunks of two languages and named as
semilinguals. This research is conducted in bilingual postgraduate classrooms and the
population of this research is considered as proficient and productive and they are
allowed to use the language which they naturally use in classrooms.
Valde (1978) researched bilingual classrooms and said that in Spanish
classrooms, instructors use Spanish as a medium of instruction while English is used as a
classroom control startegy.
Zentella (1981: 119) conducted her ethnographic study on Puerto Rican learners
and instructors in bilingual classrooms and observed different language pattern at one
third-grade and at one-sixth grade.
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Table 2.1: Pattern of language choices (Spanish and English) in classrooms
Selection of Language pattern
Teacher’s initiation mode of communication
Students response
Teacher’s evaluation language
Use same language to respond
Spanish English
Spanish English
Spanish English
Instructor follow the students
Spanish English
English Spanish
Spanish English
Instructor opts the learner’s choice
Spanish English
English Spanish
Code-switching Code-switching
Cook (2001) introduced new perspective of code-switching in second language
teaching. He instructed the students to switch at particular and predetermined places and
they used two languages alternatingly at that point. There is an activity of role play as
well in which students played the role of teachers. Cook said that this approach makes the
teaching more communicative and more interactive. Code-switching is one of the
significant strategies in teaching and instructors should code-switch at different points
and situations like elaborating difficult and new concepts, when students feel distracted,
during revisions and when instructor wants to appreciate them. He suggested that code-
switching is an effective strategy in bilingual classrooms as it is acceptable way of
communication and bilingualism is not only a way to give confidence to the learners; it
also facilitates the students learning process.
Cook (2001) said that speakers code-switch in different situations like when he
wants to show solidarity, to find the solution of certain problem or wants to prove social
respect. He suggested that it is also very helpful in learning second language. He stated
that language mixing is best observed and understood in classroom environment. He
suggested if teacher would use one language in classroom, then he will have to instruct
the students twice because sometimes students are unable to understand in second
language. Secondly language choice based upon subjects and it is very difficult to
estimate which language should be used to teach particular subject. Jacobson (1990)
suggested that instructors should use inter-sentential code-switching, rather than intra-
sentential code-switching because if the teacher use longer patches of first language,
students will not learn the second language effectively. Jacobson named it as New
Concurrent Approach (NCA). In language policy, educationists should clarify the
percentage of code-switching in classrooms. The teachers and the students should
maintain that percentage accordingly.
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Hammink (2000) said that code-switching brings diversity in communication.
Osanai McLaughlin (1991) also emphasized the communicative and metaphorical
purposes of code-switching. He said that code-switching has a great semantic power to
emphasize the meanings. It enhances communication skills just by adding great semantic
power. Hammink (2000) identified different stages and advantages of code-switching. He
said that during communication, speakers extend their code-switching strategies from
interaction to rhetorical. There is a gradual development and trained learners can identify
that easily. Valdes (1978) researched on classroom discourse and said that for the
teachers the understanding of code-switching is very important. He explored the
classrooms where students used both English and Spanish during code-switching. He said
that little work has been done on habitual code-switching between two languages in their
communities.
Zentella (1981) observed that sometimes code-switching is least accepted
phenomenon by the teachers. Most of the teachers are unable to understand the actual
phenomenon of code-switching as there is no proper guidelines for the teachers. Gulzar
(2009) commented that researchers are not able to understand language procedure and
unable to formulate the lesson plan accordingly. He said that it is necessary for the
teachers and educators to understand and elaborate the uses of different aspects of
language like code-switching in classrooms.
Levi et al (1989) said that code-switching or language alternation is quite
conspicuous and unavoidable. Regrettably, most of the educators and professionals are
unable to understand the phenomenon of code-switching. This argument is applicable in
Pakistan as well that code-switching is unavoidable in Pakistani classrooms. In Pakistan,
teachers are using both (English and Urdu) languages and it becomes so difficult to
identify which language is matrix language and which language is embedded language.
2.28 Purposes of Code-Switching in Classroom As one of the important aspect of classroom communication, codes-witching has
many pedagogical purposes. Martin –Jones (1995) said that when two languages are used
in classroom, it depicts two cultures. Sometimes, students and teachers belong to same
background, so they code-switch to show solidarity to one another. She said that learners
and teachers do code-switch in their daily conversation and the contrast between two
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codes is one of the remarkable strategies in meaning making. As code-switching is one of
the remarkable strategies to delineate the types of discourse like to prepare for the lesson
and start of the lesson, to move from general to specific topic and to move from
classroom management conversation to delivering lecture. She said that this type of code-
switching is common in classrooms where teachers deliver long lectures and the duration
of teacher’s talk is comparatively long. Martin-Jones named it as discourse related code-
switching. Martin-Jones (2003) said that participant related code-switching is observable
in classrooms as students and instructors belong to different communicative repertoires
and their language abilities are different. She believed that in this situation, participant
related code-switching is one of the important tool to manage teaching and learning. It is
observed in classrooms that teachers asked questions in one language which is an official
medium of instruction while students replied in other language which can be his/her
mother language. She said that that teacher should decide which type of discourse is
feasible for the students and with the passage of time a conversational routine will built
and students will not feel reluctant in answering in desired language. Ludi (2003) said
that the purpose of code-switching in classrooms is to decrease the interactional
stumbling blocks which are evident in beginners’ speech.
Nzwanga (2000) conducted his research in French classrooms at Ohio State
University. She recorded the data, transcribed it and analyzed that as researchers did in
conversation analysis. She identified the code-switching in formal and informal situations
and elaborated different functions of code-switching in formal situation like introducing
topics, elaborating ideas; practicing etc. she said that code-switching plays an important
role in communicative and academic/learning environment. Auer assembled different
purposes of code-switching in classrooms as identified and complied by different
researchers. First is reported speech, secondly, it is used to change the prospect of the
participants, thirdly, it is used in reiterations where the basic purpose is to clear the point
of view, to emphasize and to attract the attention of the learners.
Code-switching plays its role in teaching and learning process. The variation of
code-switching depends upon the context and topic of conversation. Baker (2011)
identified twelve functions of code-switching by keeping in view the sociolinguistic
perspective. For this purpose he analyzed bilinguals. He said the some utilities are
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applicable in classroom environment as well. Baker identified that code-switching is used
to stress on a specific point, to substitute a word, to express the specific concept which
has no word substitute in other language, to emphasize a request, to simplify and explain
the specific idea, to demonstrate the identity, to show friendly behavior, to get relax, to
create humor and sometimes speaker code-switch when he wants to introduce or explain
the specific topic. Chen (2015) observed the reasons of word substitute in Hong Kong
schools and found that the main reasons of code-switching was that there was no tool of
direct translation from English to Cantonese and Cantonese to English. Moreover he
found that the teachers switched code to ease the students and to add humor to relax the
students.
Auer (2002) said that it is impossible to assemble the functions of code-switching
because code-switching perform unlimited functions. In this following section, eleven
functions of code-switching are discussed with specific reference to classroom discourse.
2.28.1 Clarification of Concept
Gulzar (2009) said that code-switching is used to clarify the concepts. He
observed diploma TEFL classrooms and explored that instructors switched their code 104
times to clarify the idea and 48 times to emphasize. He viewed that the numbers of code-
switching clarify that it is the main source to deliver the idea. Auer (1998) suggest that
teachers code-switch when they found the word which is unfamiliar foe the students and
the instructor may have doubt that the learners will not be able to get the idea of the
required word in target language. In this study, instructors are vigilant to clarify the ideas
while some linguists believe that code-switching is perceived as poor or weak language
strategy. Lin (1996, as cited in Hirth 1998) said that code-switching is a hindrance in
conveying message because it delivers more than what the speaker want to say or it
conveys a different message which can be away from speaker’s or writer’s view.
An extensive body of linguistic study suggested the importance of code-
switching. Cook researched in second language learning class rooms and found that code-
switching in bilingual environment is quite natural. In his study he found that learners
prefer code- switching and bilingualism in classroom environment. Probyn (2010)
researched the teacher’s behavior and found that many teachers do code-switching to
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achieve particular communicative goals. Rollnick and Rutherford (1996) researcher on
science classrooms and found that code-switching is one of the powerful mean of
explaining and exploring the ideas. He found that without code-switching, some students
are even unable to deliver their ideas. Researcher said that use of code-switching in
classrooms is a “legitimate strategy” (Cook 2001, p 105) and it does not disturb and
disrupt during conversation. So it still creates the opportunity for language development.
Ferguson (2003) said that code- switching occurs in many countries, so it has deep roots
in its own construction and these attitudes and capabilities are difficult to change.
2.28.2 Socialization
Flyman-Mattson and Burenhult (1999) said that code-switching plays two
functions; affective function and socializing function. They suppose that people use one
language with the other language in a vernacular style and it is affective function of
language. The teachers switched from English to Urdu language to express their emotions
while sometimes teachers switch from one language to another to convey the feelings of
pleasure and displeasure.
2.28.3 Translation
Teachers usually switch their code to elucidate the vital message and he/she wants
to explain some idea or certain vocabulary item, grammar, important terms and main
idea. It also improves the comprehension of the students and sustains the students focus.
Krashen and Terrel (1988) said that instructors use one language and after sometimes
they switch to the other language just to clarify the idea. When this occur, students
usually do not pay attention to teachers target language rather they shift their attention to
their own/native language. Moreover, in this way instructors do not pay attention to the
use of realia, or other audio visual aid. Atkinson (1987) said that the excessive use of
translation is not beneficial for the learners as it increases the dependency of the students
in particular language and they assumed that ideas will not be clear if it will not be
translated. In this way instructors and the students fail to notice the distinctions between
forms, semantic uniformity and pragmatic dimensions. There should not be habitual
practice of translating the idea in one language to another because it makes the lecture
boring and monotonous.
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2.28.4 Fabrication of Grammatical Variation
Heller (1988) argued that code-switching can be studied through two
perspectives. First, code-switching is used to create variation in grammar and support
ones ideas and arguments. Secondly, it is effective to identify linguistic universal. Code-
switching is one of the ways to create and evaluate the link between social phenomenon
and linguistic variation rather than in monolingual setting. Auer (1998) said that code-
switching is closely associated to the information theory, bilingualism and structural
phonology.
2.28.5 Alternation of Topic
Flymann-Mattson and Burenhult (1993) said that the occurrence of code-
switching while the teachers want to switch their topic. Instructors usually code switch
when they want to instruct the students about a specific task. This code-switching may be
due to the higher level of proficiency in one language. Flymann-Mattson and Burenhult
(1999) presented two reasons of code-switching. Firstly, the message is so important that
the instructor do not want to lose the essence of that particular message. Secondly, the
instructor wants to get the attention of the attention of the learners.
2.28.6 Simplification of Expression
While elucidating certain topic or difficult terms, instructors usually switch their
code. Auer (1998) said that instructor usually code-switch when he is unable to find
substitute of that particular word in that particular language. Martin-Jones (1988) said
that code-switching is observed while introducing and checking new vocabulary items,
introducing new terms and accelerate learning.
2.28.7 Teachers Linguistic Competence
Brice (2000) explored the purpose of code-switching. He said that most of the
teachers are bilinguals and sometimes they cannot recall the words in their target
language especially in specific situation. He observed that some intra-sentential
occurrences belong to this category. This category also represent Pakistani situation as
well where teachers are usually bilingual and even multilingual. Most of the teachers can
speak Sindhi, Balochi, Punjabi, Siraiki, Brahvi, and Pushto other than English language.
Flymann-Mattson and Burenhult (1999) said that linguistic insecurity is also the reason of
code-switching that may be most comfortable for the speakers in classrooms. They said
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that it is one of the most complicated issues in classroom interaction because it can
shatter the confidence of students in the teachers’ proficiency in target/foreign language.
Crystal (1997) said that of the possible reason of code-switching in classrooms is
speakers are unable to express their ideas in one language so they switch their code from
one language to another to compensate their deficiency.
2.28.8 Cultural Representation
Wong (2000) found out that speakers sometimes code-switch because they lack
vocabulary items in target language. This idea reflects different nature of various
languages and exemplifies global cultural variation. Wong’s idea is quite relevant to
Pakistani situation as in Urdu language, there is a distinction of gender, generation and
seniority as there are different words to call different relatives in Urdu language (chacha,
Mamo, khala etc) while in English language, speakers allocate one word to different
relatives (uncle, aunt)
Auer (2002) considered code-witching as a part of conversation as it is alternative use of
two or more languages in a conversation and if a person has full understanding of a
culture and social knowledge of society, he can understand the purposes of code-
switching in a better way. Auer said that macro sociolinguistic aspects of code-switching
do not deal code-switching as a complete language change and choice or the purpose of
complete absence of code-switching and many macro sociolinguists researchers give
importance to the social meanings of conversation or the absence of codes-witching in
any occurrence.
Gumperz (1969, as cited in Gardener, 2009) narrated that code-switching occurred when
one linguistic group came into contact to the other. The minority linguistic group starts
using the language of the majority linguistic group and to communicate their ideas they
started mixing the language under hasty social change. In this situation one language get
prominence and with a passage of time community shapes itself as a bilingual community
in which speakers can use both languages.
2.28.9 Evaluation
Flymann-Mattson and Burenhult (1999) said that the main reason of code-
switching is to make the utterance understandable to the students. Gumperz (1982)
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pointed out the reiteration function of code-switching to check students understanding in
particular subject.
2.28.10 Repetition
Flymann-Mattson and Burenhult (1999) said that code-switching may be partial
or full can be used to add some information but most frequently used to repeat the
previous idea. Elridge (1996) asserted that messages are transmitted in target language
and these are not comprehensible for the students then these particular messages are
reinforced, emphasized, repeat and clarified.
2.28.11 Building a Sense of Ownership
Flymann-Mattson and Burenhult (1999) said that the socializing functions of
code-switching are affiliated to affective functions. For example, sometimes sparkers use
the addressees’ first language to show solidarity and friendship with that person. It is
conspicuous that the teacher wants to be friendly with the students and wishes students’
positive attitude towards their work. However, code-switching is closely related to humor
and irony from teacher’s side. Crystal (1997) further elaborated the point of view that
code-switching create a special type of harmony among people. This rapport building
quality of code-switching is observed when two participants use same code during
conversation and it may also be used to exclude other participants who don’t speak and
understand that particular language. This type of code-switching is observed in this
research.
This section highlights different purposes of code-switching as identified by
different researchers. It performs different functions in classrooms like repetition,
evaluation, cultural representation etc. Elridge (1998, as cited in Sert, 2005) catalogued
four different purposes of code-switching equivalence, conflict control, repetition and
floor holding/getting confidence. Equivalency is a policy opts by the speaker to create
balance in speech. Speakers usually code-switch when they try to find the substitute of
specific lexicon in speaker’s first language to create equivalency or balance. Secondly,
code-switching is a strategy to hold floor. When speaker lacks sufficient vocabulary, he
usually code switch to maintain his confidence and fluency in speech. The third function
is reiteration; it is the repetition of message. First of all, the message is delivered in target
language and after that it is repeated in first language just to emphasize. Elridge observed
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that the repetition in first language is also desirable by the students as well and they
usually reply in first language to show that they have understood the message. Fourth
purpose is conflict control. Sometimes, meanings are not clear in target language, so
speakers usually code-switch to clarify the meaning.
2.29 Relationship between Pragmatics and Academic Discourse
Discourse studies generally cater language in use through various theoretical
lenses of linguistics including semantics, syntax and pragmatics. The intended meanings
which are situated in certain context are major sites of exploration for discourse analysts
in the field of pragmatics. These sites may vary from speech community to discourse
community. The sites of speech community are centre of attention of sociolinguists and
discourse community is mainly exploratory enterprise for experts of pragmatics. These
experts such as Paltridge (2012) identified the relationship between pragmatics and
discursive conventions of academic discourse community.
Pragmatics mainly is the contextual study of written and spoken discourses.
Context here refers to three aspects: social situation in which discourses take place; the
relationship of utterances with the context; and situation and background knowledge of
interlocutors. These three aspects of language have strong association with discourse
analysis. Moreover, pragmatics is concerned with the theoretical prospects of cooperative
principle that primarily deals discourses as a function/participation of interlocutors
having shared interests, impetus and purposes. These features provide a compact and
concrete share to discourse, rather prevent it from disconnected and random series of
events. This idea of cooperative principle comprising of four maxims, (Quantity, Quality,
Relevance & Manner proposed by Grice (1975) lead several intellectual discursive
deliberations with discourse analysts from various fields of discourse studies including
academic discourse. Recent study of Abdi et al. (2010) has established this nexus
between academic discourse and pragmatics by exploring employment of cooperative
principle on written academic i.e. research articles.
However, Grice (1975) proposed these maxims to show that spoken discourses do
not fit into the category of either formal or informal analysis. He introduced the concept
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of implicature to explicate the relationship of pragmatics and discourse analysis. The
abstraction of implicature focused on the meaning making process in discourses i.e.
meaning making and interpreting is complicated process as it cannot be extracted through
literal analysis of words. Hence the importance of context cannot be negated. Keeping in
view the importance of contextual use of language, this study also relies on pragmatic
inquiry of spoken academic discourse.
Kasper (2010) investigated the longer chunks of utterances to analyse pragmatics
or meaning making process. He concluded that meanings are co-constructed by the
interlocutors and highly contextual. So, the understanding of meanings requires
specificity of atmosphere and the nature of the collaborative ventures of interlocutors.
This study explores the contextual use of language in academic discourse using Grician
cooperative principle. Academic discourse deems to explore the uses of language in
academy and code-switching (from English to Urdu and Urdu to English) is important
part of academic discourse in Pakistan. Thus this research initially identifies the
contextual uses/purposes of code-switching. Moreover, this study deals with Grice
maxims of relevance, quantity and manner in determining relevance, perspicuousness and
clarity of information in academic discourse.
2.30 Language Policy and Education
Shohamy (2012) said that language education policy is a tool to construct de facto
language exercises and practices in educational institutes. In centralized system, these
policies are used for language manipulation like which language or languages should be
used in institutes as a medium of instruction, what kind of words, sentences or utterances
should be used in classrooms and whether the usage of this kind of language is acceptable
or not. Shohamy said that educational staff works on that policy without questioning its
appropriateness, authenticity, quality, feasibility and relevance for the prosperous
learning. Lin (1996) Stated that code-switching in institutes is a normative based
approach rather than research based. Aijmer and Simon (2003) conducted his research on
the relationship of code-switching and language policy. He invited students and teachers
to re-evaluate the role of code-switching in classrooms interaction and concluded that the
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strategy of code-switching should be used systematically and strategically to get the
desired results.
Alenezi et al (2012) have conducted an exploratory research on student’s
language attitude. They observed students strong preference to use Arabic and English
language in classroom as a medium of instruction. The data collected throughout the
research process support the use of code-switching. The majority of the students believe
that there should be no code-switching in classroom because monolingual class room
environment will be helpful in improving their language proficiency. On the other hand, a
vast majority of the students believe that code-switching is helpful in comprehension and
sharpen their learning abilities. Students believe that code-switching does not weaken
their L1. Alenezi and his fellows found that most of the students agreed that code-
switching may weaken their L2.
2.31 Linguistic Hybridity
The concept of hybridity is not new. It is generally covers the difficulties in
translation due to difference in culture and use of language. In this way linguistic
hybridity has a close connection with academic discourse where in classrooms and
conference presentations, instructors, students and presenters sometimes discuss and
consider their local culture, festivals and rituals. Hybridity exists at multiple levels of
learning environments. The classroom, for example, is constitutive of multiple and
connected activity systems, that is, it is polycontextual. We have termed these varied
social spaces, or activity systems, the official and unofficial spaces of learning contexts.
Although these spaces also are characterized by their various and often oppositional
discourses and social practices, they are also mutually constitutive and transformative. In
all cases, these tensions in activity rupture the normative practice, and new hybrid
activities emerge. However, some classroom communities resist the transformation,
whereas others opportunistically view these emergent activities as potentially fruitful
contexts of development. We have conceptualized these improvisations as Third Spaces
and argue that these learning zones are promoted and sustained by hybrid language and
schooling practices that bridge home and school.
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2.31.1 Linguistic Hybridity in Classrooms
Research conducted in Spanish classrooms shows how conflict and deiversity
became a catalyst to change in teaching style, individual learning and curricular change.
Learning context and hybrid culture actively mined in the ways the teacher and children
consciously and strategically utilized their own linguistic repertoires and created new
contexts of development; these hybrid language practices fostered language and literacy
development. These hybrid language practices, however, were neither disconnected nor
random. Instead, these practices were intimately connected texts, strategically used, and
were the outcome of a hybrid activity system in which home and school were consciously
bridged. Similar to practices represented in the work on Funds of Knowledge (Moll,
1998), “the local practices, knowledge, and beliefs of both the local community and of
the classroom and school community were brought to bear in everyday classroom
practices knowledge, and beliefs of both the local community and of the classroom and
school community were brought to bear in everyday classroom practices”.
Acceptance and use of diverse, alternative texts and codes, ways of participating,
sharing expertise, and mediating literacy learning were part of the normative practice of
this community of learners (Rogoff, 1994). Diversity, in this context, was a resource. As
we will illustrate shortly, even unauthorized side talk, movement, and spontaneous
interaction and collaboration, were unproblematic and redefined as part of the normative
practice in this community. In other words, this particular classroom community was
flexible and open to student behaviours that in other learning contexts might be
considered inappropriate or forms of counter script. Talk, interaction, reading, writing,
and sharing in a variety of codes and registers here were considered the means to
productive learning. Moreover, the teacher and the children placed a high value on
respecting the language, social practices, and beliefs of the classroom community and its
individual members. Classroom learning activities included teacher mini-lectures, reading
and writing texts, and classroom discussion of topics generated by both teacher and
students.
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Although, many researches have been conducted on language used by instructors
in classrooms but there is a need to expolore the purposes of code-switcing in Pakistani
post-graduate classrooms through the prism of pragmatics.
Summary The review of related literature affirms that research in the field of academic discourse is
intricate and full of ramification both at micro and macro level notably in underdeveloped
countries like Pakistan. As pragmatics is the study of language in specific context and
instructors use language structures according to context. This research is carried out to
explore the use of language is academic discourse. For this purpose Gricean Maims have
been applied on academic discourse (See section 2.5). Academic discourse refers to the
utilization of language in academy. It is a dynamic and intricate process which involve in
encoding and decoding of message and speakers use various expressions according to
context (See section 2.30). Language choice is one of the principal issues of academic
discourse. Speakers (teachers and students) usually switch their code during conversation.
This alternative use of language needs orderly cognitive and linguistic manipulation of
two languages. There can be different purposes of code-switching such as explanation,
socialization, translation, simplification of expression etc.
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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter deals methodological issues and the purposes of selecting particular
research methodology. The purpose of this research is to explore the purposes of code-
switching through the prism of pragmatic inquiry. Qualitative and quantitative research
paradigms were selected to explore the purposes of code-switching in the context of
classrooms and conference presentations. Drisko (2005) identified research methodology
as a road map for the readers to clarify the concepts regarding collection and analysis of
data in particular research. This chapter is divided into different parts which elaborate
research methods in linguistics and selection of methods in data collection and data
analysis.
The vastness of the linguistics has opened many vistas of understanding language
from various perspectives (Anderson et al.2005) and researchers select different methods
for data collection and data analysis and the most prominent paradigms selected by the
researchers are qualitative and quantitative (Miles and Huberman, 1994). The selection of
this mixed methods helped the researchers to explore and verify their results (Tashkori
and Teddlie, 2010). The data was collected for this research by utilizing both qualitative
and quantitative methods through recording of classrooms and conferences and
questionnaires respectively. This data triangulation and methodological triangulation (see
3.4) is significant in data collection and data analysis (Deniz 1970, as cited in Litosseliti,
2010) and in this study data triangulation and methodological triangulation was utilized
to get the balanced and clear picture of the contextual analysis of academic discourse. I
found survey method and audio/video recording as the best suited tools for data
collection; as questionnaires are significant to collect the data from larger population
(Fraenkela and Wallen, 2000) and audio/video recordings are the best source to keep the
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record of world natural instances and help in thick description of series of events (Geertz,
2002). The transcription of data, although was very tedious and tiring during data
analysis but I found it quite helpful in analyzing and describing the data. Transcription of
data has been used to reveal the different instances of conversation (Bird, 2005) and
repeated listening provide me the facility to analyze different relevant themes of
academic discourse.
3.2 Methodology
Most of the activities observed in classrooms were in the form of dialogues. Thus,
keeping in view the research questions, the methodological approaches were selected. In
order to explore the relevant issues, two research methodologies (qualitative and
quantitative i.e. mixed method) were joined together. Ethnography of interaction was
used as a major tool of investigation to collect the data, audio and video recordings and
survey method in the form of questionnaires are used are used for data collection.
Qualitative analysis was based on recordings and participant observation while
quantitative analysis based on questionnaires. Handcook (2001) advocated the use of
quantitative and qualitative methods as the research should be carried on with the
‘rationalistic’ and ‘naturalistic’ paradigms. Moreover, Bryman (2012) said that the use of
more than one method is helpful in getting the complete and clear picture in ethnographic
study. Hence, this study utilized both quantitative and qualitative research paradigms.
3.3 Theoretical Framework
Grice cooperative principle (1975) and Myers-Scotton’s Markedness Theory
(1984) are used as theoretical framework for this research.
3.3.1 Cooperative Principle
Grice (1975) presented certain assumptions regarding conversation which is
known as cooperative principle. The basic assumption is when we converse with others,
we try to facilitate or rather cooperate with others to create meaningful utterances for the
convenience of listeners. Grice stated that the speaker should make his contribution
during conversation as it is required and it should be accepted for the understanding of
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utterances. In other words we can say that conversational contribution should be
productive and meaningful. In some situations, speakers may be uncooperative.
According to Grice, there may be different reasons for uncooperativeness like the
speakers do not want to give the proper reply to particular interrogation, speakers do not
want to show his/her emotions or may be speakers hate someone. The understatement
that the cooperative principle stated comprise of two postulates. Firstly, sometimes
speech errors go unnoticed and the speaker tries and listener himself try to draw
meanings or give benefit of doubt. Secondly, sometimes the statement is not true,
ridiculous or random. The listener draws meaning and one can find the relevant idea from
certain excerpt.
The assumption that the speaker cooperates in imparting meaning to any
conversation provides a basis to Grice to formulate his cooperative principle (Pfitser,
2009). The Cooperative Principle is subdivided into Conversational maxims. The first
maxim is of Quantity which states that Speaker’s contribution to conversation should be
as informative as required in particular context. In other words, it should not be less or
more than the understanding of the hearer and it should not distract the attention of the
listener. (Grice, 1967) The second maxim is of Quality which states that Speaker should
remain truthful and he should not say such statements which lack adequate evidence. The
third maxim is Relevance or Relation which states that Speaker should be relevant.
Relevance is very important to go on conversation in particular direction. The fourth
maxim is of Manner which states that Speaker should not use obscure expression and he
should be comprehensible and intelligible. He should avoid unnecessary garrulity and
copiousness. His speech should be in specific order which is understood by the hearer.
Sometimes speakers do not follow these maxims during conversation and it is called
flouting of Maxims (Mooney, A, 2004).
Sometimes, speakers do not adhere to the conversational rules in natural
conversation on surface level and it is called flouting of maxims. It does not mean that
the speaker is unaware of the fact that s/he is not following certain patterns in
conversation. So, it is assumed that at deeper level the speaker is aware of the fact that
he/she is wishfully flouting the conversation maxims to confer more than what is said and
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this is called conversational implicature (Grice, 1989). The intended meanings can be
extracted through shared cultural belief, background knowledge and context (Brehney et
al, 2006). Most of the times conversation occurred in a defined period of time and in
specific context and it is understandable for the listeners.
3.3.2 Myers-Scotton Markedness Theory of Code-switching
Myers-Scotton Markedness Theory has emerged in1984. Markedness theory
views language from its contextual use and interpret code-switching in any discourse
pragmatically and this model is considered one of important models of ‘social and
pragmatic code-switching’ (Langman, 2001). It is believed that code-switching on one
hand is related to social identities while on the other hand; it is related to contextual use
of language. The focus of this study is contextual analysis of academic discourse. Myers-
Scotton’s (1991, 2000) said that language which a specific discourse community uses the
sets of rights and obligations (RO). She explained different linguistic choices through this
model. The rights and obligation (RO sets) depend upon speakers’ knowledge and social
awareness. While using language in any discourse/context, speakers have certain choices;
these marked choices are speakers’ strategic/purposive use of new code. The speakers
can utilize language to acquire certain aims. It is believed that in classrooms/formal
situations, instructors/practitioners avoid code-switching, in these cases; code-switching
can be unmarked while in playgrounds/informal situations, it can be marked.
Myers-Scotton markedness model of code-switching is very significant in
identifying the meaning of code-switching and the use of different codes in a particular
society (Luna & Peracchio 2005). Language choices play important role in meaning
making in interpersonal communication. One postulate of markedness model is that
human beings are innately indulged in the exploitation of codes in the use of language.
The use of different codes of language during communication serves as an index for
others to perceive their (speaker’s) self and create the perception to build right and
obligation for others (Myers-Scotton, 1993). Speakers follow specific patters of rights
and obligation to transfer the message and built a balance between rights and obligation
for the understanding of the listener and it is purely contextual. Speaker selects different
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codes which are appropriate for the listener’s understanding which are associated to the
speech events as well (Myer-Scotton, 1991).
3.4 Triangulation
Litosseliti (2010) said that data triangulation is one of the key features of any
research design. Data triangulation and methodological triangulation are considered as
the functional terms in research design as former refers to the use of more than one
method in data collection while the latter refers to the use of more than one method in
research design. Deniz (1970 as cited in Litosseliti in 2010) elaborated the distinction
between inter method and intra method triangulation; the former refers to the use of
different aspects of the same method while later refers to the use of use of two methods
which may be contrastive. More recently, Bryman (2006, as cited in Litosseliti in 2010)
said that this term refers to the confluence or convergence of findings and association or
corroboration of research results. Moreover this point of view generates the idea that the
use of different data sets fabricates the same results and as a result allows the researcher
to interpret the result confidently. Litosseliti (2010) said that the use of mixed
methodologies escort to the same result, hence, closely associated to the concept of
credibility of research findings or result. Czura (2014) suggested that triangulation is one
of the most effective strategies to explore different issues related to classroom discourse
due to diversified background of the teachers and students and the versatility in research
design leads to the authenticity of the research.
3.5 Ethnography of Interaction
Hymes (2001) coined the term ethnography of speaking and latter on it is
amended as ethnography of interaction or ethnography of communication. He argued that
the best way to analyze the language is its use and most of the times the analysis of
linguistic competence is important than the communicative competence. Speakers of any
language code-switch during conversation, that may not be correct as far as linguistic
competence is concerned but it is representative of any culture and the use of language in
that particular culture or it can be socio-contextual use of language. Johnstone &
Marcellino (2010) believed that ethnography of communication is related to the use of
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language by the speakers and how he/she learns the particular use of language in any
context. So, ethnography is a type of inquiry which is helpful in exploring how
natives/participants behave in particular situation and how they decipher their own
behavior.
Communication does not occur in vacuum, it needs specific context, as Hymes
(2001) believed. When speech styles are analyzed, there are different dimensions of
analysis which entails purpose, intention, context and setting which collectively make the
whole meanings of particular conversation. Since the last two decades, ethnography of
communication is under consideration in many fields like linguistics, sociology,
psychology and education because all these disciplines are closely related to human
attitudes and behaviors. This research is an effort to explore the interpretation of the
interactional attitude of teachers and students in classrooms and the use of language of
the participants in conference. Greene and Wallet (1981, in Qadir 1996) used
ethnographic observation and favored particular strategy applied to any academic
settings, it means to explore what is occurring in that academic setting, why/how is it
occurring and what are the possible intentions of the speakers in any context.
This research was conducted in natural environment as Johnson (1992) proposed
that the main concern of ethnographic studies is to give qualitative interpretation of the
instances which are observed in naturalistic environment without the manipulation of the
researcher. Hymes (2001) said that utterances are futile without macro social context and
set of relationships. Keeping in view the approach of Hymes, I have recorded the data to
observe and evaluate the contextual use of language in academic discourse. For this
purpose thirty postgraduate classroom sessions and 40 conference presentations were
audio and video recorded. Johnstone and Marcellino (2010) said while recording the
particular data, there is a need to draw ethnographic reports which may be helpful in
analyzing the data and it demands observation. The objective of this research is to
explore the flouting and observance of Gricean maxims and what are the possible reasons
of flouting or observance. The second main objective is to explore the purpose of code-
switching in academic discourse. I found the concept of triangulation the best suited
approach for data collection and analysis. As Van Lier (1988) suggested that a wide
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range of methods and techniques should be used while conducting ethnographic
classroom research.
Hymes (2001) believed that ethnographers should keep in mind the speech
situation, speech acts and speech events. For Hymes, speech situation means context (like
party, classrooms, wedding ceremony etc.), speech events exist within speech like the use
of particular language expression in marriage ceremony while speech acts are related to
individual utterances which is the minimal unit of analysis for ethnographers. There are
two points of views about classroom discourse; Heap (1988) called it as instruction
sequence and Mehan (1982) called it as interactional sequence. During this study, I found
that Mehan’s point of view is quite relevant. Mehan (1982) believed that ethnographic
studies provide the relevant data about the skills and attitudes of the speakers in particular
context. Furthermore, he said that communication does not occur just through single
sentence, rather it occurs through speech acts and utterances in particular context. As far
as classroom discourse is concerned, I focused on the communication between teachers
and students.
Martin-Jones (2003) said if the ethnographer has observed classrooms, the
validity and functionality of the data can be tested through the responses of the
participants who are the part of that research. If the observation matches to the responses
of the participants, the research will have high degree of validity. Mehan (1982) seconded
Martin Jones (2003) as ethnographic methodology is very useful in conducting academic
based research.
Hymes (2001) suggested that ethnography of communication provides solid and
strong reason for rooted and enacted in discourse. Ethnographers explore through
different strategy like settings, context, goals and modes of communication and the
theory or idea which is used to interpret the whole theme. Thus, for this research,
ethnography of communication was selected to collect and interpret data. Mehan (1982)
suggested that in ethnographic research, the data collected through recordings or
transcripts means that the collected data is in concrete form and findings may be
applicable to educational institutes that may be helpful in building the difference in
teaching methodologies. Current study dissects the behaviors and attitudes of teachers,
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students (in classrooms) and presenters (in conferences) towards code-switching.
Furthermore, this study explores the observance and nonobservance of Gricean maxims
in academic discourse. Van Lier (1988) said that most of the researchers are reluctant in
conducting the research in classrooms as they considered the data collected in classrooms
is messy and vague. Nonetheless, he suggested that the research conducted on academic
discourse is valuable source to bring a constructive change in academia and teaching
methodology.
3.6 Sample Selection
This research aims to explore different issues related to code-switching and
flouting and observance of Gricean maxims in academic discourse. This study has been
conducted at postgraduate level of Quaid-i-Azam University, Air University and National
University of Modern Languages. Questionnaires have been distributed among students
of postgraduate departments of the said universities to collect responses through simple
random sampling and each individual has equal chances of being selected. Jha (2008)
said that random sampling is significant in reducing errors and biases. Thirty classrooms
have been audio/video recorded and two international conference have been recorded
which are organized by Islamic International University and Azad Jamu and Kashmir
University.
The data was recorded in natural environment. Thus, the methodological
approaches selected in this research are used to analyze different approaches and
behavior during interaction which is closely related to the observance or nonobservance
of Gricean Maxims and purpose of code-switching. This is contextual study of academic
discourse which centers upon the use of language/codes in particular situations in
classrooms and conference. In order to explore the relevant issues, I used two methods;
qualitative and quantitative. Ethnography of speaking was also used to conduct
ethnographic observation and recordings. Survey research was conducted through
questionnaires. So, qualitative analysis was undertaken in this study through recording
and quantitative analysis was conducted through questionnaires. Quantitative method was
utilized to analyze questionnaires and it was the best source to get a large number of
responses verified and authenticated while qualitative analysis was helpful when there is
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a need to analyze context and purposes of code-switching in particular situation
especially in bilingual classrooms and conference presentations.
3.7 Survey
VanderStoep and Johnson (2008) said that there are four methods for getting
survey information mail survey, personal interviews, telephone interviews, and
questionnaire and internet survey. There are different research designs. It can be cross
sectional, longitudinal and successive independent research design. In the cross sectional
design, one or more than one sample can be drawn from the population in the specific
period of time. Cross sectional survey creates the opportunity for the researcher to
identify the qualities of any population in a given period of time and the correlations are
studied by keeping in view the qualities and information provided by the participants. In
successive independent sample design, a chain of cross-sectional survey is conducted by
the researcher in different periods of time. There are two major points as far as successive
independent sample design is concerned. Firstly, the samples are not dependent and
similar questions are inquired from each group of sample. Secondly, multiple samples are
selected from same population and the researcher can compare the results of the
participants of different samples. This design is appropriate when the concern of the
researcher is to measure the attitudes of the participants of population with the passage of
time. In the longitudinal design, the same sample is analyzed and observed with the
passage of time to evaluate the changes in their behavior. This design is significant in
attitude measurement when the researcher wants to measure the changes in attitude with
the passage of time. In this study, cross sectional research design is used because I found
it more suitable for this research as it has specification of time and there is no issue of the
availability of the participants because samples are drawn from the population once.
In this study, survey was conducted to explore the information from students
related to language use in classrooms, homes and educational institutes. Litosseliti (2010)
believed that survey is one of the important tools to analyze the thoughts and behaviors of
the respondents. It evaluates different qualities of the population and this information of
qualities serve as variables. In this research, I collected the data from predetermined
sample through cross sectional survey. Hence, I collected the data without manipulating
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the study environment. This is the study or evaluation of facts in a specific period of time
like diachronic study. It is very helpful in evaluating the universality and prevalence of
the outcomes of the study. As far as quantitative analysis is concerned, it is very helpful
in finding the frequency of certain behaviors. To get the responses from the students, a
questionnaire was designed which was comprised of open ended and closed ended
questions. Fraenkela and Wallen (2000) explicated that survey research is one of the
widely used techniques by educational researchers. Survey through questionnaires
created the possibility for the researcher to collect the data from large sample regarding
particular topic or issue. In this study quantitative study is based on questionnaires.
Furthermore, the questionnaire was designed according to the area and objectives which
are under consideration. Survey is very helpful in getting and dealing the profile of large
population. I scrutinized all the prerequisites of the survey to extract the transparent
results of the survey. So, I conducted the pilot study to explore whether the questions are
fulfilling the required purpose or not. Litosseliti (2010) proposed that in questionnaires,
statements should be straight forward and free from terminologies and jargons because
the respondents may not be able to understand the difficult terminology. While designing
questionnaire, I kept in mind to use easy and comprehensible language. Oppnheim (1992)
said that the analytic relational surveys are beneficial to evaluate facts and comparing
variables. He believed that it is quite scientific because its functioning is same as the
experiment in a laboratory as it is used to explore certain hypothesis and to find the
answers of specific research questions. The results seem to be more towards finding
association, enumeration and explanations rather than representativeness and explanation.
It is more likely to answer ‘how’, ‘how many’ and ‘how often’.
3.7.1 Constructing a Questionnaire
Shaughnessy & Zechmeister (1985) argured that construction of questionnaire
which results in valid and reliable response is one of the core concerns of the
questionnaire. They suggested five steps for designing questionnaire:
1. While designing a questionnaire, the researcher should be clear about the goals of
the questionnaire. This step needs concentration and it results in determining the
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nature of the questions to be incorporated in questionnaire and fruitful in getting
the valid findings.
2. The questionnaires can be used when the researcher found that there is no other
strategy suitable for collecting data and can design first draft of the questionnaire.
The language of the questionnaire should be according to the level of
understanding of the participants and the questions should be properly arranged.
Two questions related to the same issue may be asked to confirm the information.
3. It is necessary to re-examine and review the questionnaire because questions that
seem unambiguous and simple may be ambiguous and slanted to
others/participants. Shaughnessy and Zechmeister (1985) believed that
questionnaire should be reviewed by the experts who have the same area of
expertise or who have knowledge of survey research which is researcher’s
concerned research.
4. One of the most significant steps in the development of questionnaire is pretest or
pilot study. A pretest or pilot study involves administering the questionnaire on a
small group of sample from the required population who are involved in the final
administration of the survey. The responses got through the pilot study are helpful
in evaluating the questionnaire, whether it is applicable to get the reliable results
from the required sample or not.
5. After pretesting or pilot study, it is necessary to edit the questionnaire if it does
not fulfill the criterion of the research. Researchers can change vocabulary,
rephrasing the instructions, addition of questions or even cut short some questions
for the convenience of the research participants.
6. The questionnaires should be distributed by getting prior permission from the
participants. Researcher should inform the participants that anonymity and
secrecy will be maintained and this data will be used for the research purpose
only.
Shaughnessy and Zechmeister (1985) said that questionnaire is a helpful
technique if researcher found no other way to get the required data. I followed the above
given steps while designing and administering the questionnaire.
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3.7.2 Questionnaire Lay out
Pollak and Wales (1981) said that questionnaire is one of the most frequently used
techniques for data collection in survey research. It is one of the beneficial ways to
collect the responses from a large number of participants. I designed the questionnaire by
keeping in view my research objectives. Pollak and Wales (1981) believed that
demographic variables are one of the most important type of variables analyzed
frequently through survey research. Demographic information is used to illustrate the
qualities of the participants in any research. The measurement of demographic
information depends upon the objectives and goals of the study. Considering the
criterion of designing the questionnaire, I divided questionnaire into three sections and
the number of total questions is twenty seven. First section is related to demographic
information (age, gender) and education like medium of instruction at different levels like
school, college, university and home, having five questions. The second section is
comprised of nineteen questions. In this section likert scale is used to explore the
frequency/intensity of agreement or disagreements as it accelerates from strongly
disagree to strongly agree. Five options like strongly disagree, disagree, do not
know/neutral, agree, strongly agree are given in questionnaires. Different abbreviations
like SD, DA, DK, AG and SA are used in place of strongly disagree, disagree, do not
know/neutral, agree, strongly agree respectively. Allen and Seaman (2007) said that
Likert scale introduced in 1932 and after that it got the form of five bipolar responses that
used to measure the degree of agreement or disagreement in any study which ranges from
least to most. It is used to quantify or measure any statement i.e. how much the
respondents agree or disagree, accept or reject, believe true or false for any statement.
Allen and Seaman (2007) said that there should be at least five categories to measure the
responses of the respondents. In section B, first thirteen questions are related to the
purposes of code-switching while last four questions are related to the observance of
violence of Gricean Maxims. Section three comprised of two open ended questions.
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Figure 3.1: Layout of Questionnaire
3.7.3 Pilot Study
Initially Pilot study was conducted in two sections of Natural Sciences in Quaid-i-
Azam University. Polit, Beck and Hungler (2006) said that pilot study is initial and small
scale version for the composition and preparation of the leading study. Baker (1999)
pointed out that pilot study is often considered as pretest to check the comprehension,
validity and reliability of the questionnaire. The intention of the pilot study is to:
1. Check the comprehension of the instruction to the participants.
2. Evaluate the difficulty level of the vocabulary and content used in the questions.
3. Determine the pros and cones of the questions.
4. Check the validity and reliability of each question.
In pilot study, the focus of the question number four was to find the language used
in school only. In section two, questions regarding Gricean Maxims were not asked. It
was noticed that some participants left the questionnaire half-filled or slightly unfilled.
As a result of this pilot study, some changes were made in this initially designed
questionnaire after discussing with the supervisor and consulting some of the research
Questionnaire
Section 3 Section 2 Section 1
a. Demographic information
b. Use of language in school, college and university.
c. Use of language with classmates,
a. Code switching and understanding of course b. Purpose of Code switching c. Observance or non-Observance of Gricean maxims while switching from one language to another
a. Use of language in classrooms.
b. Additional comment.
(open ended questions)
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participants. The following changes were made in the questionnaire to carry out the
study:
1. Instructions are rephrased.
2. Some questions, regarding the information about the use of language and the
flouting or observance of Gricean maxims are added in section two and three
respectively to the questionnaire.
3. Some questions are revised.
4. Proper Strategy adopted to get back the filled questionnaire.
3.7.4 Reliability and Validity of Instrument
The questionnaires were initially distributed among fifty students of the
department of Natural Sciences and the department of Linguistics. I found the reliability
coefficient by using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) and reliability
coefficient, cronbach alpha was calculated as 71 percent. The frequencies and
correlations of all questions in the questionnaire were found and SPSS revealed that the
constructed questions in the questionnaire were highly correlated. Hence the reliability of
the constructed questionnaire was ensured and the instrument was reliable for this
particular study. Thorndike and Hagen (1971, as cited in Haynie, 1994) said that the
reliability coefficient ranges to 70 is within the range of effectiveness of the research
instrument.
Table 3.1: Reliability of Instrument
Instrument No of items Reliability
Questionnaire 27 71
The preliminary draft of the questionnaire was submitted to the supervisor. She
recommended some changes. The questions in the instrument was authenticated and
validated by the team of three experts who have sufficient expertise in my field of study.
Hence, I made all the changes suggested by my research supervisor and experts.
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3.7.5 Data Collection through Questionnaire
The questionnaires were distributed among the postgraduate students of different
departments of Quaid-i-Azam University, NUML and Air University. Following table
gives the complete picture of data collected through survey.
Table 3.2: Number of Respondents of Survey Name of institute Number of Respondents Quaid-i-Azam University 100 Students National University of Modern Languages 50 Students Air University 50 Students Total 200
The questionnaires were distributed in the same departments where classroom
lecture sessions were recorded. Hundred questionnaires were filled by females and
hundred questionnaires by male participants. Following table give the complete idea of
gender distribution in this study.
Table 3.3: Gender Distribution of Respondents Gender Frequency Percentage
Male 100 50%
Female 100 50% Total 200 100%
3.7.6 Rationale for Sample Selection
The universities selected for data collection have different number of Post-graduate
programs with different enrolled strength of the students. Therefore, maintaining the
equal amount of collected data through questionnaires from each university was less
likely to be ensured. Hence, due to various number of programs offered and different
number of enrolled students, I was able to arrange data based on 200 questionnaires from
three universities consisting of 100, 50 and 50 questionnaires from Quaid-i-Azam
University, National University of Modern Languages (NUML) and Air University
respectively. However, gender balance was maintained to ensure holistic and equal
representativeness of data as this approach of ensuring representativeness increases
validity and reliability of the results found in a study. And 30 classroom sessions (10
from each university) were recorded from three selected universities. Moreover, gender
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balance was maintained with equal number of participants, 5 male and 5 female teachers,
from each university.
3.7.7 Supervision of Participants in Filling/Solving Questionnaire
It was one of the principal duties of the researcher to supervise and administer the
questionnaire distribution in her presence to avoid any hindrance or communication gap.
As it was noted in pilot study that some participants were not interested in answering the
questions and they left the questionnaires half or partially filled. To avoid inconvenience
later, I visited postgraduate sections of Quaid-i-Azam University, Air University and
NUML and helped out the participants in answering the questions. To visit the classes, I
took permission letter from my parent university (NUML) and showed to the instructors
of the relevant sections and questionnaires were filled by the participants (students).
3.8 Recording of Material
Ethnographic research spotlights the linguistic and social behaviors in naturally
occurring settings. Geertz (2002) said that the research conducted in natural settings
provides the opportunity to the researcher for ‘thick description’ and provides detailed,
analytical and interpretive account of particular community. He said that the ethnographic
study creates a bridge between the emic perspective (culturally specific schema utilized
by the community understudy) and etic perspective (theoretical frameworks, ideas and
categories devised by the researchers according to their study). Lectures were recorded
from postgraduate departments of Quaid-i-Azam University, National University of
Modern Languages and Air University. Ten lectures were recorded from each university;
for this purpose five male and five female instructors were selected through convenience
sampling to record the lectures. I used both audio recording and video recordings in this
study. Twenty-five lectures were audio recorded and five lectures were audio recorded.
The data was collected from different disciplines of three universities. Following table
shows the disciplines selected for classroom session recording.
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Table 3.4: Selected Disciplines for Lecture Recording Name of institute Discipline Quaid-i-Azam University Chemistry, Computer Sciences, Physics, Linguistics National University of Modern Languages Education, English (Linguistics and Literature) Air University Physics, English, Masters in Business Administration
I felt that video recording was significant than audio recording because it not only
gives the idea about gestures, postures, clothing and proxemics but also helps in
understanding the utterance if the voice is not clear. Video as well as audio recordings
provide heavy and observable amount of information. Beebe and Takahash (1989) said
that the strategy to audio and video recording data is significant than notes taking. As, the
researcher just writes the gist of the conversation while taking notes because of the
memory constraints and the speed of spoken language is quite fast than the writing ability
of the researchers. I found another advantage of audio and video recording that it is
permanent that can be listened repeatedly by rewinding it. Erickson (1992) said that
recordings provide the opportunity to the researchers to ponder, concentrate and rethink
on the data before drawing the conclusion, thus it helps in avoiding the premature
explanation and analysis of the data.
I used ethnographic approach to conduct this research because linguistic
behaviors are evaluated through context or the situation of the utterance and explained in
terms of their surroundings and culture. Viewing this point, DuFon, (2002) considered
ethnographic approach as holistic approach. Asch (1992) said that ethnographic study
requires in depth and intensive fieldwork of the researchers. Consequently, they get
familiar and friendly with the participants and s/he can easily evaluate the variation
among participants or community members and find out the facts and figures of that
community for accuracy. Sevigny (1981) said that it needs triangulated inquiry and the
collection of data in naturalistic environment by using different data collection techniques
like questionnaires, participant observation, audio and video recording, interviews etc. In
this study, I used mixed method approach; quantitative approach through questionnaires
and qualitative approach through recordings.
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3.8.1 Recording of Conferences
The data was collected from two international conferences; one is organized by
International Islamic University on 14-16 November, 2014. It was a three day conference
on “The Literary Present and Postcolonial Condition” The second International
conference was organized in Kashmir. It was a two day conference organized on 15-16
November, 2013 and named as “First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics”
forty sessions (twenty male and twenty female) were randomly selected to use in this
study. Ten male and ten female presenters were selected from each conference.
Following table gives detailed view of data collected from conferences.
Table 3.5: Data Collected Conference Presentations Conference Male Presenters Female Presenters The Literary Present and Postcolonial Condition 10 10 First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics 10 10 Total 20 20
3.8.2 Difficulties in Recording the Data
The recording of data was one of the difficult and hectic tasks for me. The
classroom data has been recorded with the continuous effort of three months and for
conferences recordings, I consulted organizers of the conferences. Video camera and
audio recorder were used for video and audio recording respectively. The instructors of
the concerned departments granted me permission to record the lectures. Most of the
times, I visited the relevant departments and instructors did not allow me to record the
data and asked me to come some other day. When I approached them next day, they
usually refused me to record the lectures. Some instructors said that their mentors are not
allowing them for recording while the others were so hesitant to cooperate. Then I
assured them that the recorded data will be used for the research purpose only, and then
they allowed recording of the data.
3.8.3 Rationale for Audio and Video Recording
It is more appropriate to have video recordings as data of the research within the domain
of discourse studies. Such recordings not only help to interpret the data accurately but the
data recorded in video forms may also be instrumental in gauging extent of appropriacy
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in interpretation of discourse with nexus of supplementary suprasegmental features.
However, getting data in video recorded form is always not so easy owing to various
concerns of the participants. These concerns might include their reluctance in showing
their identities; fear of information recorded to be shared; and concern over unethical use
of the video recordings. Therefore, in case of classroom sessions, due to lack of consent
of the participants, I was able to collect only 5 video recordings leaving the reset of 25 in
audio form. On the contrary, all the conference presentations were arranged in video
form. The recordings of these presentations were contributed by the conference
organizers being competent authorities.
3.9 Data Analysis
I identified the facts and categorized it according to the research questions and the
purpose of the research. Facts regarding the purposes, advantages and disadvantages of
code-switching in classrooms and conference have been identified. Observance and
nonobservance of Gricean maxims have been identified and contextually analyzed.
3.9.1 Analysis of Questionnaires
I distributed the questionnaires among students in different classes from February,
2014 to May, 2014. The entire survey was conducted in four months. For this study, I
selected two hundred participants of postgraduate level from Quaid-e-Azam University,
National University of Modern Languages and Air University through convenience
sampling. The analysis was conducted through the software SPSS. I entered the data in
SPSS sheet. The analysis was presented in the form of charts and tables. The statistical
method was helpful in arranging and analyzing data quantitatively. Finally, following
quantitative results were evaluated by using Statistical techniques. Data was entered in
SPSS by giving them different codes. After data entry procedure, following statistical
procedures were conducted according to the nature and purpose of the research.
1. Relative Frequency Distribution: This method was used to find the frequency or
percentage of the respondents for different responses. The use of frequency was
very helpful in finding different facts about code-switching and the flouting or
observance of Gricean Maxims in class rooms.
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2. Comparative Study: Variables have been selected from demographic information
for further comparative study. Comparative Study is beneficial in determining the
relationship of different variables and responses.
The statistical results were very significantly verified further by extracting
different examples from the recorded and transcribed data.
It was found that most of the participants did not return the questionnaires. 280
questionnaires have been distributed and I got 232 filled questionnaires. 25
questionnaires were not filled correctly and respondents left some questions unanswered.
So, analysis was conducted through 200 properly filled questionnaires.
3.9.2 Analysis of Recordings
Audio and video recordings were not only significant in collecting data but these
were also helpful in analyzing different aspects of language in academic discourse. Heap
(1988) said that data collecting devices are very important in conducting any research and
recoding of data serves as estrangement device in any research. The significance of this
method cannot be negated for both description and analysis. I also found it purposeful
especially to validate data during analysis because I was able to listen the recordings
again and again to get into the particular situation and without recordings there are
chances that the researcher can be misled by supposition and inference. I found the
recorded material very significant in analyzing the contextual use of language as
recordings provide me the immediate opportunity of deep insight into different instances.
3.9.2.1 Transcription of Recorded Data
In Linguistics, transcription is symbolic and systematic representation of language
or utterances. Pirie (1996) said that the recorded material may be transcribed for in depth
study and it can be presented to others if they disagree or oppose with the researcher. I
transcribed the data and it was further used to support the arguments and examples were
extracted to elaborate the point of view. The transcribed data was helpful in triangulating
the questionnaires’ results as well as I built a relationship between different responses of
the questionnaires and the recorded material. In academic disciplines, transcription has
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become the essential part of qualitative research, especially in discourse analysis,
phonetics and sociolinguistics. Initially, I used “dragon software” for data transcription.
This software is speaker dependent as it identifies the voice of single speaker and
transcribes the voice of that speaker. It does not transcribe the voice of multiple speakers.
I used this software to transcribe three lectures as I found it difficult to use it. In recorded
data the instructors used both English and Urdu language. This software transcribed
English language correctly while does not suitable for the transcription of Urdu language.
So, I manually typed the data which was a very tough and tedious task during this study.
Bird (2005) said that recorded data transcription is one of the important parts in
qualitative analysis. This activity is designed to deal and unpack the data meanings of
naturally occurring speech in all discipline. Transcription is a useful tool to convert
original spoken language into written text to analyze and interpret different instances of
data. Matheson (2007) said that data transcription reveals different facts to the researcher
when he listens to the recorded data repeatedly and carefully. Furthermore, listening to
the recorded data provides the opportunity to the researcher to get familiar with the data
and he/she can easily find different and relevant themes from the recording.
Ochs (1988) described the ways of transcribing the data. The researcher should
pen down the date of recording to retrieve the data. He/she should use some pseudonyms
for the names of the participants as he/she is not supposed to disclose the identity of the
participants. Ochs believed that the researcher should use different symbols to show
different verbal activities like intonation pattern, silence, laugh, inaudibility, repetition
etc. to builds reader’s understanding and enhance interest. If the conversation is in the
form of turn taking, the researcher should mention it in dialogue form.
Oliver et al (2005) believed that in transcribing the data, many grammatical
mistakes are left uncorrected because it can give the natural touch to the transcribed data
and reader can easily understand the naturalistic behavior of the research participants.
Uncorrected grammatical mistakes can be beneficial to analyze certain relevant themes
from discourse/conversation.
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Bird (2005) said that communicating talking data means transcribing and
interpreting the spoken data in a sound manner. He described two types of transcription,
naturalism and denaturalism. Naturalism suggests that every bit of conversation should be
transcribed in detail while denaturalism suggests removing idiosyncratic elements of
speech like pauses, fillers, and other paralinguistic features. Bird (2005) believed that it is
not necessary to include every bit of conversation in transcription. It may vary according
to the purpose and demand of the research. These two methods of transcription are used
to describe certain aspects of language. He claimed that in transcribed data, there are
grammatical mistakes which are left uncorrected. He believed that it can be helpful in
meaning making and exploring the implicit/ hidden meanings. In this way language
seems quite natural. Bird said that in this way transcribed data goes beyond the level of
standardization and the researcher got a fair chance of analyzing the data. On the other
hand researcher should be vigilant and careful in analyzing the data through extraction of
meaning and revelation through the interpretive intent.
Myer (2004) proposed that transcription techniques that spoken data can be
transcribed by using various orthographic symbols. Linked expressions, partially uttered
words, repetitions, unintelligible speech can be represented through various symbols. He
suggested that the names of the speakers should be changed to sustain the anonymity of
the speakers. Furthermore, he proposed that researchers can design their own
transcription parameters in compliance with the standard conventions of transcription.
Therefore, by considering Myer’s principle of transcription, I designed parameters based
on nature of the data analyzed in this study. I used following symbols to describe
different features of spoken language in the recorded data.
Use of symbols in Transcription
T Teacher S Student ….. Silence /L/ Laugh /i/ Inaudible /r/ Repetition Times New Roman Words uttered in English language
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Bold letters Words uttered in Urdu language MP Male participant of Conference FM Female participant of Conference […...] Utterance in parenthesis show that actually it is
uttered in English-Urdu language and it is translated in English Language for the understanding of English reader
3.9.2.2 Recording of Lectures
Fifteen female classroom sessions were recorded. Seven lectures were video
recorded while eight lectures were audio recorded as some teachers were hesitant for
video recording. For female classrooms, almost 755 minutes were recorded and 61507
words were transcribed. The variation of recorded time was due to the performance of
activities in classrooms. Lectures on different topics were delivered by the female
instructors and different activities were performed accordingly.
Table 3.6: Detailed View of Transcribed Data of female Classroom Sessions
Lecture
No
Instructor Duration Transcribed
words
Mode of
Recording
1 F1 1:2:30 5477 Audio
2 F2 50 minutes 2205 Video
3 F3 1:3:00 6240 Audio
4 F4 01:07:15 6264 Audio
5 F5 40 minutes 2635 Video
6 F6 38 minutes 2834 Video
7 F7 50 minutes 3332 Audio
8 F8 50 minutes 1657 Audio
9 F9 49 minutes 5586 Audio
10 F10 1:3:21 4782 Audio
11 F11 58:3:00 4692 Audio
12 F12 51:40:00 3242 Audio
13 F13 57:4:30 4678 Audio
14 F14 55:23:00 4612 Audio
15 F15 34:28:00 3265 Audio
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Lectures on different topics were recorded like ‘process of articulation’,
‘speaking’, ‘lexical semantics and word relations’, ‘vapor pressure’, ‘speaking drills’
(practice), ‘discourse markers’, ‘punctuation’, ‘paragraph writing’, ‘organic chemistry’,
‘fractional distillation apparatus’, ‘theme of perfection in human life’, ‘behaviorism’,
‘java scripts’, ‘relativity theory’ and ‘quantum mechanics’ respectively. Table 3.6
describes the duration of classroom and total words transcribed for each female
instructor.
Table 3.7: Detailed View of Transcribed Data of male Classrooms Sessions
Lecture No Instructor Duration Transcribed
words
Mode of
Recording
1 M1 1:03:38 4239 Video
2 M2 44:41 3046 Audio
3 M3 45:34 5416 Audio
4 M4 51:57 7298 Audio
5 M5 51:53 3768 Audio
6 M6 50:54 3388 Audio
7 M7 54:08 3514 Audio
8 M8 50:01 3175 Audio
9 M9 40:39 4145 Audio
10 M10 43:01 2739 Audio
11 M11 43:11 3172 Audio
12 M12 44:26 4352 Audio
13 M13 1:04:01 4232 Video
14 M14 59:38 3842 Audio
15 M15 57:10 4256 Audio
Similarly fifteen male classroom sessions were recorded. Not only female
instructors, some male instructors were hesitant in facing video camera and they
preferred audio recording. For male instructors, 765 minutes were recorded and
transcribed and total words transcribed were 64834. Different instructors brought
different topics under discussion like ‘classical mechanics’, ‘root test and arithmetic
ratio’, ‘business plan or organizational plan’, ‘ethical and moral doctrine’, ‘integral test
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for infinite series’, ‘ranking and faculty of different universities’, ‘electrical field and
magnetic field’, ‘internal energy and expansion’, ‘flow of current’, ‘law of reflection’,
‘Taylor series’, ‘language varieties’, ‘numerical on time line and cost utilization’ and
‘cognitive linguistics’ respectively. Table 3.7 gives the brief overview of the recorded
and transcribed data.
3.10.2.3 Recording of conferences
Two conferences were video recorded. For this research, 40 presenters were
selected. Ten male participants and ten female participants were selected from ‘The
Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ organized by Islamic International
University on 14-16 November, 2014. The recorded data reveals variety of themes
presented in the conference.
Table 3.8: Details of presentation of male presenters of ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’
Presenter Duration in minutes Mode of Presentation
MP1 16:23 Video
MP2 14:44 Video
MP3 12:07 Video
MP4 20 Video
MP5 13 Video
MP6 16 Video
MP7 15:13 Video
MP8 10 Video
MP9 18 Video
MP10 10:51 Video
The total duration of the recording of female participants in ‘The Literary Present
and the Post-Colonial Condition’ was almost 139 minutes. Ten male and ten female
participants were selected from “First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics”.
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Table 3.9: Details of presentations by female presenters in the conference titled, ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’
Presenter Duration (in minutes) Mode of Presentation
FP1 15:41 Video
FP2 10 Video
FP3 21 Video
FP4 14:38 Video
FP5 10 Video
FP6 12:38 Video
FP7 14:47 Video
FP8 16:50 Video
FP9 12:27 Video
FP10 11 Video
Table 3.10: Details of presentation of male presenters of “First Kashmir International Conference
on Linguistics”
Presenters Duration in minutes Mode of Presentation
MP11 19:39 Video
MP12 20 Video
MP13 16:04 Video
MP14 28 Video
MP15 10 Video
MP16 22 Video
MP17 21 Video
MP18 16:51 Video
MP19 19 Video
MP20 12 Video
The total duration of the recording of female presenters in ‘First Kashmir
International Conference on Linguistics’ is 163 minutes and 42 seconds.
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Table 3.11: Detailed view of presentation of female presenters of “First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics”
Presenters Duration in minutes Mode of Presentation
FM11 15:31 Video
FM12 17:13 Video
FM13 24 Video
FM14 10 Video
FM15 10 Video
FM16 10 Video
FM17 30 Video
FM18 26 Video
FM19 11 Video
FM20 10 Video
3.10 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis
Jha (2008) pointed out that qualitative data provides the detailed description of
surroundings, contexts, behaviors, attitudes, experiences and thoughts which is extracted
from any records, transcriptions, case history and documents while quantitative analysis
is beneficial for finding the frequencies and the differences in frequency by using
statistical approach. Patton said that quantitative research is also known as hypothesis
testing research. Jha (2008) said that these statistical tests are significant in exploring the
appropriateness to confirm or counter the research hypothesis and this procedure is
deductive and considered as scientifically proved. He believed that qualitative and
quantitative research methods are the two opposites of continuum, as the former is related
the empirical data analysis while later is related to statistical data analysis. He presented
the idea of interactive continuum, in which researchers can utilized both methods for
precision and accuracy. Although, this mixed method approach is not new, Moulay
(1970, as cited in Jha 2008) suggested that multiple-perspective research is the soul of
modern scientific and empirical research.
The transcribed data reveal all the activities and interactions in the classroom and
conference. The second step of data analysis inference from the recorded and transcribed
data. During this stage, themes were developed and extracted further from the transcribed
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data. Inferences were developed about the participants (teachers and students) of
postgraduate classrooms and the presenters of the conferences. The analysis of
questionnaire was very helpful in deducing and supporting facts. The analysis was
distributed thematically as chapter no 4 deals different issues regarding code-switching
like the purposes of code-switching and flouting and observance of Gricean Maxims
while switching code from one language to another. Moreover, this chapter deals with the
authenticity of the measuring criteria of Gricean maxims in exploring the relevance
(speaker should remain relevant), appropriate contribution of information in a given
context (in classrooms and conference presentation), sequence of information and clarity
or ambiguity of expressions in academic discourse. Examples were extracted from the
transcribed data. Although code-switching and observance or nonobservance of Gricean
Maxims are the most recurrent themes of this study; beside this, the study focuses on the
attitudes and behaviors of the academicians towards the use of language. I tried to
explore and understand the interactional behavior of the participants. Spindler and
Spindler (1987) said that taking the natives’ is quite significant in exploring their
attitudes and cultural knowledge. This cultural knowledge can help the researcher at the
phase of data analysis to explore and explain the hidden behaviors. I tried to explore the
interactional behaviors of the participants in natural environment. The main focus of this
study was the analysis of contextual use of language in academic discourse with the
natural flow of language use in classrooms and conference. This study was conducted in
bilingual context and the focus of this study is contextual use of language in academic
discourse. The use of language in academic discourse is not treated as separate sentences;
rather it is treated as speech acts and speech events.
During analysis, I explored the contextual use of code-switching. The instructors
were mostly using two languages, English and Urdu. In some lectures Urdu was
dominant while in others English was dominant. In some lectures, it was difficult for me
to find the dominance of any language because the instructor was continuously moving
back and forth in the use of these two languages. (English and Urdu) I read the
transcription repeatedly to find the purpose of code-switching and sometimes I consulted
the audio and video recording again and again to clarify the idea. Chapter four is related
to the analysis of questionnaire. Beside this, it is related to the purpose of code-switching
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in academic discourse. The responses of the participants collected through questionnaires
were discussed with reference to recorded data. The open ended questions of the
questionnaire were significant in data analysis as the detailed answers of most of the
participants reveal the purpose, advantages and disadvantages of the use of particular
language in academic discourse. Some students reveal their problems of language
proficiency and language use in classrooms. Chapter 4 also reveals the purposes/context
of observance or nonobservance of Gricean Maxims in academic discourse. Grice
presented the cooperative principal which focuses on the maxim of quality, maxim of
quantity, maxim of manner and maxim of relevance. Thus, this research used Grice
cooperative principal and Myer-Scotten’s Markedness Model as a yardstick to analyze
the contextual use of language with reference to code-switching in academic discourse.
3.11 Delimitation
As I found limited time and resources, I delimited my study on the following
factors:
1. Only spoken academic discourse (classrooms and conferences) was researched
and evaluated.
2. This study is broad in its scope but it is very difficult to work on every aspect of
language. So, this study focuses on selected purposes of code-switching and its
advantages and disadvantages.
3. English to Urdu and Urdu to English code-switching is brought into consideration
for this study.
4. Grice (1976) put forward his cooperative principle which is covered by four
maxims of quantity, quality, relevance and manner. Due to limited time this study
focuses on maxims of quantity, relevance and manner only. Maxim of quality is
deals truth value i.e. speaker should make not provide false information and
should not say what he/she believes false; it is difficult to evaluate whether
someone is telling the truth or not and whether he/she has evidence of what he/she
is saying. So, maxim of quality is not included in this study. Moreover, this work
has no intention to criticize and compare the teaching style of bilingual instructors
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and presenters i.e. one who code-switches or who do not code-switch in
classrooms and presentations.
5. Only post-graduate students and Conference presenters (Linguistics and
Literature) were selected for this study.
6. Data was collected through questionnaires and recordings, as I found these
methods as the most suitable tool for data collection
3.12 Ethical Considerations
I took prior permission from the participants for recording of lectures. Some
participants were willing to record their lectures while others were quite hesitant in
classrooms recording. I showed them permission letter which I obtained from my parent
university to collect data and the approved copy of my research proposal. I assured them
that I shall maintain their anonymity and shall not disclose their identity. Furthermore, I
persuade them that this research will not harm their professional and social life in any
way. Afterwards, they were willing for recording the data. Some participants were not
agree for video recording; so their lectures were audio recorded. Some participants who
were initially agree for their lecture recordings but afterwards they refused me. I did not
pressurize them for recording. I convinced the students to give unbiased responses. The
data of conference presentations was collected from conference organizers and I assured
them that these video recordings will be used for research purpose only. They cooperated
and provided me video recording of conferences.
3.13 Summary
This chapter provides the detailed philosophical background of the methods
selected and the appropriateness of the methods according to the purpose and objectives
of this study. Furthermore, this chapter provides overall plan of the research, techniques
of data collection, data transcription and data analysis. This research is blend of
qualitative and quantitative methods to provide authentic and valid findings. Overall, this
chapter reveals the process of data collection, process of data transcription and data
analysis in detail.
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CHAPTER 4
Data Analysis
4.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the results of the data collected through questionnaires
and recordings. Statistical techniques were used to represent the findings in the form of
tables and graphs. The data collected through questionnaires was analyzed through SPSS
software. The frequencies of the responses given by the students are authenticated by
giving the examples from the recorded (audio/video) and transcribed data of classroom
sessions. In each question, students indicated their level of agreement or disagreement
with the given statements related to language attitudes. Scores of each question ranges
from 1 to 5, with lower values indicate the level of disagreement. Furthermore, the
authenticity of the measuring criteria of Gricean maxims in exploring the relevance,
contribution of appropriate information in a given context, sequence of information and
clarity or ambiguity of expressions in academic discourse are explored in this chapter.
More specifically this study focuses on maxim of relevance, maxim of quantity and
maxim of manner. For the convenience of the readers, this chapter is divided into two
sections. The first section focuses on the purpose, advantages and disadvantages of code-
switching in classrooms and conference presentations while the second section pertains to
the pragmatic inquiry of academic discourse with specific reference to Gricean
Cooperative principle.
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Section 1
Description of Demographic Information
4.2 Descriptive Statistic of Demographic Variables
For this study, hundred male and hundred female participants (students) filled the
questionnaires from three different universities of Islamabad. Fifteen male and fifteen
female classrooms were recorded (audio/video).
Table 4.1: Gender Wise Distribution of Sample
Gender Frequency Percentage
Male 100 50
Female 100 50
Total 200 100
162 participants were from 19-25 years age group, 38 participants were from 26-
35 years age group. Table 4.2 shows the age, frequency and percentage of the sample
selected for this research.
Table 4.2: Age group wise Distribution of sample
Age Frequency Percentage
19-25 years 162 81
26-35 years 38 19
Total 200 100
I collected data from three different universities where students from different
areas of Pakistan were enrolled. When they were questioned, “In what language(s) have
you been mostly taught in your school, college and university?” I got various frequencies
about Urdu, English and both (Urdu and English). Moreover, most of the students added
different regional languages which are used as a medium of instruction in their schools,
colleges and universities.
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Graph 4.1: Languages Used in Schools
Graph 4.1 indicates that majority of students (68.9%) were mostly taught in both
English and Urdu languages in their schools, 14.7% students were taught in English and
16.3% were taught in Urdu. Graph 4.2 shows that majority (79.3%) of the students was
taught in English and Urdu language in the college while 13.5% were taught in English
and 7.3% in Urdu.
Graph 4.2: Languages Used by Students in Colleges
Graph 4.3 indicates that majority (72%) of students were taught in English and
Urdu language in the universities while 26% students were taught in English and only 2%
in Urdu.
Graph 4.3: Languages Used by Students in University
14.7 16.3
68.9
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Perc
ent
English Urdu English & Urdu
Percentage
13.5
7.3
79.3
EnglishUrduEnglish & Urdu
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It is clear from the above description that most of the instructors use two
languages (English and Urdu) as a medium of instruction in school, college and
universities. It shows that code-switching is quiet prevalent in Pakistani classrooms.
Interestingly, some students mentioned that instructors use regional languages as well as
a medium of instruction. Table 4.3 gives the detailed picture of the percentage and the
frequency of the regional languages used by instructors as a medium of instruction in
schools and colleges.
Table 4.3: Regional Languages Used as a Medium of Instruction in Schools and Colleges
Other Languages Frequency Percentage
Pashto 2 12.5
Punjabi 2 12.5
Sindhi 8 50.0
Arabic 2 12.5
Brushaski 2 12.5
Question number 5 deals with the use of languages with classmates, teachers and
family. It is quite clear from the responses of question number 5 that the languages used
by the students in classrooms are quite different from the languages used to converse with
family, classmates, teachers and staff. Table 4.4 shows that majority of respondents used
Urdu language for communication with their classmates while 4.7% respondents used
English language and 26.5% used both English and Urdu.
26
2
72
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Perc
ent
English Urdu English & Urdu
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Table 4.4: Languages Used for Communication with Classmates in Universities
Languages Frequency Percentage
English 8 4.7
Urdu 117 68.8
English & Urdu 45 26.5
Table 4.5 indicates that majority of the students use both English and Urdu (62.5
%) while some students used Urdu (25%) and the others use English (12.5%).
Table 4.5: Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Teachers in Universities
Languages Frequency Percentage
English 24 12.5
Urdu 48 25.0
English & Urdu 120 62.5
Table 4.6 demonstrates that majority (74.9%) of the respondents commonly used
Urdu language for communication with their staff while 4.4% used English and 20.8%
used both English and Urdu languages for communication.
Table 4.6: Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Staff in Universities
Languages Frequency Percentage
English 8 4.4
Urdu 137 74.9
English & Urdu 38 20.8
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Table 4.7 shows that respondents mainly used Urdu language for communication
with their family while some respondents (7.9 %) used English and 19.2% used both
English and Urdu. Table 4.7: Language Commonly Used for Communication with Family
Languages Frequency Percentage
English 14 7.9
Urdu 129 72.9
English & Urdu 34 19.2
The responses of question number 5 reveals that some participants use regional
languages with their family as well as classmates as later either shared same regional
language or understood each other’s regional language. The details of the use of regional
languages are quite clear from Table 4.8. The results indicate that most of the participants
used Punjabi to converse with their friends and family. On the other hand some
participants used Pashto, Sinbhi, Balochi, Siaiki, Hindko, Chitrali and Persian. The
results of the study indicates that the use of regional languages depends upon the
residential region of the respondents like the respondents who belong to different areas of
Punjab usually use Punjabi and Siraiki, the respondents who belong to Sindh usually use
Sindhi and the respondents who were from Northern areas of Pakistan use Chitrali
(Chitral) and Brushiski (Gilgit and Baltistan).
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Table 4.8: Regional Languages Commonly Used for Communication with Classmates,
Teachers, Staff and Family
Regional languages Frequency Percentage
Pashto 14 17.9
Punjabi 22 28.2
Sindhi 10 12.8
Balochi 6 7.7
Saraiki 16 20.5
Hindko 2 2.6
Chitrali 2 2.6
Brushaski 4 5.1
Persian 2 2.6
The results clearly indicate that all the languages are important and used as a
medium of communication. In Pakistan, students use different languages to converse with
different people as most of the students’ communicate with teachers in Urdu and English
while they use only Urdu to communicate with friends. On the other hand, they use
regional languages in their homes. This study focuses on the use of English and Urdu
languages in academic discourse.
4.3 Students Views about Language of Instruction
Five likert scale was used to get the response from the participants. The first
thirteen statements were related to the use of language and code-switching in classrooms
and rest of the statements focused on the Gricean maxims. All statements were analyzed
and their frequency, percentage and mean score were calculated. The results of the
questionnaires explicate the significance of the code-switching in classrooms. The results
of the statements of the questionnaires are authenticated with the transcribed data of the
recording. The first and second question is related to the use of language in classroom.
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Table 4.9 indicates that 29 % respondents agreed and 50 % students strongly agreed with
the statement while 8 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that
majority of the respondents was agreed that learning the course in more than one (English
and Urdu) language is beneficial for me; While, 5% of the respondents don’t know. Mean
score is 4.05.
Table 4.9: Distribution of respondents according to Statement 1
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
Learning the course in
more than one
(English and Urdu)
language is beneficial
for me.
Strongly Disagree 16 8
4.05
Disagree 16 8
Don’t know 10 5
Agree 58 29
Strongly Agree 100 50
Table 4.9 indicates that 32 % respondents agreed and 30 % strongly agreed, while
64 % respondents disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the
respondents were disagreed that Learning the course in one language makes it easy for
me to understand. However, 5% of the sample doesn’t know. Mean score is 3.53.
Table 4.10: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 2
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
Learning the course
in one language
makes it easy for me
to understand.
Strongly Disagree 60 30
3.53
Disagree 54 27
Don’t know 10 5
Agree 64 32
Strongly Agree 12 6
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The results of the first two statements show that students prefer English and Urdu
as a medium of instruction in classrooms. The description of the first two responses leads
us to find different purposes of code-switching in postgraduate classrooms as most of the
postgraduate students agree that instructors should use more than one language as a
medium of communication in classrooms.
4.4 Purposes of Code-Switching
I found that code-switching performs various functions in postgraduate
classrooms. This research concentrates on ten different functions of code-switching.
Different examples are extracted from the transcribed data and explained with the
contextual use of two languages (English and Urdu). Most of the times teachers remain
unaware of the importance and functions of code-switching in classrooms and they
switch their code from one language to another unintentionally. Instructors’ switch their
code from one language to another according to the context. In Pakistan, two languages
are used as a medium of instruction in universities. Hence, the focus of this research is to
find contextual functions/purposes of code-switching. Examples were extracted from the
transcribed data to elaborate contextual switching in classroom sessions. In this research,
ten various functions of code-switching that I frequently observed in the transcribed data
are identified and explained with the prism of pragmatics.
4.4.1 Elucidation
Instructors clarify the ideas while they switch their code from one language to
another. Majority of the students use two languages in classrooms as a medium of
instruction and they feel that learning the course in more than one language is beneficial
for them. This study explores the contextual use of code-switching from one language to
another.
In the following example the instructor delivered a lecture on vaporization
(Chemistry). When the student asked question, she switched her code to Urdu to reply the
query. I found that there is less code-switching when the instructor explained the relevant
idea/topic during the lecture. Following example shows that the instructors used Urdu
language to explain the concepts for the convenience of the students.
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T: “But A—this is less volatile and it will start condensing here and this will fall
back and the other liquid will pass away. This is more volatile and this process
continuous and the liquid in which this distillation flask it become richer in and
the less volatile. A ki concentration yaha increase hoti jaye gi aur gradually ye
process continue hoga [the concentration of A will increase at this point and this
process will continue gradually] B would be –/i/--. So this is the sactionating flask
sactional distillation flask”
S: “madam volatile kia hay?”[Madam, what is volatile?]
T: “volatile wohote hai jo asaani se vapours me change ho jai. Jaisey is me ye
volatile hainna ye asaani se vapours me change hojati he na ye to 78 pe to ye
saari ki saari vapours ban jati hay. Us se pehley bi ye ziada vapour banati
he.[Volatile means the substance which can be converted to vapors easily, like
this substance which can be converted to vapors easily at the degree of 78 or even
before this temperature.] ”
In second example the instructor delivered the lecture on “theory of speaking” by
Delhyms, she explained the relevant ideas by using two languages (English and Urdu). I
observed that the instructor explained the major concepts in English language, later she
realized that the students could not understand the main idea of the topic. The intention of
the sinstructor is to elucidate tye major points.
“So that is related to the series of events. As in the very beginning I have told you
that this is the topic of speaking, is kay baad jab may apna lecture end karon gi tu
may ye nhi kahon gi kay hum speaking ka topic dobara parhen gay. Look beginning
tu beginning may rahey gi or end phir end may hi rahay ga. [There is proper start and
end in every piece of conversation, for example I will not announce the topic like
“speaking” at the end of the lecture. I shall announce the topic in the beginning of every
lecture]”
In classrooms code-switching is a tool to explain different home tasks assigned by
the instructor. In third example, the instructor elucidated about the assignment. One of the
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students asked about the topic and the word limit. She explained the details using two
languages (English and Urdu).
T:“Aisay he thori hota hai ke usay bus likh dete hain, usko explain bhi toh karna
hota hai. Three thousand words aaram se ban jayenge, main bata doongi kaisay
banainge [It is not the way to write; you need to explain every point and it will be nearly
three thousand words. I shall tell you how to write”]. Don’t worry about it. Alright, now
they are giving you the concept of verb. For this, componential analysis, we have looked
at the nouns actually. When they said a human or we said boy, man, girl or woman or
male female. Now they are giving you some idea about the verb. That how verbs can be
different in their meaning in some sense; again we are talking about sense. They are
giving the concept of the word ‘go’. G O go. Which means jana?”
I observed that the instructors who taught English Language or any other
functional courses of English did less code-switching than the instructors who taught pure
Sciences and Arts subjects. The instructor of English subject wanted to elaborate the
meaning of apparently to her class and she said “Quite honestly you are looking pretty
today; this is a sincere suggestion or comment on anyone. Alright, the next one is
apparently, apparently ka meaning kya hai? That is visible that is something which is
zahiri tor per [What is the meaning of apparently? It means visible or apparent.”] The
instructors intend to explain the relative meaning of certain idea, as the instructor said
that the meanings of a single word can be different for everyone. She gave the idea of
relativity of meaning like she said “Not even society, it varies from person to person.
What is normal for you might be abnormal for me. I mean in any in some cases, normal
ka jo concept hai. Jis tarah hum keh rahay hain ke do /i/ mere liye barray bannay ki
definition kuch aur hai. [Everyone has different perspective and meaning of words like
the concept of elder/senior is different for everyone]. You know, so that is the difference
of the concept /i/”
The data reveals, often the instructor elucidated his/her idea through power point
slides on multimedia. In the following example the instructor elucidated the idea of tap
and flap by showing different positions of mouth in PowerPoint slides.
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“Ok now we discuss the difference between tap and flap. When you say /r/ what is
happening? You see this is the roof of the tongue and this is how the contact is taking
place ooper and then this. When you say, I don’t know whether you would be able to
pronounce it or not. It’s an English allophone, they use it instead of /t/ most of the time
for example letter le’er instead of saying letter yani prolongable contact kay bjae
angraiz kahtay hain le’er right got it? [It’s an English allophone; you might have heard
that English pronounces some words with silent /t/ sound]. to kya ho raha hai basically
kay jo alveolar stop tha which was prolong able us ko wo replace kis say kar rahay
hain? with a flap aur flap say kya ho raha hai? its momentary matlab us ka contact
wohe alveolar hai it’s a very slight and weak sound.[so what are we doing? The
prolonged alveolar stop is replaced by flap and it is because of momentary contact with
alveolar].”
4.4.2 Giving Instructions
Through the close analysis of the recorded data, I observed that instructors code-
switched to instruct the students as they felt that it would be easy for them to understand
the instructions. In the given example the instructor asked the students to mark their
attendance on attendance sheet. She instructed the student to sign the attendance sheet,
she switched her code from English to Urdu; as she said “Attendance sheet pay ap log
is page pay sign kar lo [Please sign attendance sheet and mark your attendance]”. OK.
Do you have any idea about speaking?”
The instructors code-switched to instruct the student to change the seating
arrangement; she noticed that it might be difficult for the student to see the writing board
from that place; as she said “Please come a bit forward. Akbar yahan a jain [Come here
Akbar], board is not visible from that place”
In the following example, the instructor elaborated the idea of essay writing. She
instructed the students to move from major to minor details. Furthermore, she asked the
students to arrange the details in logical order. She switched her code from English to
Urdu language during this event. Here, the intention of the instructor is to instruct the
students appropriately in essay writing. In her own words:
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“Things to keep in mind of writing descriptive essay are, give plenty of questions,
concrete details involving all the five senses so that the reader can utilize the thing being
described. Give all the detail first and then build on impression around them. Theek hay
[Right].. pehlay major points btana hay us kay baad minor or sub points discuss
karnay ahn [First of all you will describe some major details and after that you will write
some minor details]”. Present the detail in such a way that the reader is interested in
reading without stopping from beginning to end. Give logical pattern to the details
important and broader details come from the minor one. Hmmm.. What is this? What is
this point? Why? Why we need to talk about the major ideas first and then the minor
ideas. It’s normal.”
4.4.3 Translation
Instructors often translate from English to Urdu language for the convenience of
the students. In the following example the instructor told the meaning of particular word
in different contexts. She switched to Urdu language to confirm from the students about
the clarity of the ideas under discussion. In the following example, she translated from
English to Urdu as different words carry different meanings when they are translated into
Urdu language.
“That the same verb and the same concept ‘go’ in English has its three different
kinds of manifestations or different meanings in terms of its sense. Right? Number one, it
can be positional. Positional means it can be used in the sense of the position, jagah ka
[position].”
Similarly, the instructors translated when liked to emphasize. In the following
example, she explained the theme in English language. Initially, she gave the example in
English language; then repeated it in Urdu language. Although the students of
postgraduate level can understand the sentence like “he went crazy”, the translation in
Urdu language may be for emphasis on that particular idea.
“We will discuss Urdu examples also. And number three “go” comes in some of
identification sense, where it does not mean positional or even possessional but it has
some sense of identification. For example, Max went from being a rational gentleman to
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being a stark demoniac. Jaise aap kehte hain [as you said] he got, he went crazy. Wo
pagal hogaya [He went crazy].”
4.4.4 Changing/Introducing the Topic
Topic shift and introducing new topic which may be difficult for the students is
another reason of code-switching. For example, in the beginning of lecture, the instructor
was discussing the idea of attitudes and motivation. After giving the basic ideas with
examples, she moved to another topic “attention” and said “Aur koi cheez. Ap ke jo
habits hoti hen, jis cheez se ap familiar hen jis se ap familiar nhe hen, wo b effect kr
skta ha. Acha ab jo hum topic start kren gay, wo ha, ‘Attention’[There are different
factors which affect your attention i.e familiarity. Now we shall discuss the topic of
‘attention’ in detail].”
In the following example, the instructor is delivering her lecture on essay writing;
during the lecture, one student ask the question “whether the punctuation will be the part
of the exam or not”. The instructor replied and again started teaching essay writing.
“Nai bachay [No my boy] punctuation was not included our in our amm…
Course outline. OK! Ye diagram dekhain [Look at this diagram now], please look at this
diagram that you have in your…That is on page number 50. And you can see the diagram
tells us this… this actually talks about different units of an essay. A formal essay
structure and the first part, first unit is introductory paragraph in which you have thesis
statement so topics and u might well… this is this is actually a… basically the diagram is
about an argumentative essay right but we are talking about any essay general structure of
the essay right? OK then you have body, first you have introductory paragraph then you
have body.”
In the following example, initially, the instructor talked about listening. She asked
from the students about the clarity of idea. When she completed her idea of speaking, she
further moved to the idea of symbols in language, she switched her code from English to
Urdu while shifting her topic from speaking to symbols.
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“T: aik time may ap sun rahay ho lekin thori der bad ap bolo gay na [Once you
will be listener while the other time you will be speaker]. You will take the place of a
speaker. Theek hay [right]. That is a role play kay kabhi ap listener ho gay kabhi
speaker ho gay [So this a kind of role play, at one time you will be listener and the other
time you will be listener]. The idea of speaking is clear now? Ok. What is speaking?
Agar koi question pochna ho tu /i/ Ok [If you want to ask question, you can ask]. Now
move towards symbol. Han tu jo symbols ap kay mind may save ha ap un ko use
karo gay na [Symbols are saved in your mind and you can use these symbols according
to situation/context]. Question pochnay kay liay, for example agar may kahon kay
teacher is teaching and you are standing infront of a door. Tu ap kay mind may ye aay
ga kay may poch lon kay kia may ander ajaon? [The situation is you are standing near
the classroom door and you want to ask for permission to enter the room, you will ask
from teacher to come in and utilize he symbols which are saved in your mind].”
All the above mentioned examples reveal that instructors switch their code from one
language to another when they intend to change the topic or introduce some new topics.
4.4.5 Asking Question
Instructors switched their code when they intended to make the question
comprehensible for the students. In the following example, the students were unable to
reply the question when the instructor asks them in English language. In the following
example, the instructor explained the idea of “proximity and understanding” in an
interactive classroom.
T: “Aur proximity me kia hota ha? [What is the effect of proximity?]”
S: “Ziada achi understanding ho gi [Less distance may create good
understanding]”
T: “Acha distance kitna hona chahyay? [What is appropriate distance between
listener and speaker?]”
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S1: “Ma’am moderate distance hona chahyay [Madam, distance should be
moderate]”. (The instructor approved the answer by nodding her head and
repeated the answer)
T: “Na itna close ho k ap us ko achay tariqay se perceive na kr sken or na he
itna ziada distance hona chahyay k ap ko bilkul b us cheez k features na nazr
ayen. Is k ilawa koi cheez? [Less distance may hinder the process of perception
or more distance may create a blurred idea about the picture.”
In the following example, the instructor explained the contextual meanings of
different verbs of Urdu language. She elaborated the idea with example “karna [do]”.
The instructor explained her point of view in Urdu and English language and the students
participated using both English and Urdu languages during discussion.
T: “Toh ab iss ‘done’ ko hum kya kahainge? Ye bhi concrete hai naa? Duniya
ke saray verbs yahan teen manifestations to nahin honge naa. [So, what is the
meaning of “done” here? Is this concrete? All the verbs do not carry three
manifestations.]”
S: “Zaruri hai ke sab verbs positional, possessional aur identificational he hon.
[Is this necessary that all the verbs should be positional, possessional or
identificational? ”
T: “No, no! That is what I am saying. That’s why I am giving you the example of
do. It has emotional, abstract and concrete meanings. Ye concrete word hai [This
is a concrete word]. You’re done.”
S: “Ma’am inn teeno main se kis main ayega ye? [In which category, we can
place this word?”
T: “Ye concrete hai. Concrete verb hai. /r/ Do ka hum ne kaha hai naa concrete
form, abstract form and emotional form. [This is concrete as we have said
about “do” that it has concrete form, abstract form and emotional form].”
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Different examples from the transcribed data reveal that the use of two languages
(English and Urdu) is helpful in understanding and clarifying the concepts. Code-
switching for the convenience of students, brings clarity to the vision and students are
able to ask the question, if they feel difficulty in understanding the complicated concepts.
The results of question 3 reveal that 44% participants disagree and 24 % participants are
strongly disagree with the statement that “it confuses me when the instructor switches
from one language to another” while 12 % agree and 14% strongly agree. Mean score of
this statement is 2.48. It can be inferred from the statistical results that majority of the
participants agree that code-switching is helpful in clarifying the difficult concepts
Table 4.11: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 3
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
It confuses me
when the teacher
switches from one
language to another.
Strongly Disagree 48 24
2.48
Disagree 88 44
Don’t know 12 6
Agree 24 12
Strongly Agree 28 14
Often, the instructors delivered the whole lecture in English language but they
switched their code from English to Urdu when they intend to enquire from students
about the understanding of topic. For example, the instructor described the relationship
between volume and Pressure in Physics classrooms session. To enquire about the
understanding of students, he switched his code to Urdu language and used the
expression “theek hai [right]” and “samajh aa rahi hay is baat ki [everybody can
understand me?]"
T: “The volume will by a volume V1. Theek Hai [Right]”The volume decreases and the
pressure will increase. Now what will happen? Some of the great molecules they will
pass through this porous step and will come into this region. When the gaseous molecules
come in this region the piston, this will make the piston on the right hand side to move in
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this direction. You know! And this is the volume V2. This is the volume V1 and this is
the volume V2 by which the piston moves towards the right hand side. Now again the
pressure P1 and P2 they will attain their original value, the pressure P1 and P2 will attain
their original value. Why? Because, you increase the pressure on this side but some of the
molecules leave this side on the tube and when they enter into this side. And when the
pressure increased over here, the piston moves in the backward direction. And when it
goes in the backward direction the pressure P2 once again is at hand, real hand. Samjh aa
rai hai iss baat ki [Everybody can understand the concept?]”
4.4.6 Building Argument
Code-switching plays a vital role in building the argument. The recorded data
reveals that students and teachers exchange their ideas in interactive classrooms. In first
example the instructor is teaching punctuation, she read from the book and asked the
students to punctuate it; the students punctuate and then an argument started whether the
answer is wrong or right.
“T: for instance, “My sister wants food again the day when California becomes
an island”
T: mam comma (,) “day” sa pahly ay ga ! day k bad ay ga mam [We can place
comma before the word day]
T: when California becomes an island is that an independent clause?
S: yes!
T: this is not an independent clause! Come on there is when! So whenever there is
when after these subordinating conjunctions coming they are dependent clauses
not independent clauses.
S: mam ya ghalat b tu ho sakta ha,, ya likha uno na lika hua hana k errors
and…… [Madam, that may be wrong.. as its mentioned here that errors and ….]
T: so you have to eliminate that.
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S: mam ya ghalat………. [Madam, it may be wrong]
T: I don’t think so, for me this could b a right sentence or if we are put the
semicolon aware so that must be for instant sa pahlay! [We can place
semicolon before, ‘for instant’]
Ok,,, for instant sa pahlay because we are to join independent clauses [Ok
before for instant because we are joining two independent clauses]”
In another example, the instructor talked on speaking and listening. She explained
the whole process of speaking and listening. During lecture, one student connected the
process of speaking and listening to understanding. An argument built between the
teacher and students. It is worth noticing that students can build the argument easily when
they use both languages (English and Urdu) because code-switching is helpful in
communicating ideas. Furthermore, it seems an important floor holding strategy,
especially when students lack vocabulary.
“T: Look, language is one of the important aspects of socio linguistics./r/ ….. the
theoretical background of speaking … theoretical background… or the theory of
speaking is given by Dell Hymes /r/ one of the important aspect of
sociolinguistics by Delhymes.
T: Mam, kis nay?[ Madam, who has given the concept?]
T: Dell Hymes. Ok, now what is speaking? Basically, when you read and when you
listen, you encode certain messages and when you speak you decode that
message. Theek hay [Right]. Kuch symbols hotay han which are saved in your
mind and when you speak in certain situation, you decode that message. Jo
synmols hotay han ap kay mind may, jab ap kisi specific situation may enter
hotay ho, tu ap kai kartay ho? Ap un symbols ko use kartay ho. So that is
speaking. [some symbols are saved in our mind and use them in different
situations. This is called speaking.]
T: Mam phir ye understanding kay liay bi tu use ho saktay han. [Madam, these
(symbols) can be used for understanding as well]
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T: understanding? Or kis chez ki understanding? [Understanding? Od what?]
T: Mam may tu us may sun raha ho ga or understand kar raha hon ga? [I will
be listening and understanding as well]
T: aik time may ap sun rahay ho lekin thori der baa dap bolo gay na. You will
take the place of a speaker. Theek hay. That is a role play kay kabhi ap
listener ho gay kabhi speaker ho gay. [At one time, you will be listening but
after some time, you will speak as well and you will take the place of speaker.
Right. This is role play, at one time you will be listener while the other time you
will be speaker.] The idea of speaking is clear now? Ok. What is speaking?
T: Agar koi question pochna ho tu /i/ [Do you want to ask any question?]
T: Han tu jo symbols ap kay mind may save ha nap un ko use karo gay na.
Question pochnay kay liay, for example agar may kahon kay teacher is
teaching and you are standing infront of a door. Tu ap kay mind may ye aay
ga kay may poch lon kay kia may ander ajaon? [Yes, these symbols are saved
in your mind.When you want to ask some questions, you use these symbols. You
may use these symbols for permission from your instructor to enter the class like
May I come in?] So what you will do? You will utilize those symbols which are
saved in your mind.
In another example, the instructor gave detailed description of Organizational
plan. He discussed the process and significance of organizational plan. He told the
students about the contribution of partners, top managers and their profile. While he was
dealing with the process of developing organizational plan; students raised different
questions and gave their points of view. In this example, the instructor was proficient in
English language while students seemed less proficient.
“T: It could be or it could not be. I want to know the structures of the organization. I
want to know the partners of the organization. If there is partnership then I want
to know the overall terms and then I want to know, Who are the top managers?
And what is their profile? These are the basic things which you are giving me and
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providing me in any organizational plan. They you would also any succession
plan that you may have. If you have partnership deeds /i/ you have to write the
duties of the principals/r/ or you have to write the duties in accordance with the
partnership. You have to write name of the partners.
S: Ye kon si deal ho gi? [Which deal is this?]
T: Sorry, ye partnership deal ho gi.[Sorry, this will be partnership deal.]
S: Is kay liay affidavit bi chahiye ho ga? [Affidavit will be needed for that.]
T: Nhi, [No] affidavit is something else. Affidavit is the document that says that I
hereby give this information voluntarily or I solemnly say that the information
that is provided is true information.
S: Sir, deed kia hay [Sir. What is deed?]
T: Deed is an agreement, which be between one to many and one to one and it is
recognized by …
S: Sir is ka page number day den gay? [Sir, is it necessary to give its page
number?]
T: han is ka page number day den gay or sath ho us ki copy bi laga den gay.
Original deed nhi lagatay. [Yes, we have to give its page number and there is a
need to attach its copy as well.] Kindly I would also advise you to look at meda
website. Meda website has some business plan. They are not actually complete
business plan. But they give you an idea of what kind of business plan you are
going to make. There are three kinds of business plan which are somewhat
equivalent to…. /i/
S: Us website may kia dia ho ga? /i/ [Could you please tell us the material of
website?]
T: lekin unho nay kia kia hay [But, what they have done].. for certain businesses
what they have done is, they have made a pre-feasibility strategy. All you have to
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do is, you have to go to that website, or is tarha kay jo chootay chootay
businesses han, they have given the pre-feasibility strategy di hui hay [for
minor business, they have given feasibility strategy].
I found many examples of building the argument while switching the code from
one language to another. Here, I explained it with three examples. It is clear from the
above examples that code-switching can be an effective strategy to hold floor and to build
the confidence. I observed that the comfort level of students is high when they are
allowed to ask the questions while switching their code from one language to another.
Statements number 4, 5 and 6 are related to the proficiency of English language.
Statement number four of questionnaire is that “the use of English with any other
language weakens my English”
Table 4.12: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 4
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
Mixing of English
and any other
language results in
weak English.
Strongly Disagree 26 13
2.92
Disagree 82 41
Don’t know 10 5
Agree 46 23
Strongly Agree 36 18
Table 4.12 indicates that 23 percent respondents agreed, while 41 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were disagreed
that Mixing of English and any other language results in weak English. However, 5% of
the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 2.92.
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Table 4.13: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 5
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
Mixing of
English and
mother tongue
weakens my
English.
Strongly Disagree 28 14
2.69
Disagree 86 43
Don’t know 28 14
Agree 36 18
Strongly Agree 22 11
Table 4.13 indicates that 18 percent respondents agreed, while 43 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were disagreed
that Mixing of English and mother tongue weakens my English. However, 14% of the
sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 2.69.
The data reveals that students belong to different areas of Pakistan and they speak
different regional languages or Urdu in home but the use of mother language and regional
language is less evident in recorded data of classrooms. The results of statement 4 and
statement 5 of questionnaire reveal that majority of the students agreed that the use of
mother language and any other language do not hinder their progress in English language.
4.4.7 Telling Jokes or Recreation
The recorded data reveals the prominence of code-switching in some instances of
telling jokes or enjoying any previous incidents for recreation. I observed that during the
class of one hour, students get bored of the discussions/topic and instructor told them any
joke and previous incident to increase students’ interests. Meanwhile, students started
giving their response in that discussion and instructors started teaching again. When I
went for recording the lectures, the instructors were hesitant. After having a way with
words, some of them agreed. Interestingly, when I started lecture recording, the instructor
told their students not to make a noise today as somebody is going to record this lecture;
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he said “Ye device hay jis ka matlab hay k aj ap logon nay ziada shorn hi dalna. Ziada
mazak nhi karna ye record ho ra hay (L) [This is recorder and it means you will not make
a noise a lot. You will not make fun because this lecture is being recorded].
Contextual code-switching from one language to another is quite prevalent in
classroom sessions, the instructor asked the students to tell the most embarrassing
moment of their lives. Different students shared their life experiences, one girl shared the
incident “Ma’am first time in my life I was travelled to Karachi by air,I don’t know well
about plane and uhh the washroom system of the plane then I uhh uhh and then I walked
with my brothers and when I came back from ahh I said that lota nahi tha![There was no
ewer]/L/”and the rest of the class started laughing. Household works are usually related
to women as they have to take care of their home and family. In a classroom, the
instructor was teaching about attention span and multi-tasking nature of human beings.
Most of the students gave example from their daily life; meanwhile a three naughty
student (male) started giving the example of women as they worked in their homes and
said:
S1: “Mam ye (women) washing kartay huay sochti hank ay jharo bi lagana hay
[Madam, when women wash clothes, they think that they will have to mop the
house]”
S2: “Mam piyaz kattay huay sochti han kay may nay koi or kaam b karna hay
[While cutting onions, they think that they will have to do another task.]”
S3: “Mam cooking kartay huay sochti han kay kitna kaam baki hay [While
cooking food, they think how much work has left now?]” /L/
On the other hand the instructor gave the relevant example which is not biased
and said “jab ap commentary sunrahay hotay han or at the same time you study as
well then your attention does not remain focused on one thing kabhi ap commentary
suntay ho or kabhi reading kartay hao [Suppose you are listening commentary and at
the same time you are studying as well, your attention does not remain focused on same
task, it actually shift from one task to another.]”
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Here the intention of the speaker is to refresh the students after studying a new
topic. Although, the instructors select the strategy of telling jokes and provide the
opportunity to tell the jokes but I did not find any evidence of disrespect by students in
classroom. It is clear from the results of the statement number 7, 8 and 9.
Table 4.14: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 7
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
I respect the instructor
more when he/she teach
in English.
Strongly Disagree 26 13
3.13
Disagree 62 31
Don’t know 24 12
Agree 36 18
Strongly Agree 52 26
The results manifests that majority of the respondents were disagreed that they
respect the instructor because of the use of English language in classrooms. Mean score is
3.13.
I noticed another instance where the instructor discuss the past event of trip at the
end of the lecture in an informal way and the students told different stories of their
enjoyment and pleasure in a light mood.
T: “han bohat enjoy kia. Meray pas tu khair wo tha hi nhi lekin ap logon kay
sath bohat enjoy kia. Bohat enjoy kia us din. [I enjoyed with you a lot]”
S: “Mam bataein na ap nay kia? [Madam, tell us, did you enjoy?]”
T: “Yes you have missed. We have enjoyed a lot.”
S: “Mam ham bi wahan thay. [Madam, we were also there]”
T: “Ap bethay kahan han. Ap tu havaon may uray han. [You were not there,
actually you were flying in the air.]”
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S: “mam enjoy karnay kay liay gay thay. [Madam, we went there to enjoy]”
T: “unhain pata tha ka ap ja rahay han. Unhain pata tha ka ap seat pay beth
kay ja rahay han yeh tu nhi pata tha kay hawaon may urrr kay ja rahay
han.” [Your parents know that you are going but they do not know what you were
doing there] /i/
S: “mam enjoyment kay liay gay thay. [Madam, we went there to enjoy.]”
T: “Theek hay, lekin apni safety ka bhi khayal rakhna chahiye.[Fine, but you
should take care of yourself]”
S: “mam mosam bhi acha tha us din. [Madam, weather was very pleasant that
day.]”
I observed that the students who belonged to same region used same regional
language for conversation. I noticed the students who talked to one another in Brushiski,
Punjabi and Siraiki. But the instructor used only Urdu and English to teach and converse.
Table 4.15: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 8
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
I respect the
instructor more
when he/she teaches
in my mother
tongue.
Strongly Disagree 32 16.2
2.84
Disagree 76 38.4
Don’t know 22 11.1
Agree 28 14.1
Strongly Agree 40 20.2
Table 4.15 shows that 14.1 percent respondents agreed, while 38.4 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were disagreed
that they respect the instructor more when he/she teaches in their mother tongue.
However, 11.1% of the sample select the option don’t know. Mean score was 2.84.
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Table 4.16: Distribution of Respondents According to Statement 9
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
I respect the
instructor more
when he/she teaches
in Urdu and English
both.
Strongly Disagree 18 9
3.69
Disagree 32 16
Don’t know 14 7
Agree 66 33
Strongly Agree 70 35
Table 4.16 indicates that 33 percent respondents agreed, while 16 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that
they respect the instructor more when he/she teaches in Urdu and English both. However,
7% of the sample select the option don’t know. Mean score was 3.69.
Table 4.17 indicates that 34 percent respondents agreed, while 11 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that
The instructor provides adequate evidence (facts) when he/she switches from one
language to another. However, 15% of the sample doesn’t know. Mean score was 3.71.
Table 4.17: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 13
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
The instructor
provides adequate
evidence (facts)
when he/she
switches from
one language to
another.
Strongly Disagree 16 8
3.71
Disagree 22 11
Don’t know 30 15
Agree 68 34
Strongly Agree 64 32
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4.4.8 Providing Information (Information Provision)
I found many instances in which the instructors switched their code to Urdu when
they intend to provide information explaining through examples. The instructors relate
their personal life experiences as an example to make the concept/idea clear to the
students. For instance, the instructor gave the idea of ‘clue’ to her students. She explained
the idea with real life experience and said “haan indirect baat ko clue kehtay han like
ap ki kuch baten implicit hoti han. Indirect hoti han jo sirf ap ko hi pata hoti han ya
ap kay dost ko pata hoti han. Agar wo ap ko kisi gathering may kuch kehta hay tu
sirf ap ko hi samajh aay gi. Baki logon ko samajh nhi aay gi. So that is a clue for
you. Theek hay na. for example may kehti hon tu ap ko hi samajh aay gi, baki logon
ko samajh nhi aay gi. Is that clear. Ya is ko explain Karen. [Yes, ” Different words
like “Ok”, “theek hay na [Right]” are used to check the understanding of the students for
that particular concept. In another example, the instructor is giving the information about
the “genre”, she explained that with an example and to confirm that the students have no
difficulty to get into that particular idea; she used the sentence “is it (idea) clear?
T: “That is a type of reading. If you are reading a story that is a separate genre. If
you are talking about a novel, that is a separate genre. Tu ye generic information
hoti hay. [So this is generic information] Is that clear?”
In this example, the instructor taught about the contextual use of vocabulary items
in Urdu. She explained the idea by giving the example of “chali gai
[possession/give/go]”. In Urdu, this word is used in different manifestation and instructor
explained these manifestation with examples as she said “Now, if you take the same
concept in Urdu. Ye jaiydaad uske betay ko chali gayi.[The property has been given to
him] What manifestation is this? Possessional! Wo Islamabad se Lahore chala
gaya.[She went from Islamabad to Lahore]. Positional! Uska dimagh chala gaya. [He
has gone mad] What should be that?
S: Haan. Jaise hum kehte hain naa uski akal ghaas charne chali gayi hai. [Yes,
as we say, he has gone mad/ his wisdom has gone.]
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T: Very good! So we are using the word chali gayi (Urdu word), yeah? So that is
basically physically nae chali gayi, position to uski change nae hui, akal hai
toh idhar he, magar, phir chali gayi [in this example, he did not change his
position actually], you know. Aapki identity ya aapki personality ka aik
difference hai.[This is the difference of your identity and personality] Acha
chalo lets use nazar. [Ok, Let’s see nazar] Okay, what is this when you say uski
nazar chali gayi. [He has gone blind]
S: Ya Light chali gayi. [There is no light]
T: Yes, light chali gayi. [Light has gone./ There is no light] What is this?
S: Uski awaz chali gayi. [He has lost his voice]
T: Uski awaz chali gayi. [He has lost his voice] These are also identificational.
Because we identify something which is absent now. Laikin uss jo hai wo aik he
banda nae hai naa wo buhat se sense hai. [The simple pronoun ‘he’ does not
identify any specific person] And same is true for Light is gone.
Explanation with example is one of the important techniques to clarify the
concepts of the students. The instructors used white boards or multimedia to explain the
concept. In the given example, the instructor taught “alternating theory”. He explained
different ideas relevant to that theory by giving examples on white board. He was writing
(on white board) and speaking (to explain the diagram that he drew on white board)
simultaneously and this technique is mostly used by science teachers during explanation
of ideas or any problem solving activity.
“ Ye example ko ap dekh lain. Ab agar is may P, agar is theory may two raise
to P, three raise to P… agar is tarha ki ho. Agar P ki value lay li jay half tu ye kia ho
jay ga, one one by two, phir minus three by two square root ga. /i/ agar P ki value
lay li jay three by two tu phir one ki value bi ho gi three by two. Minus one raise to
three by two and so on. Is tarha ki theory ho gi. May ye kehna cha raha honk ay
agar ham is ko absolute lay len gay or is kay baad jo hamen theory milay gi, one
raise to 3 by two ho gi.”
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The analysis of statement number 14 reveals that most of the students agreed that
the instructors provide sufficient information when they switch from one language to
another (English to Urdu or Urdu to English). Table 4.18 indicates the frequency
distribution and percentage that 33 percent respondents agreed, while 15 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents, were agreed
that the instructors provide sufficient information (explanation) when he/she switches
from one language to another. However, 12% of the sample selects the option “don’t
know”. Mean score was 3.66.
Table 4.18: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 14
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
The instructor provides
sufficient information
(explanation) when
he/she switches from one
language to another.
Strongly Disagree 16 8
3.66
Disagree 30 15
Don’t know 24 12
Agree 66 33
Strongly Agree 64 32
4.4.9 Maintaining Relevance
In classrooms, I observed that the instructors and students mostly remain relevant
when they switch their code from one language to another. Although, I found some
examples which show that the instructors sometimes did not remain relevant to the topic
they are teaching but they remained relevant to the context. Here, I shall mention some
examples in which the instructors remained relevant. In the given example, the instructor
is teaching the manner and place of articulation of different sounds. She introduced
different types of sound and their manner and place of articulation. I shall mention just
one example as she talked about labiodental sound and gave the relevant example.
T: “Labiodental, so what do we mean by labiodentals, the contact of, yes I told
you that you have to specify the power of the tongue. So labiodental is usually
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with the… is it tongue or lips? Ya its lips so its lip and which? Upper lip and
teeth and which teeth upper or lower? Ya its upper teeth and lower lip. Ye
dekhain.. is tarha…ye dekhain position of tongue [Labiodental, so what do you
mean by Labiodental, yes (responding to students) here we need to specify the
power of tongue. So labiodentals are usually related to the movement of tongue
and lips. Yes its lips, so which lip? Yes its upper teeth and lower lip. Look, like
this (pointing towards figure) so this will be the position of tongue]” Cant you just
speak and find what I mean why you don’t recall your memory. Think of a sound
which you produce from the labiodental place and produce it and see that these
are the features”.
In another example, the instructor is fluent in both languages. He provided
information about “Organizational plan”; he gave the example of board of studies who
are the resource persons to advice about the scheme of studies and the utility of resource
persons in other business projects. He further explained the role of board of studies in any
university. He said:
T: “jesay may nay kaha kay board of studies hotay han. Un say hum mashwara
kartay han kay jo hum nay scheme of studies banai hay ham nay. [As I told
you that there are board of studies, we consult them regarding scheme of studies]
There are number of examples. Acha ye jo hotay han they serve as lobbyiost.
[So they serve as lobbyist] For example I want to reserve energy `for Pakistan. So
I invite some resource person who can become the member of my organization
and would serve as a project champion and political lobbyist. He will talk to those
people who are in power and will encourage people to get into that business to
provide services for that renewable energy. Right. Tu logon kay apnay agenda
ho saktay han interest ho saktay han lekin jab ham board of studies ki baat
kartay han tu in order to make it transparent and more appealing, we invite
people from different organizations. Or han university ka jo board of studies
hota hay us may dosri universities kay log bhi bethtay han. [People may have
their agenda and interests and when we talk about board of studies, in order to
make it more transparent and appealing, we invite people from different
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organizations and yes, the board of studies in universities invite different people
from different universities to make it more transparent.]”
The intention of the instructors in classroom discourse is to maintain relevance. In
another example, the instructor brought into consideration the topic of about ethics and
morality. He explained that morality exists in society and in the mind and heart of every
individual and if we follow the moral doctrine of the ethics and morality, this world will
be the best place to live and we can resolve our problems in a better way. Furthermore, he
explained; although we have sufficient knowledge about ethics and morality but we do
not follow the pattern of virtue and this is the biggest problem of this globe. Meanwhile, a
student raised a question and built the argument that if we follow the moral doctrine, we
do not get the immediate benefits and most of the times people attracted towards the
immediate benefits. I found that the instructor was not good in English language while he
spoke Urdu fluently; that’s why he explained most of the concepts in Urdu language
while on certain points he switched his code to English language to explain his point of
view. I observed that the participants who are fluent in English language, they seldom
switched their code to Urdu language while the participants who are less fluent in English
language, frequently switched their code to Urdu language. Although the instructors
frequently switched their code from one language to another but they remained relevant
to the context.
T: “Daikhain jb ethics aur morality ki baat hoti hai to) its not all about giving
something to your mind or your heart (ap is say agay aik bahas bhe hai is hawalay
say suntay hain na ap aksar ya baat kay morality ki jo standing hai society main) its
taken as good (ache cheez le jati hai na laykin phir bhe maximum log morality pay
kyu nahe atay sachaai peace ap kay jitney bhe moralities hain ethics hain society
main kya waja hai agar to ap ki society absolute morality pay hai to ap ko problems
nai honay chahiain nai honay chahiain? Ache baat hai(repetition) ache baat hai to is
ko practice kyu nai kiya jata?) this is one of the biggest question (kay ap kya ap kay
zahan main kya cheez ati hai laykin morality to ache baat hai is main koi ap ko
ittifak hai is cheez say to phir kyu is ko practice nai kia jata agar practice kia jata
hai to ap ki society main jo violence hai jo problem hain jitney bhe society main
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state kay domestic aur personal issues jo ap ko aa rahay hain to kya waja hai ka yap
morality ko cherish bhe kartay hain morality ko acha bhe samajtay hain to ya to ap
morality ko practice nai kartay aur agar ap practice nai kartay) that is another
problem(ka yap acha samajnay kay bawajood morality ko practice nai kartay kya
factor ho saktay hain? [Look, when we talk about ethics and morality, it’s not all about
giving something to your mind and heart. This is a debate, you must have heard. Most of
the people in our society do not follow morality. If your society will be on absolute
morality, you will face fewer problems. Ok, why do people not practice morality in our
society? If people will follow morality, there will be less violence in society. My
question is if you feel that morality is good for society then why you don’t practice that in
society. This is the major problem. What are the factors, according to your point of
view?]”
S: “sir agar hum morality pay focus karain gay to is ka hamain immediate
faida nai hota long term baat hai to log jo hain wo immediate faiday ki taraf jatay
hain for example long term main kya hota hai baad main nation ko ya kisi aur ko
faida ho ga to wo immediate cheez ki taraf ghour kartay hain). [Sir, if we follow
morality, we do not get immediate benefits. People talk about immediate benefits. If a
nation will follow some rules, people focus on immediate benefits.]”
Table 4.19: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 15
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
The instructor
remains relevant
when he/she
switchers from one
language to
another.
Strongly Disagree 10 5
3.63
Disagree 32 16
Don’t know 28 14
Agree 82 41
Strongly Agree 48 24
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Table 4.19 indicates that 41 percent respondents agreed, while 16 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed.
The instructors remain relevant when he/she switchers from one language to
another. However, 14% of the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was
3.63.
4.4.10 Clarifying Difficult Ideas
Table 4.20: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 16
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
The instructor is
quite clear when
he/she delivers
his/her idea in Urdu.
Strongly Disagree 8 4
4.09
Disagree 14 7
Don’t know 16 8
Agree 76 38
Strongly Agree 86 43
Table 4.20 indicates that 38 percent respondents agreed, while 7 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that
the instructor is quite clear when he/she delivers his/her idea in Urdu. However, 8% of
the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 4.09. This statement relates
to fourth maxim of manner which states that speaker should not use obscure expression
and he should be comprehensible and intelligible for students.
Table 4.21 indicates that 36 percent respondents agreed, while 9 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that
the instructor is quite clear when he/she delivers his/her idea in Urdu and English both.
However, 7% of the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 4.15. This
statement is related to fourth maxim of manner which states that speaker should not use
obscure expression and he should use the language which should be comprehensible and
intelligible to students. The comparative analysis of statement number 16 and 17 shows
that percentage of strongly agreed option of statement 17 is higher than statement 16
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which shows students attitude towards the use of language as they feel that the instructor
remains quite clear when he/she delivers his/her idea in both languages.
Table 4.21: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 17
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
The instructor is
quite clear when
he/she delivers
his/her idea in Urdu
and English both.
Strongly Disagree 4 2
4.15
Disagree 18 9
Don’t know 14 7
Agree 72 36
Strongly Agree 92 46
I observed the instance when the instructor was using English language in
classroom, the students asked him/her to use Urdu language as they were unable to
understand the concept. After elaborating the point of view in English language, the
instructor explained his ideas in Urdu and English language and no student objected.
T: “We are talking about the Taylor series and Taylor series is written like this. /i/
and C is taken constant between any A and X. When we replace X by V ,we will get
another form of the Taylor series and its /i/ f derivative of A plus A minus B minus A
plus 1 upon /i/ f plus 1 derivative plus C. This form is given in page 85. Here is the
remainder theorem. We can estimate the errors through this remainder theorem. This term
is also known as the remainder of the series and this is written by Rn. In general we can
write F of X as PnX plus RnX where P and X is a polynomial of degree X and this
contains X plus 1 terms starting from F of A to this term ambstrum. This is a polynomial
of degree N and Rn of X is a remainder 5X RnX is equal to X by A over n+1 /r/ per cube
plus F derivative X. This part is called remainder and this is a polynomial.”
S: “Sir, Please Urdu may bata den samajh nhi a rahi. [Sir, could you please
explain it in Urdu language, I cannot understand the concept?]”
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I observe that the students remain more interactive with the instructors when they
switch their code from one language to another so code-switching play its role in building
interactive classrooms.
Table 4.22: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 18
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
The instructor
remains brief and to
the point when he
switches between
Urdu and English.
Strongly Disagree 10 5
3.77
Disagree 28 14
Don’t know 22 11
Agree 78 39
Strongly Agree 62 31
Table 4.22 indicates that 39 percent respondents agreed, while 14 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that
the instructors remained brief and to the point when they switch between Urdu and
English. However, 11% of the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was
3.77.
Table 4.23: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 19
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
The instructor
remains orderly
when he/she
switches between
Urdu and English.
Strongly Disagree 10 5
3.75
Disagree 18 9
Don’t know 30 15
Agree 96 48
Strongly Agree 46 23
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Table 4.23 indicates that majority (48 percent respondents agreed and 23 percent
strongly agree) with the statement that the instructor remains orderly when he/she
switchers between Urdu and English. However, 15% of the sample selected the option
don’t know. Mean score was 3.75.
4.5 Students Perception about passing the exam and the Use of
Language
Statement number 10, 11 and 12 are related to the responses of students regarding
the use of language in classrooms to pass the exam.
Table 4.24 Distributions of Responses According to Statement 10
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
Learning the course
in Urdu or any
other regional
language increases
my chances of
passing the exam.
Strongly Disagree 18 9
3.35
Disagree 52 26
Don’t know 22 11
Agree 58 29
Strongly Agree 50 25
Table 4.24 indicates that 29 percent respondents agreed, while 26 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that
Learning the course in Urdu or any other regional language increases their chances of
passing the exam. However, 11% of the sample select the option don’t know. Mean score
was 3.35.
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Table 4.25: Distribution of Responses according to Statement 11
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
Learning the course
in English increases
my chances of
passing the exam.
Strongly Disagree 8 4
3.6
Disagree 42 21
Don’t know 24 12
Agree 74 37
Strongly Agree 52 26
Table 4.25 indicates that 37 percent respondents agreed, while 21 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that
Learning the course in English increases their chances of passing the exam. However,
12% of the sample select the option don’t know. Mean score was 3.6.
Table 4.26: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 12
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
Learning the course
in English and Urdu
increases my
chances of passing
the exam.
Strongly Disagree 6 3
3.95
Disagree 18 9
Don’t know 20 10
Agree 92 46
Strongly Agree 64 32
Table 4.26 indicates that 46 percent respondents agreed, while 9 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were agreed that
Learning the course in English and Urdu increases my chances of passing the
exam. However, 10% of the sample select the option don’t know. Mean score was 3.95.
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It is found through the comparative analysis of the statement numbers 10, 11 and
12 that the level of agreement on the use of English and Urdu (statement 12) is high i.e.
46% as most of the students are agree that the course should be taught in both English
and Urdu languages and it will increase their chances of passing the exams while the
level of agreement of statement numbers 11 and 10 is lesser i.e. 37 % and 29 %
respectively. I observed that English and Urdu languages are frequently used in
classrooms at postgraduate level. I could not find any incident in which the instructors
use any other language to instruct the students. Moreover, instructors initially explained
their ideas in English language while repeat them again in Urdu language for the
convenience of the students. In the following example, the instructor explained the nature
of light. During the session, he found that the concept was difficult for the students then
he switched his code from English to Urdu.
T: “Yesterday, we started our lecture of the ideas of Newton and I explained you
with example that sometimes light behave as particles and sometimes as wave.
Einstien said that when you throw light on certain metal particles, then electron
knocked out and Einstein named it as “Law of Reflection”. This idea is closely
related to two types of relfection, specular and diffuse.”
S: “Sir, samajh nhi aya… [Sir, I can’t understand that]”
T: “acha Hum ne Newton se shuru kia tha Newton k particle model se us k baad
Hygiens peg aye thy kis trah kuch mamlon mai light as a particle behave krti hai
aur kis trh kuch mamlon mai as a wave behave krti hai aur mera point yeh tha k
light is light depend yeh krta hai k kis experiment mai aap use kr rae hn kiun k jb
wave se dekha gaya tha tou photoelectric effect explain nai ho raha tha aur
interference jo hai wo particle se explain nai ho rai thi Young’s experiment double
slit experiment tou photoelectric afeect ko explain kia tha Einstein ne us ne kaha th
k jb aap light ko throw krty hn kisi metal pe tou us metal ka aik work function hota
hai jb ap ki enrgy jo ap provide krtyhn us k work function se ziada hoti hai tou
electron jo hai wo knockout ho jata hai us k baad mai chala gya tha agr ap ko yad
ho tou main ae kaha tha there exist law of reflection” light jb kisi object pe prti hai
tou reflect ho k wapis aati hai ya reflect ho k kisi angle pe jati hai aur us mae mai ne
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2 trah ki reflection ka zikr kia tha aik thi specular reflection aur aik thi diffusive
reflection.Specular yeh thi jis mai light aa k parti hai aur mai ne kaha tha k hum
specular reflection ki baat krn gy jis mai angle of incident over angle of reflection.
[OK. Yesterday, we have started with the model presented by Newton’s particle model.
After that we have discussed Hygen’s model where I elaborated how did light behave as
a particle or when it behaves as a wave. So my point is to explore that point. When we
tried to search that through wave, it does not explain photoelectric effect. Young has
explained photoelectric effect through his double-slit experiment. Newton said that when
you throw light on some metal, you actually knockout electron and it is work function. I
also told you about the law of reflection. When light fall on some object, it came back
through reflection. There are two types of reflection, one is diffusive reflection and the
other is specular reflection. We have discussed diffusive reflection, now we shall talk
about specular reflection which makes its angel of incident over angle of reflection.]”
In the second example, the instructor talked about the uses of language. He started
his lecture by defining “dialect” and connected it to the use of language; further, he
explained different uses of language and relate it to sociolect, regional dialect and
ethnolect. The instructor explained the idea using both English and Urdu languages for
the convenience of the students.
T: “The most important thing which we shall discuss today is variation in language.
This term is related to some region or class. The language which is related to specific
social class is sociolect and the language varies …. Ummm from region to region that is
regional dialect. There are different types of languages which are used by different
religious groups called ethnolect. Ok theek hay?”
S: Sir Definition is not clear?”
T: “acha, when we see kay different log different languages use kartay han tu
ham un ko different tareekay say identify kar saktay han; society kay lehaz say,
region kay lehaz say ya phir ethnicity kay lehaz say. If we shall identify that
particular language according to region, this is regional dialect. Agar us ko social
class kay lehaz say identify kia, tu ye phir sociolect ho ga. Or agar ethnic group kay
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lehaz say identify kia tu phir ethnolect ho ga. Ok. Now I shall explain that with
different examples jesay…. [When we say that different people speak different
languages and we can differentiate them in a different way like according to society,
region or ethnicity. If we identify them according to region, this is regional dialect. If we
classify them according to society, it is called sociolect and if we classify them according
to some ethnic group, it is called ethnolect. Now I shall explain it with different
examples.]”
4.6 Disadvantages of Code-switching
There are multiple points of views presented by the participants regarding code-
switching and the use of language in classrooms. Keeping in view the collected data, this
section bring forth some disadvantages of code-switching.
4.6.1 Hindrance in English language Learning
A significant quantity of participants found code-switching useful while some
participants said that it is a hindrance in learning and understanding English. Code-
switching is the use of two linguistic systems alternatingly, as Gumperz said (1972). I
proposed that while code-switching, our brain works on two different grammatical
systems and require more attention. Similarly, hearer also needs attention as he/she has to
focus on two grammatical systems to understand the meanings. The sentence structure of
Urdu is “Subject-object-verb while in English, sentence structure is “Subject-verb-
object”. When we mix these two languages, we follow the grammatical rules of English
and Urdu language; during this process our brain needs energy and attention. But with the
passage of time, students get used to these two grammatical systems and they can
understand the instructors easily if they switch their code between two languages i.e.
English and Urdu; even they started using these two languages frequently in classrooms.
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Table 4.27: Distribution of Responses According to Statement 6
Statement Levels Frequency Percentage Mean Score
Mixing of mother
language and
English language
strengthens my
English language.
Strongly Disagree 18 9
3.05
Disagree 66 33
Don’t know 36 18
Agree 48 24
Strongly Agree 32 16
Table 4.27 indicates that 24 percent respondents agreed, while 33 % respondents
disagreed to the statement, which shows that majority of the respondents were disagreed
that Mixing of mother language and English language strengthens my English language.
However, 18% of the sample selected the option don’t know. Mean score was 3.05.
4.6.2 Hindrance in Creation of New Vocabulary/Lexical Items
I observed that some words are difficult to pronounce in Urdu language and these
Urdu vocabulary items are difficult to use in classrooms as the textbooks that are used in
postgraduate classrooms are not translated in Urdu language. These textbooks are
published in English language. I extracted different words from the collected data and
there are some words in transcribed data which are difficult to pronounce in Urdu
language.
Some words are either difficult to pronounce in Urdu language or well established in
English, so instructors switch their code from Urdu to English. Some instructors even do
not know the Urdu translation of some lexical items, so they use these words in English
language.
Some English words have no translation in Urdu language so they are used in its
original form like electron, proton, neutron etc. I observed that translation loses the true
essence of meanings in language. It is found that two different words show same
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meanings in Urdu language while in English language they show entirely different
meanings as the meaning of the words “coherence” and “cohesion” in Urdu are لاصتا
and ٬یگتسویپ . That’s why the instructors use English words to clarify the meanings to
the students.
Table 4.28: Translation of Different Words in Urdu Language
English Language Urdu Language
specular and diffuse reflection چمکدار اور وسرت عکاسی
Ratio test ڻیسٹتناسب کے
arithmetic theory ریاضی نظریہ
electromagnetic induction برقی مقناطیسی تعیناتیوں
Thermodynamics ؤشمپدریگکی
Enthalpy یعون ترارح
Polarization تقَطِیب پیَدا
Phonetics صوتیات
Phonology قواعدی صوتیات
4.6.3 Lack of Vocabulary
Every language has vocabulary items matches to their culture as well. In Pakistan,
Muslims celebrated Eid-ul-Adha and Eid-ul-Fitar. On Eid-ul-Adha, they slaughtered
different animals and donated the skins of animals. As in the following example, the
instructors talked about Eid-ul-Azha, the alternate of the word “qurbani ki khalen” is not
present in English language.
“We sacrifice animals for Allah and distribute meat among different poor
Muslims and give qurbani ki khalen to different mosques”
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4.6.4 Hinder Fluency
The data reveals that the use of solely English language may hinder fluency. So,
instructors and students switch their code from one language to another. The instructor
delivered the lecture of Physics on “Internal Energy”. Meanwhile, student asked about
the increase and decrease in internal energy in English language and then again consulted
the instructor in Urdu language. It seems that the students and instructor know the use of
English language at the level of discourse but they switch their code from English to
Urdu which may hinder the fluency during lectures.
T: “Here we see that change in internal energy is equal to the work done that this –
W. You see it. Okay. Now…
S: “ haan? [yes] ..... internal energy? It will increase or decrease? Zada ho gi
ya kam nahi? [will increase it (internal energy) increase or decrease?”
T: “Internal energy zada nai hai internal energy will decrease[internal energy
will not increase,it will decrease.] Now you will see because we are going to derive this
equation so you will see that what happens to the latest one. Yeh toh just app ko yeh
batana hai [you just need to tell] that what is the form of the first law of thermodynamics
when there is no heat exchange between the system and surroundings. Okay. So when
there is no heat exchange between the system and surroundings that is the process of the
adiabatic then this delta E equals to –W. Delta E is equal to –W means that work is done
on the cost of decrease in the internal energy.”
4.7 Issues Related to Medium of Instruction
Section C of questionnaire comprised of two open ended questions. The purpose
of first question is to explore the students choice of language as a medium of instruction
in classrooms to explore the reason to select one language as a medium of instruction.
Second question is specified for additional comments. Students raised some other issues
like nationalism, mother language, regional language, modernization, medium of
instruction in schools and colleges etc. So this section consists of various aspects raised
by the students related to the use of language in classroom session. I tried to identify and
discuss some issues regarding the use of language in classrooms.
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4.7.1 Medium of Instruction in Classrooms
This Section is consisted of the views of students’ regarding medium of
instruction in educational institutes. The students were given four options; they could
select Urdu, English, Urdu and English or they can write the language of their own
choice. Table 4.29 shows the distribution of responses on the use of language from
students’ perspective.
Table 4.29: Use of Language in Classrooms from Students’ Perspective
Languages Frequency Percentage
English 28 15.4
Urdu 10 5.5
English & Urdu 144 79.1
The results revealed that 79.1 % students agreed to use Urdu and English both in
classrooms while 28 % and 10% students agreed to use only English and Urdu language
respectively. The findings suggest the strong agreement of the students on the use of
English and Urdu language in classrooms. Beside this, some students gave the option of
Pashto, Panjabi and Sindhi; the percentage of those students is given below in Table 4.30.
Table 4.30: Regional Languages Selected by the Students for the Medium of Instruction in
Classrooms
Languages Frequency Percentage
English 28 15.4
Urdu 10 5.5
English & Urdu 144 79.1
Table 4.30 presents the overview of the selected options. From 200 respondents, 8
students preferred Pashto, 8 students preferred Punjabi while only 2 students preferred
Sindhi. The responses of question 2 of section C deals with the reasons of the selection of
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languages as a medium of instruction. The next question of section C of the questionnaire
was to ask the reason for selecting the particular language of instruction. Different
students have given different reasons for their choice. There are some reasons
4.7.1 Mother Language
Multilingualism is one of the important aspects of Pakistani culture. In Pakistan,
people use their mother languages to converse in homes so some students suggest that the
instructors should use mother tongue as a medium of instruction in classrooms. In
Pakistani universities, students come from different backgrounds and places and there is
variation in the use of their mother language as in Quaid-i-Azam University, the
registered students belong to various regions of Pakistan. Instructors could not speak all
the regional languages, so they usually use English and Urdu as medium of instruction in
universities.
During this study, I came across to different participants and different languages
were used in their schools and colleges as a medium of instruction like Pashto, Punjabi,
Sindhi, Balochi, Saraiki, Hindko, Chitrali, Balti, Arabic, Brushaski and Persian. One
student, Junaid who belonged to rural Sindh where Sindhi language is taught as a
compulsory subject suggested,
“My mother tongue is Sindhi and it is easy for me to understand in Sindhi.”
Similarly the students who belonged to different areas of Pakistan suggested that
the medium of instruction should be their regional language as one student who belonged
to Toba Tek Singh (Punjab) said,“I like to study in Punjabi language as it is my mother
language.” Another student who belonged to Multan said,“Urdu is my mother language
and I can understand in Urdu easily.” Hence, some students gave importance to their
mother language as a medium of instruction. Another student who belonged to Der
(Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) said, “I want to study in Pashto language as the things which are
learnt in mother language will never forget.”
I observed, although the mother language of some instructors is not Urdu yet they
use Urdu and English as a medium of instruction. Although Mr. A Khan belonged to
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Lower Der (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) and his mother language is Pashto and Miss U K
belonged to Multan and her mother language is Siraiki but they used Urdu and English
language in classroom. Mr. A Khan taught Physics and Miss U K taught English; Mr.
A.Khan switched his code from English to Urdu and Urdu to English more frequently
Miss U.K who taught in English (Linguistic) department. So language choice depends
upon the background of the instructor as well.
4.7.2 Nationalism and Modernization
Tellefson and Tsui (2003) reported, “Since the last three decades, language policy
is one of the core concerns of medium of instruction policy and it has a substantial impact
on students learning and attaining learning objectives”. In educational institutes, most of
the work is done through verbal interaction; so the medium of instruction is most of the
time verbal interaction among students or between students or instructor. I found that
some students feel privileged when they use national language to converse in classrooms
and they are eager that Urdu language should be used by the instructors as a medium of
instruction in classrooms as one participant said that, “As Urdu is our national language
and we can get the concept in this language easily.” Another participant said, “Urdu is
our national language and we should feel proud of using Urdu language in classrooms.”
Rahman (1997) informed that five indigenous languages are spoken in Pakistan;
Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Siraiki and Pashto. English is used in the domain of power in
Pakistan. He discussed his point of view from post partition perspective when Britishers
were in power while English educated Anglicised elites were British supporters; agreed
to select English language as a medium of instruction in educational institutes and Urdu
language was considered as vernacular. Today, we are under the influence of this
distribution of language and distinctions are drawn on the basis of the use of language. In
upper class modernized society, the use of English language is considered as a status
symbol and in most of the private schools of Pakistan, teachers and students are not
allowed to speak Urdu language. On the contrary, Urdu is used in most of the
government schools of Pakistan and Sindhi is used in different areas of Sindh while less
attention is paid to other regional languages. The difference in language use in various
institutes of Pakistan has established the attitude of students towards the use of language
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in classrooms. As S said, “Both languages are important English is an international
language and Urdu is national language so students should understand both languages.”
Another participant, Umar said, “Urdu is a national language and English is an official
language of Pakistan so both are necessary.”
Students viewed English language as a need of modern age and by the same time
they were also inclined towards the love of mother language and national language.
Twelve participants said that English is an international language and Urdu is our
national language, so we should use these two languages in classrooms. W said: “Both
languages are important because English is need of modern times and Urdu is my mother
language and national language so I can understand well in both languages.”
4.7.3 Medium of Instruction in Schools and Colleges
During this study, I came across to different participants and different languages
were used in their schools and colleges as a medium of instruction like Pashto, Punjabi,
Sindhi, Balochi, Saraiki, Hindko, Chitrali, Balti, Arabic, Brushaski and Persian.
In Pakistan, the most of the private schools use English language as medium of
instruction while in some government schools, the medium of instruction is Urdu, Urdu
and English or even some regional language. The variations in the use of language as a
medium of instruction at school level open a new dimension of arguments. Four
participants said, “We are ignoring our regional languages in our universities. Instructors
should use some regional languages as a medium of instruction”
Rahman (1999) mentioned that since Pakistan’s creation, we are trying to nourish
Urdu language at the expense of English language but later remained the language of elite
class. In some schools and colleges, English is used as a medium of instruction while in
others Urdu, English and Urdu or some regional languages are used. So, the students
come to the University, they get different environment where the instructors use English
or English and Urdu as a language of instruction. In this research, the students were asked
about the medium of instruction; some of them responded that regional and national
languages should be used as a medium of instruction because in our schools and colleges,
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instructors use Urdu and regional language like Punjabi, Siraiki, Pashto, Brushki etc. to
explain some concepts. One student who belonged to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa said,
“In our schools, initially we use regional language for the convenience of the
students because students can understand in a better way in their regional language and
after that English should be introduced other than regional language”
4.8 Respondents Additional Comment
The last question was specified for students’ additional comment. If students want
to share any idea regarding use of language in educational setting, they can share their
points of view. Different students share different issues regarding language use in
classrooms. The variety of the comments show that the use of language is classrooms is
highly controversial issue in Pakistan.
Language use should be according to the subjects or topics. For example, if the
instructors teach Islamiat and Pakistan Studies, they use Urdu language. Some students
believe that Urdu should be used to clarify the concepts. As Ahtasham said: “The
subjects of Islamiat and Social Studies should be in Urdu language and even the subject
of English should be explain in Urdu language”
In schools, colleges and specifically at university level, courses are taught in
English language and books are also available in English language. Although, course
books/reading materials are available in English language, still students request their
instructors to explain various concepts in Urdu language. As AH said, “Exact definitions
should be provided in English language while the concept should be explained in Urdu
language.”
Contrary to this, some students’ emphasized the use of English language as they
thought English is an international language and our whole syllabus is designed in
English language. As Alia said, “In our education system, books are written in English
language, so instructor should use English language. In the beginning, the learners will
feel difficulty in understanding the meaning but soon they will used to hear English
language in classrooms and feel comfortable.”
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When the instructor use two languages in classrooms, students do more effort in
understanding the language and the use of two languages simultaneously means students
have to put some extra effort to get into the systems of two languages. For example, both
English and Urdu languages have different construction at almost all the levels of
language use. So students swing between these two languages and feel difficulty in
understanding the concepts. As A said that, “The mingling of two languages means the
complete failure in understanding the concepts. Only one language should be used
whether it is English or Urdu.”
Since last ten years, students are studying the same course and the main focus of
the course is reading and writing and no attention is paid to listening and speaking.
Although in some private schools of Pakistan, instructors pay proper attention to
speaking and listening while in government schools no attention is paid to these skills. As
Naila said, “Our education system should work on English to improve students English in
schools and colleges. Same syllabus is taught from class 5 to F.Sc; no works is done on
speaking and reading skills which is the main reason of student’s failure in university
examination. High school should not only include exercises of Grammar like narrations,
tenses or active and passive voice. There should be productive exercises on speaking and
reading skills.”
One participant thought that English can improve the spoken English language
and instructors and students should use solely English language in classrooms. He said,
"The use of English language solely can improve my spoken and written English.” One
more participant like English language and said “I prefer to learn in English language as
it is interesting and its accent is so effective.”
The language use in classrooms is a controversial issue as some other students
emphasized the use of national language (Urdu) in classrooms. As one student said, “all
languages of the world are useful but one should not leave one’s root which stick to his
national language” while some other students said that we should use regional language
with English language in classrooms. Amir said, “The combination of Punjabi and
English is wonderful. The idea will be clearer if the instructor will use these two
languages.”
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The use of solely Urdu language will not hamper our studies, one student
suggested; rather it will sharpen our understanding power. Government should develop
and revise the courses like Chinese and Germans use their own language as a medium of
instruction and developed their own courses even at higher level. Salma said: “As far as
language learning process is concerned, both languages are important. Both languages are
good and the use of Urdu language will not hamper our studies as well as our cognitive
process. Some concepts are easy to understand in Urdu language and Urdu is more
flexible language. Chinese and Germans make progress by using their own languages,
why not we? We should also design our syllabus accordingly.”
Students found the questionnaire interesting as one student said, “I like
questionnaire because it is brief and interesting”. Open ended questions are beneficial
because they allow the opportunity to the respondent to share some other views related to
the topic of inquiry.
4.9 Code-switching in Conference Presentation
I observed that conference presentations are more formal than classroom teaching.
The contexts of conference presentation are quite different. In international conferences,
the presenters have to consume twenty minutes while classroom sessions are the series of
interconnected topics which run through the whole semester (six months). In this period,
students develop understanding with the instructor. They discuss their problems, give
opinions, ask frequent questions or share their everyday life events and often, the
instructors share information or experiences which is not relevant to his topic; for
example the instructor told his students about the conference presentations in different
universities and said: “Thanky you…../ Toh. So I was telling about the universities where
people participated in that conference from the university of Sargodha, Sargodha and
university of Gujjrat , Hazara university Mansehra , KPK University Karak which is
present in Khyber Pakhtoonkhaw, Punjab University of Lahore and last oh of course GC
university Lohare and Gomal University D.I Khan, Dera Ismail Khan. Yes of course
people of all these universities participated on that conference that was three days before
enterprise.”
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In conference presentations, audience might not know that particular presenter
personally or they may be colleagues so they use more formal language for
communication. The collected from international conferences consisted of research based
presentations where methodology, findings and conclusions were key parts of
presentations. During conference presentations, silence is already achieved and the
presenters can present without disruption while in classrooms, teachers have to maintain
the discipline and decorum. He used the expression like, “May I have your attention
please” or “please khamoosh ho jain [keep silent please], I shall send you out of the
class”. The organization of content in conference presentation and classrooms lectures are
very different. The general outline of conference presentations are introduction, purpose,
literature review (very brief), analysis, findings, suggestions. In classrooms, instructors
erratically start by giving the reference of the previous class e.g “In previous class,
Pichlay lecture may hum nay ratio test or root test ko parha. Ratio test kab use hota
hay? Ap batain [In previous class, we studied ratio test and root test. When will we use
ratio test?]”. In Physics classroom session, the instructor referred back to his previous
lecture, he said “In the last lecture we have gone through the integral test for infinite
series. It was the rule to change the infinite series for its convergence. Now you can see
in the comparison that the infinite series when it converges.”
While teaching in classrooms, learning objectives are already decided and
instructors are advised to follow course outline and students may ask questions which are
relevant to their area. During conference presentations, although different presenters
presented their topic of research but the audience asked the questions which is not
relevant to that particular context.
During conference presentations, the instructor reveal interesting facts ask some
question or reveal statistics to catch the attention of the audience. For example, while
presenting on “Gender Based Study of English Language Learning Beliefs and Strategies
of Pakistani College Students”, she started from preconceived notion about beliefs
followed by introduction, methodology and results. In methodology, she told that the data
has been collected from four different colleges of Islamabad from 419 students; 159 were
males and 260 were females. She used both qualitative and quantitative approach and
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interesting facts are revealed though qualitative and quantitative analysis. Almost the
same techniques are followed by the other presenters, the beginning was by raising
questions, telling interesting facts, previous knowledge/preconceived notion etc followed
by methodology, analysis and conclusion/suggestions.
In classrooms, the background knowledge of students is almost same, that is why
the instructors devise the course accordingly while in conference presentation, the
background knowledge of the audience may vary and they ask the questions which can be
diverse. In classrooms, there is continuous repetition of thoughts or idea, if needed while
in conference presenters seldom repeat any idea. It may be due to the evaluation
procedure which is followed in many universities. Students are so concerned about their
marks or grades and they frequently ask questions during lecture. For conference, time is
specified for question-answer sessions.
Conference presenters usually review and preview in the beginning or at the end
of their presentation. Instructors want to summarize each sub section or sub idea of the
lecture. In recorded data I found presenters using these words like, “to conclude”,
“findings suggest”, “today, I told you”, “I can summarize”. In classrooms, the instructors
usually review the lecture and tell the next topic of discussion.
During lecture recoding, I noticed that notes taking are quite common in
classrooms while during presentation, audience listen and respond. As far as interactive
activities are concerned, in conference, these activities are rare while in classrooms,
instructors use these activities frequently; to break the monotony of the lectures or to
check students understanding. The instructors designed the questions (to check students’
response) before the commencement of the classes. I observed that in conference
presentations, questions were asked at the end of the presentation while in classrooms,
students ask questions during lectures when they felt difficulty in understanding the
concepts.
Delivery skills are important for both conference presentation and classrooms
lectures. I observed that the delivery of lecture is different from conference presentation.
In conference presentations, I recorded thirty presenters and they all used multimedia to
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present their papers while among the thirty recorded classrooms, only three instructors
use multimedia during lectures while twenty seven instructors use while board and
activity/worksheets or books during lectures.
It is clear from the above discussion that the setting, delivery and materials,
general organization/structure and context of classrooms and conference presentations are
different, so the uses of language also vary. Although, instructors maintain formal
environment in classrooms but the formality level of conference presentation is higher
than classrooms lectures. Presenters use more formal and to the point language during
conference presentation and I found a few instances of code-switching in conference
presentation. During conference presentations presenters use some words of Urdu
language because they cannot be replaced. For example, “Ramadan” (name of Islamic
month) is used in one presentation to tell some religious concepts of the Muslims. The
names of different books like “Lehaf” work of Ismat Chughtai, “Khana” by Ahamag
Nadeem Qasmi, and “Thanda Gosht” Saadat Hassan Manto are used by the presenters as
these were the part of their presentation. Some words represent different concepts which
are prevalent in Pakistani society while they cannot be translated in English language for
example one words “ghairat”. In some areas of Pakistan, women are considered to
belong to men’s (can be her brother, father or any relative) honor (izzat) and if women
commit any bad deed (related to the customs of society), they are supposed to spoil then
image of that man. Although, the word honor is used to elaborate the meaning of “izzat”
but the word (honor) cannot signify the meanings of “izzat”. One presenter who talked
about Allama Iqbal as great thinker and poet, linked his philosophy to Ibn-e-Arabi who
was religious scholar and presented his idea of “wahdata-ul-vajood” which means “unity
of existence”. The idea of “wahdata-ul-vajood” could be explained in English language
as well, but the writer might intend to explain the concept in Urdu language to maintain
the true essence of the concept. it will lose all the spice and essence of the original word.
The concept of “wahdata-ul-vajood” is still an issue of controversy among different
Muslim scholars. During question-answer session, one attendee raised the issue that in
Urdu language Allama Iqbal and some other writers use the word “mujahid” but
nowadays it is used in negative connotations by Britishers and Americans. Furthermore,
he said that Iqbal did not know that in future, the Mulims will face so much criticism on
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this word. Similarly, one more participant used the word, “ukaab”/ “shaheen” (eagle), in
English language is simply a bird while in Urdu language, it signifies young generation.
Most of the participants in the conference belong to Pakistan and they can
understand Urdu language so the speakers do not feel hesitation in using Urdu language.
The presenter explained the idea of Karl Marx and Allama Iqbal and he read the verses of
Allama Iqbal in Urdu language. In his words, “This paper deals to mere poetry, poetry for
me is mere a universe and that universe has its own grammar and own vocabulary and
has its own logic and symbolism. One of the greatest thing about poetry is that it
generates multiplicity of meaning and that is why the people who called fundamentalist
in Islam, they draw messages out of Iqbal but even though who are on the other side
crude mark, they draw messages out of Iqbal and indeed Iqbal has said about Carl Marx
that is poetically very very profound, (he recited verses of Iqbal)
ye ilmo hikmat ki mohra bazi ye behso takrar ki numaish
nahi hai duniya ko ab gawara purane afkar ki numaish
teri kitaboon may aay hakeem-e-muash rakha hi kia hay akhir
khutool-e-khamdar ki numaish, muresh-o-khamdaar ki numaish”
In two instances, they switch their codes to explain or answer the questions while
in classrooms instructors and students switch their codes frequently. The purposes of
code-switching classrooms are described in detail in previous section of this chapter.
4.10 Pragmatic Analysis and Code-Switching
Pragmatics is the study of “indexical rules” to build a relationship between
linguistic form and context (Bates, 1976, p. 3), it creates a relationship between language,
its core ideas and its users (Martin, 1971, p. 138), pragmatic analysis develop a theory of
relationship between “language structures” and its users (Apostle, 1971, p. 33), Hence, it
is the scientific study of language use (Haberland and May, 1977, p. 1). In a multilingual
society, code-switching is an integral part of spoken discourses. Similarly in Pakistan,
code-switching is essential part of academic discourse, as instructors, academic
practitioners and conference presenters switch their code from one language to another in
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various contexts. So, this study reveals the purposes of code-switching in various
contexts.
Myer Scotton described two filters in her Mrekedness model (1986) of code-
switching. First filter is called structural constraint which deals with the social factors,
identity, age, gender, mother language and characteristics of discourse (i.e. setting,
purpose, time). The pragmatic analysis is also connected to the background of the
speakers as societal pragmatics examines the social framework of a society which involve
in the production and interpretation of speech sound. Language and social structures are
interconnected and the depiction of social status/roles and identities are the heart of
societal pragmatic analysis. Speakers try to maintain their status and identities through
the ways they deliver messages (Bublitz & Norrick, 2011). Myers-Scotton (1998)
elaborated that these ‘surface discourse structural characteristics’ to further identify the
structural constraints. These structural constraints help in building different structures and
identify which part of language (vocabulary) is important, beneficial and influential. This
is called sequential organization in language. There are different kinds of constraints
based on these structural constraints. These structural constraints identify speakers’
linguistic repertoire which can be the key factor in determining different discourse
strategies. In this study, I discussed purposes of the patterns of code-switching (English
to Urdu and Urdu to Englsih) in classroom sessions which may be identified as a
discourse strategy in various contexts. Furthermore, the first filter prosed by Myer
Scotton is helpful in selecting various languages as a language choice for the speakers.
Myer-Scotton capsulated the second filter called Elster Rational choice or
Rational Actor’s model that provides the opportunity to the speaker to use these structural
constraints to get particular outcome. Speakers consciously deal with the cost-benefit
analysis and eventually opts the language which can be beneficial for them. Myers-
Scotten used this theory to analyze discourse and said that individuals select the language
according to their own temporary benefits; depends upon their own motivation
(subjective motivation) and opportunities (objective opportunities). Speakers use specific
language to get their ordinary goals and neglect their prior language choice. So every
speaker has marked and unmarked language choices. These marked and unmarked
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choices fully support the idea of pragmatic use of language where code-switching may be
identified as pragmatic switching as speakers (instructors and presenters) switch their
code from one language to another according to the context. Myers-Scotten used this
model to analyze code-switching in conversation. She believed that researcher can easily
identify marked and unmarked choices in any conversation. These codes or linguistic
alternatives have multidimensional work in specific continuum; it can be from the more
marked to the more unmarked. The order may vary. Myers-Scotton said that these codes
work alternately due to the language contact of two linguistic systems. As a result
speakers acquaint the quality to interact in a community and use two language systems
which depends upon the priority of the language use in specific context and these codes
are socially accepted. Here the example of cost-benefit is very significant where the
speakers use specific codes for their own benefits and these codes are socially accepted.
This research aims at exploring various issues regarding use of language in
academic discourse. The findings show that research participants use different languages
in their homes, schools, colleges and universities. The most frequently used languages in
classrooms are English and Urdu. Although some students said that some regional
languages should be used as a medium of instruction, a few said that English language
should be used in classrooms while majority responded that both English and Urdu
languages should be used as a medium of instruction in classrooms. As far as structural
constraints are concerned, students background and their previous medium of instruction
(in schools and college) matters as some students who use English and Urdu as a medium
of instruction; favor English and Urdu languages as a medium of instruction at university
level as well. Some students who belong to some rural areas of Punjab, Sindh and KPK
want to use regional languages as a medium of instruction. So, I observed that most of the
times instructor use both languages English and Urdu in classrooms. In different
classrooms, either English and Urdu languages are occasionally used as an unmarked
choice. For example in English language/Linguistics or some science subjects, English is
used as a marked choice while in Ethics and Morality, Pakistan studies and in some arts
subjects, English is used as unmarked choice. In science subjects, definitions or different
terms are explained in English language while concepts are explained in Urdu language.
The underlying facts of using these two languages may be the importance/superiority of
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these two languages in Pakistan, as English is an international language and courses are
available in English language while Urdu is national language, so most of the students
believe that these two languages should be opt as a medium of instruction. (For detail see
section 7.7.2 Nationalism and Modernization). On the other hand if we analyze Scotten’s
view cost and benefits, the use of these two languages (English and Urdu) may be
beneficial for the learners and instructors. As far as conference presentations are
concerned, English is used as marked choice in all presentations and Urdu is used as an
unmarked choice as most of the participants use English language frequently and
occasionally switch their code to Urdu language. In conference, switching from English
to Urdu is mainly because the speakers do not find any appropriate vocabulary items to
explain the concept in English language.
Yule (1996) postulated that pragmatics is the integral part of communication as
meanings are created through discourses and interpreted by the listeners or readers on the
basis of context. The basic concern of pragmatics is to analyze the utterances in specific
context rather than utterances only. Thus, this study explored the purposes of code-
switching and various dimensions of language use (like relevance, quantity of
information, clarity) in academic discourse (classroom sessions and conference
presentations).
Section 2 GRICEAN MAXIMS
Language performs various functions; some of these are identified in academic
discourse and explained in previous sections of this chapter. Language is in a continuous
flux; It carries meanings, meanings vary according to the context/situation and one
cannot assume that words which are used in particular context are irrelevant or does not
provide any information rather meaning making and meaning perception are quite
complicated process, they are context and individual dependent. Grice has given two
extremes of every aspect in his philosophy of maxims (relevance, manner and quantity).
This chapter explore the authenticity of the measuring criteria of Gricean maxims in
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exploring the relevance (speaker should remain relevant), appropriate contribution of
information in a given context (in classrooms and conference presentation), sequence of
information and clarity or ambiguity of expressions in academic discourse. More
specifically this chapter deals three maxims given by Grice; maxim of relevance, maxim
of quantity and maxim of manner.
4.11 Maxim of Relevance
The proposed maxim of relevance of Grice suggests that speaker should remain
relevant. He believed that speakers’ abrupt change or shift of topic may cause the non-
observance of Gricean maxim of relevance but I feel that in academic discourse
instructors, presenters and students cannot be irrelevant and their ideas and utterances are
quite relevant to that particular situation and it is the part of the development of ideas
which help in drawing certain conclusion. To support my claim, I proposed a model
named as “Sequential Relative Relevance Model of Communication”
4.11.1 Sequential Relative Relevance Model of Communication
Classroom communication is crude altercation among the instructors follow
traditional and non- traditional teaching systems in classrooms. Apart from this,
instructors follow certain sequence while delivering the lectures; they may follow
inductive, deductive or relational sequence. This may be called Classroom sequential
communication system. Deductive sequence moves from generalized idea to specific
examples or activities, inductive sequence moves from some activities and examples to
certain rules while relational sequence relates the previous ideas to the present ideas. In
one course, long and detailed topics are not covered in a single discussion so instructors
covered these topics in two or more than two lectures and before commencing the lecture,
they relate previous idea to the present class to create a relation or link. This is relational
sequence. By adapting different strategies instructors create relevance among different
ideas. Grice put forward his idea of observance or nonobservance of Gricean Maxims. I
believe that in academic discourse, instructors, presenters and students do not non-
observe the maxim of relevance; rather the situation favors the idea of relative relevance.
Relevance may be “logical or direct” and “relative or indirect”. Following diagram
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explain the idea of relevance and its subdivision. I assume that relevance can be
logical/direct and relative and indirect. Logical relevance may further be divided into and
syllogism and sequential and relative/indirect relevance may be divided into co relational,
recreational and situational.
Figure 4.1: Relative Relevance Model of Communication
4.11.1.1 Logical or Direct Relevance
Logical or direct relevance is related to the relationship of straight, objective,
analytical, scientific and explicit utterances to the situation. These utterances show the
direct link to the situation and it demands less effort for understanding from (every)
listeners as no hidden or implicit ideas are proposed in these utterances.
4.11.1.2 Syllogism
In Greek, syllogism is a type of logical arguments that are drawn from deductive
reasoning, and logical arguments to deduce conclusion. When Syllogism imply on
academic discourse which favors that the explanation/detailed description of ideas are
Logical/direct
Relevance
Relative/indirect
Syllogism Sequential
Co relational Recreational Situational
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structurally and thematically identical or arranged, in the deductive sequence. The
listener can easily deduce the meanings because ideas are explained through explicit
reasoning, argumentation and sagacity.
4.11.1.3 Sequential
Ideas are arranged in a sequence, they move gradually from easy to difficult or
instructors provide the base of the detailed topic and gradually move to the more difficult
concepts and these sequential concepts are interlinked. It may be the traditional logical
sequence as followed in conference presentations and it is generally expected and pre-
determined ideology of the listeners/audience that the sequence of presentation of
research work is introduction (need and purpose of research), literature review,
Methodology (Research framework, sample, population etc), Analysis/Findings followed
by conclusion.
4.11.2 Relative/ indirect Relevance
Ideas are presented in utterances are not linked directly to the particular
discussion or topic (in classrooms or conference) but these particular utterances are
contextually connected.
4.11.1.3 Co relational/Quasi Relational
This shows the interdependence of two variables, two objects or two ideas which
may be explained through examples. In addition, ideas show no link to the relevant topic
but they fit into the pragmatic ideology of relevance. Comparison (Elaborating
similarities and elucidating differences) and contrast (describing differences), I assume
that both are the part of relevance as these are the strategy of describing the things/ideas
in relation to each other and one thing or idea is dependent to another for its description.
4.11.1.4 Recreational
Humor, irony, telling jokes or stories etc serve as a recreation in classrooms. If the
duration of the class is long, the instructors share some jokes or, students create the
element of fun to break the monotonous routine of the conversation or it can be a strategy
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to enhance the interest of the students to keep them active. The humor created in any
situation (classrooms) is relevant to that situation.
4.11.1.5 Situational
Discourse is not static. It is the combination of various ideas which can be related
to the social identity, aesthetics and social life of human beings. So every individual
behave and react in a different way in particular situation. These behaviors depend upon
the individuals own perception of life and this individuality leads to use different
expressions in any discourse.
4.11.1.6 Dimensions of Relevance
There are different dimensions of relevance which may be brought into
consideration in any discourse. These dimensions are societal, religious and content.
Societal aspects cover the culture, traditions, language use in everyday life and customs
of society. Different religious dimensions are covered in religious aspects while content
covers the topic under discussion. The topics may be related to Science (Physics,
Biology, computer sciences etc) or Arts (English, Urdu, Islamiat etc.)
4.12 Logical or Direct Relevance in Classroom Sessions
Instructors frequently use the expressions which are directly related to the idea
and meanings are quite clear and explicit. In the following example, the instructor
discussed the topics of articulation which are covered in IPA. Students are quite clear as
they are interacting and replying the relevant answers.
4.12.1 Example 1
“T: Those sounds we will cover in IPA separately right? So right now we are talking
about places of articulation. We will just discuss the sounds which are familiar to us and
we are going to talk about the pulmonic places of articulation of pulmonic sounds only.
Do you remember I told you that in IPA first we deal with pulmonic and then non-
pulmonic and then double articulation and vowels. Okay, let’s quickly review how many
types without looking at your handouts I just want to know what you have done in your..
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I mean how much time you have given to phonetics. Yes, how many places of
articulation?”
S: “Eleven”
T: “eleven? Yes. Can anybody name them?...any one place of articulation. Out of
eleven can you recall any one.”
S: “Labiodental”
T: “Labiodental, so what do we mean by labiodentals, the contact of, yes I told you
that you have to specify the power of the tongue. So labiodental is usually with
the…. is it tongue or lips?
S: “Lips”
T: “Yes its lips so its lip and which? Upper lip and teeth and which teeth upper or
lower? Yes its upper teeth and lower lip. Can’t you just speak and find it I mean why
don’t you recall your memory. Think of a sound which you produce from the labiodental
place and produce it and see that who are that (creatures).Yes your name?”
It is clear from the above example that the ideas are structurally and thematically
identical i.e. the instructor explained her points with examples throughout the lecture.
Initially, the instructor showed the particular symbol to the students and after that there is
a picture description and she explained the specific sound through her jaw movement
In another example, the instructor lecturede on “speaking”, to elaborate the
process of speaking, initially she gave the thematic description that there are different
symbols which are saved in our mind and these symbols can be utilized when we need
them. The thematic descriptions evoke different questions which may be answered
through examples.
“Ok, now what is speaking? Basically, when you read and when you listen, you encode
certain messages and when you speak you decode that message. Theek hay. Kuch
symbols hotay han which are saved in your mind and when you speak in certain
situation, you decode that message. Jo symbols hotay ha nap kay mind may, jab ap
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kisi specific situation may enter hotay ho, tu ap kai kartay ho? Ap un symbols ko
use kartay ho. [Right, some symbols are saved in your mid and you use that in specific
situation] So that is speaking.”
4.12.2 Example 2
Similarly, during the teaching of science subjects, the instructors gave the
background of the study, proved it through different experiments, or often they applied
various formulae to derive equations. As in scientific academic discourse,
hypothesis/statements are proved through experiments or with the help of formulae and a
previous research, in this situation, classroom session seems more authentic and relevant.
The idea is clear from the following example. The instructor worked on a problem
solving activity. She taught the calculation of vapor pressure of water and the sugar
solution by applying formula. The idea is clear through following example.
“T: Now consider this case five point six seven grams of glucose is C six H twelve O
six. This dissolved in twenty five point two grams of water. Now vapor pressure of water
is twenty three point eight millimeter of mercury that is PA not. This is the vapor
pressure of pure water so you can calculate delta p .Lowering in vapor pressure is PA not
into delta XP. Mole fraction of the solution PA not is twenty three point eight and then
you convert this into mole fraction. So this comes out to be zero point two two.Ye ap ne
khudkarnahy. [you will do it on your own] Is pe mole fractions bananihain. [you have
to make mole fraction] Pechay examples hain mole fractions bananyki. [you can
consult mole fractions] So this you had to do yourself. You convert this into moles
divided by the molecular weight and then the moles of water and divide the number of
the moles of glucose by the total number of moles. Aik Is k moles ho jain gay aik is K
moles ho jain gay [you can make mole in this way] and then you add up the number of
moles and divide the moles of this by the total number of moles. So this comes out to b
zero point two, two moles and then the lowering is zero point five to four millimeter of
mercury. This is the change in vapor pressure. So if the initial vapor pressure was this
then the vapor pressure of the solution will be twenty three point eight minus zero point
five to four. Almost thirty three point two five. Istarha se ye a jaega. [you can do it like
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that] So you see then you dissolve sugar in water then the vapor pressure of water vapor
decreases.
We calculate the pressure. PA0 is 75mm. PB0 toluene is 22mm.Therefore this is
0.7 and this is 0.3.These are two g zero point zero three four millimeter of mercury. This
is the step you had to do yourself. mm of mercury. This is the unit of pressure .mm of
mercury is the unit of pressure. Let’s take another example. You mix benzene with
toluene.
T: Benzene with toluene. This is the mole fraction. In this case you can see that you
are not changing the mole fraction. Therefore the pressure would be the same. Now
solvents two liquids which are mix together. Since you can find out PA this is 75xo.5. PB
this is 22x0.3.This comes out to be 53mm of mercury.”
4.12.3 Example 3
In another example, the instructor talked about business plan. He discussed
different relevant areas of the topic in a sequence. These areas are interlinked and the
organization of the lecture showed that different perspectives are interlinked and
sequenced in a way that the later and former ideas are interdependent i.e. the listener
could not get the idea if he does not know the previous idea. The overall lesson plan is as
follows:
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Figure 4.2: Overall Lesson plan of Example 3
Business plan
Organizational plan
Partners of organization
Content of organizational plan
Deals kinds of deals, affidavit, identification of
partners and principle stake holders or
Frame Overall Business plan Explanation with examples
Management team expectation Managerial skills
of organizer
Creation of law Types of partner: general,
diseased, silent
Explanation of different terns:
wakf, Sole proprietorship
Issues related to partnerships and partners
Explanation of different issues
with examples
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Initially, the instructor started his lecture by saying “I want to discuss the portion
of your business plan that is organizational plan.” He explained the content of
organizational plan and the whole lecture based on what he said initially; “I want you to
cover different things. Number one, what is the form of ownership? What is the structure
of your organization? That is to say how it is structured? Who is the director? And what
is the patch level management? The basic rational of providing these details are, the
people who are investing in this venture would like to know, who are the people?” He
further explained the patterns of organization, said that “the pattern of organization cover
the top managers, deals, overall terms and conditions and give and take of organization.”
He interlinked and elaborated all the given points and focused on deals by describing
different kinds of deals, affidavit, identification of partners and principle stake holders or
customers. He elaborated his listeners, how they can frame overall business plan and said
“You try to basify your management team that it becomes a syllable point in terms of
how you frame your overall business plan? Right.” Afterwards, he moved towards the
expectations of management team with specific reference to the managerial skills of the
organizer. All the above mentioned facts and figures led him to make an opinion about
the “creation of law” which covers types of partners; Types of partner: general, diseased,
silent and Issues related to partnerships and partners. The relevant terms like “wakf”,
“sole proprietorship” are explained in detail. The lecture ended by elaborating different
themes and ideas with examples.
4.12.4 Example 4
In interactive classrooms, I found the instructors usually raise questions to get the
responses from the students. The following example reveals that the purpose of the
lecture is to give the idea about writing paragraph. The interactive teaching strategy is
adopted by the instructor as the lecture start with a question “what is paragraph” and
various students responded it as one student said that a paragraph revolves around a main
idea. Another student responded that “A paragraph is a group of related sentences, and…
it’s… all about the summary of the topic”. One female student compared paragraph with
essay as she said: Paragraph (writing) is precise as compared to an essay; in essay, we
deal with so many concepts altogether but in a paragraph (writing), we are concerned
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about a main idea and we are… just about… the go… ummm… precise thing and the
most highlight… highlighted thing, but in an essay, we tells about all things that could...
and many others.” After getting the response from the students, instructor elaborated her
point of view and finally told her opinion about paragraph writing; “as we have already
talked about the paragraph, paragraph writing is a series of sentences, developing the
topic, okay. Aaa… well, generally...we have talked about the main idea or the main
theme, it moves around one main theme or one main idea, right!” Following diagram
illustrate overall lesson plan of this lecture.
Figure 4.3: Overall Lesson plan of Example 4
What is paragraph?
Maintain chronological order
Link between sentences
Thematic and structural unity
Develop coherent ideas
Comparison and contrast
Example of descriptive essay
What is Essay?
Use of transitional words
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The instructor explained the idea of writing a paragraph with specific reference to
thematic unity. In her words, “Well as we were talking about main idea and main theme
its moves around one main idea and one theme. Its surrounds only about taking main
idea and also develops the idea and finally conclude the idea and above all these
sentences in that paragraph they are related and linked. Ok well there are two kinds of
unity of paragraph. One is thematic unity. What is thematic unity? It’s written on one
idea, main theme. Second is structural unity .What is structural unity of paragraph?” She
raised the question of structural unity and students responded. The idea of thematic and
structural unity was maintained through chronological order of coherent ideas,
comparison and contrast. The instructor created the link between the development of the
coherent ideas and the use of the transitional words. Although this lecture was bout the
introduction to paragraph writing but at the end, instructor gave the brief introduction to
essay writing. While giving the introduction to essay writing, the instructor again opted
the strategy of inquiring from the students “what is essay? So Waseem will tell me about
essay.". The student replied, “an essay is a collection of paragraphs basically pointing the
main idea or the main subject” the instructor appreciated the student, “well …good,
collection of ideas” This strategy of appreciation is used by the instructors to increase
students participation. At the end, the instructor gave the example of descriptive essays.
This example shows that lecture is properly arranged and sequenced and various concepts
are embedded and linked with the main idea which made this lecture a complete whole.
4.12.2 Example 5
Instructors follow specific sequences during lecture to communicate specific
themes. I found many examples (from the subjects’ related to natural sciences) where
instructor initially elaborated the main idea, relevant concepts and formulae (related to
the topic). In Mathematics classroom session, one female instructor proved the idea by
practically applying various themes and formulae. I did not share the whole lecture here
as it is comprised of nearly six thousand words. For the convenience of reader, I describe
the part of the lecture. The instructor talked about “internal energy and enthalpy”.
Initially she elaborated the students’ different concept regarding internal energy,
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enthalpy, isothermal conditions, constant isothermal expansion internal energy etc. While
deriving the equation she told the students:
“So under isothermal condition ∆E=0, because temperature keep constant when
∆E=o then the first law of thermodynamic reduces to the form that q = PDV or you can
write that W = Ed because work is done at the cost of this heat supplied so W – Ed. How
we get this equation. We get this equation because work is product of change in pressure
and change in volume. Change in pressure that is p – dp and this is the change in volume
because this is work of expansion, product of P and V. So here volume changes the dv =
V2 – V1 so we can write the expression like this or you can write W = pdv – dpdv or this
is the product of two infinitesimals. It is the product of two infinitesimals, therefore, it is
neglected. Being the product of two infinitesimals the last term is neglected. Do you
understand because see if you multiply 0.1 with 0.1 you will get 0.01, so this
infinitesimal? It is a very very small quantity. Very very small number multiplied by
very very small number will give you a very very very small number. Therefore, this is
neglected and we get net expression to be equal to w=pdv. So you see w=pdv expansion
is the product of change in pressure and change in volume. This change in pressure p –
dp, this dv, so we rearrange like this w=pdv – dpdv. This product of two infinitesimals,
this is neglected and we get this expression w=pdv.”
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After that, she derived the whole equation:
From the general gas equation
We know that,
Pv=nRT(for n mole of an ideal gas)
Or p=nRT/V
Therefore,it will give
W=pwv
Puttingthe value of P in equation….(1)
W=nrt(dv)/v
We get
W=nrtdv/v
Now subjected to integration between the limit v1 and v2
V1 volume before expansion
V2 voume after expansion
So, w=nrt
And the integration of dv/v is log v natural log v
And we have the unit v1 and v2 initialo unit and final unit.
W=nrt log (v1v2)
Now w=nrt log v1 –log v2
W=nrt log(v2/v1)
Volume is inversely proportional to pressure.
Therefore, W=NRT log (p1/p2)
Or w=2.3 nrt log(v2/v1)
Or w=2.3nrt log (p1/p2)
This is maximum work
Figure 4.4: Overview of the Equation Discussed in Example 5
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4.13 Logical or Direct Relevance in Conference Presentations
I observed that the organization of conference presentations are different
classrooms lectures. Presentations are comparatively short and do not provide the minor
details while classroom lectures are series of topics and these topics are interlinked and
provide minor to major details. Instructors know the audience and they teach according to
the level of the students while in presentations, presenters usually do not know the
audience. Presenters’ concepts are compact, precise and ideas are tightly packed and
these are irrespective of the listeners’ previous knowledge while classroom lecture
sessions provide the detailed description of minor to major issues. I observed that in
classrooms, instructors provide various activities related to the topic while after
presentations there are question-answer session of 5-10 minutes. The presentation cannot
be repetitive in nature while in classrooms, if the students are unable to get the ideas,
instructors may repeat the previously described concepts for students’ understanding.
Although, classroom lectures and presentations are part of formal communication but the
formality level in presentations is higher than classrooms lectures. I found in conference
presentations, logical arguments are presented to extract the meanings. Unlike classrooms
lectures, it is assumed by the presenters that listeners had sufficient background
knowledge and presenters did not explain various terms like “American hegemony”,
“panoptical narrative”, “diasporic youth”.
4.13.1 Example 6
The sequences of conference presentations are introduction, description of review
literature, methodology, data analysis, and conclusion/suggestions. In conference
presentations, presenters usually start their presentation by describing some interesting
story, statistical overview or introduction of the topic to catch the attention of the reader;
after using the above described techniques, they relate them to the particular theme or
topic. I found the prominence of the element of syllogism as the concepts are linked to
the main idea and there is a deductive sequence, although the description is not detailed
as in classrooms lectures. For example one female presenter who started her presentation
by describing an incident and afterwards she related that incident with the theme of
racism and new racism. In her own words:
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P: “I would like to start my presentation with a story and I hope Mr. Naseem will
give me one minute extra for that. The story is about a Yamani Muslim, Ahmad Hassan
and the time was 1942 when the Second World War raised. Yamani Muslim, Ahmad
Hassan, he appeared in United States District court in Michigan and his petition was on
Nationalization and that is for nationality and it was 1942….remember the time and his
petition was denied because the judge who was well versed in American Nationalization
because he knows that this law is for the people who come under the whiteness and
surely that whiteness was whiteness by law. Now when he denied the petition to Hassan,
and he wrote the decision and it was long three paged decision. I only quote few lines
from his decision, and then we will start our discussion. What he wrote, he said, Arabs
are not white persons within the meaning of nationality act. Then he further explained,
apart from the dark skin of the Arab, it is well-known that they are the part of
Muhammadan world and the wide gulf separate their culture from that of predominantly
Christian people of Europe. Therefore it cannot be expected that as a class, they would
readily intermarry with our population and be assimilated into our civilization. Thus
ladies and gentleman, for him religion determines the race. So this idea of racism in
American history and we have been talking about racism against African and all others
but in the wake of nine eleven and new concept emerge out of this racism which we say
neo-racism. Now what make it new racism and how it is different from racism? From
racism to new racism, the culture of otherness, concept of new racism, area of
decolonization, racism without race. The traditional idea of race based on biological
characteristics, blood and color. People have different biological hereditary
characteristics and they are marginalized on the basis of that but in the wake of nine
eleven, it was not the blood or biological characteristics but it was the religion and
cultural identity based on religion. That actually created a different race, racial difference
and cultural other. So this new racism is culturalist and differentialist.”
The story telling in the start of presentation is effective tool in catching the
attention of the listener. Moreover, some concepts and incidents related to racism are
described by the presenter. Hence, it is presupposed by the presenter that the audience
already knew these concepts and incidents like American Nationalization, racism to new
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racism, the culture of otherness, concept of new racism, area of decolonization and
racism without race.
4.13.2 Example 7
Presenters start their presentation directly without wasting their time. They tell the
purpose of presentation followed by the relevance of the topic to the particular theme or
they related their ideas to some other writer. In the following example, the speaker
described the purpose of the research, focus of the research, methodology, and theoretical
approach. The description was so brief that she described these in very short time of one
minute. Later she presented detailed idea of her research paper. In her words:
“I will be talking about few short stories and essays… and artistic representation
from Granta 112. The focus of my presentation is performance versus politics in
contemporary essays, short stories from Granta 112. For this purpose, I selected some
images as well. I am sorry; I can’t show the images right now. I focused on how Pakistani
Diaspora artists and writers resist the political pressure which surrounds them. The idea is
clarified through different themes and symbols and art they presented. Secondly photo
graphic images and paintings… important part of the issue of this journal. I would like to
start with the theoretical approach presented in research article “Enactments of Power;
The Politics of Performance Space”. He writes that community learnt and passed its
games moral codes and aesthetic judgments through narratives dances and theatre, rituals,
music games and sports. With the emergence of the state, the writers and state not only
become rivals while articulating the laws, moral or formal. That regulate life and society
but also rivals in determining manner and circumstances of their delivery, now this is my
basic focus.”
4.13.3 Example 8
Different writers from same time periods or different time periods bring different
themes into considerations and these themes are interrelated. One male presenter gave the
examples of different writers who discussed the same theme. Furthermore, he criticized
the different critics for not appreciating the relevant writer for the creation of real picture
of the society. He said that writer tries to explain the reality of life; people do not admire
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him because they don’t want to face the reality or they do not want to bring the reality
into consideration. He not only created the relevance among the themes of various writers
but he also created the relevance between the theme/description of various writer and the
society; as he informed, “Work like ‘Lehaf’ … work of Ismat Chughtai, Khana by
Ahamag Nadeem Qasmi, and Thanda Gosht” by Manto with the notoriously shocking
appeal for the readers, strengthen the appeal of realism, that has already been established
by Ahmad Ali. Ahmad Ali, First book ‘Angaray’ i.e ‘Burning Coal’ was in his own
words, a brave word adolescent book. This collection was criticized and banned by the
Government. From Manto to Moiuddin, let me come to the conclusion. From Manto to
Moinuddin, there is the story of silent men who overlook the compromises that women
make. This idea of Realism slaps down popular “ghairat narratives of the society”. Critics
of social realist figures have been blaming this figure that they are lusty for cheap
popularity but the harshest socialist Saadat Hassan Manto tolerateed more sufferings than
reward in his short life. This ultimate truth bring balance and positive change in society”
4.13.4 Example 9
In another example, conference participant presented the theme of Allama Iqbal.
He created a logical relevance of themes with the ideas of some other writers like
Ghazali, Ibn-e-Arabi etc. In the creation of this relation, he identified different themes
which were related to mystical and philosophical ideology. The relationship of these two
ideologies helped him in building the logical sequence. As he said:
“The most famous critique of Ghazali comes from the deconstruction of religious
thoughts, there is one turn in Ghazali’s thought and I think that it is two year period, and
between Ghazali last four or five years, he withdraws himself from public debates, and he
comes back, his approach is no longer theological explication mode, he is more mystical
and he becomes more philosophical, and he starts then theorizing in the pattern of Arabi,
and the question of love. …Right and that strain, Iqbal Criticized in reconstruction of
religious thoughts. Now Ibn-e- Fhmia is most famous for his Aljawabus Sahi that is his
enticement for the concept of trinity and the concept of Wahdat-ul-wajood, in which Ibn-
e-Fehmia argued that creation and creator cannot be won… Right and the reason that they
cannot be won is the creation is in flux and they cannot be won at the moment. The
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creation would engulf the creator itself. It’s like if you believe that the God is static
itself.. Right and you attribute certain attributes of GOD. Then you cannot have wahdat-
ul-wajood, Right … you see these are the people that Iqbal chooses as philosophical
influences.”
4.13.5 Example 10
This example shows the sequential link of the various parts of the presentation.
The topic of the presentation was “Recent Trends in Pakistani Protest Songs; A Critical
Discourse Analysis”. The presentation initiated by describing the background of the study
that “however, when it comes to Pakistan’s protest songs on electronic media, in a sense
it shows the emergence of new media … on social media. It has also entered into an
exciting phase because of social and political up heaven in the country.” while
elaborating the background of the study, presenter emerged the idea of “media and new
social media”, she said that “when I collected the data, I found that the youth is involved.
Media, politics and youth, they have mainly one domain.. that is power. Or somehow
interconnected due to power.” The purpose of her study was to explore the link between
media and society, as she said “Power of media has inspired many different disciplines
like Linguistics, Semiotics, pragmatics and discourse studies of course. Media affects hoe
we learn to interact with others and how we interact with the world. It is not only
reflected through the media but also shaped through the media. This is two way process,
our identities are shaped through the media and media is changing because of us. So this
is what we will be talking about.” Furthermore, she elaborated the aim of study as “this is
one of the recent trends in Pakistan. Focusing on the recent trends in Pakistani protest
songs from the linguistic and semiotic perspective and how these songs linguistically and
semiotically create meanings at the level of text, discursive practices and structure.” She
set the criteria for data collection and said “Now criteria of my data collection, wo kia
cheez hay jiska may nay analysis kia. Jesa kay may nay shoro may hi kaha kay may
nay data collect kia from political songs [As I already told you in beginning that I
collected my data from political songs] which termed as sociopolitical songs. This is
genre of protest songs. I have taken the data from the turn of the decades i.e. 2012 how I
have selected so the idea is popularity...number of viewers on youtube. Two lac was the
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minimum number that I have because during the last two years, there is a very big
political upheaval.” (The researchers selected four songs keeping in view the frequency
of viewers of the songs on Youtube during the years 2011 to 2012). After describing the
process of data collection, she elaborated the research framework for her research and
stated “ye char songs han, in ko ham dekhain gay, critical discourse analysis ko
apply Karen gay. Or dekhain gay k how the meanings are being created through all
that. [These are four songs; we shall see and apply critical discourse analysis. We shall
see how meanings are created?] So we have this Fairclough model of critical discourse
analysis 1989 and 1994 and semiotic framework of Berger. I have combined these two
frameworks”. I found that the presenter spent less time on describing literature review as
she herself said, “bohat ziada time nahi guzaron gi literature review may bus thora
hi time lon gi, ham jab bhi baat kartay han. [I shall not spend much time in describing
literature review] Whenever we use the term critical, whenever the word critical comes, it
is related to power, it donated and it denotes both power. Whenever we talk about critical
discourse analysis, it is related to power or power relations, power of youth, power of
media and power of politics, three things that I have already told you. Wohi teen
dimensions jo may nay ap ko batai thi..Lekin aj jo ham dekhain gay verbal and
visual both.” [I have already told you three dimensions but now we shall use two
dimensions verbal and visual.] After brief literature review, she elaborated the analysis of
collected data and proposed “we would look at three things us ka text k uskay text
may kia hay, uski description ko dekhain gay kay us may kia hay. We look at the
processing analysis … iski interpretation kay us may kia hay. Third level is the
social analysis level kay us may kia hay.. we would explain with relation to the society.
Wohi cheez hay jo Fairclough nay is diagram ki form may di hay. [We shall look at
three things; First is what is in that particular text of songs? How the songs have been
presented? And third is its social analysis.] The song is Aalo Anday by Begairat Brigade.
The song was not released on television, the singers themselves said that they tried to
negotiate but there was apprehension that it was censored very heavily so it was not
released on social media. Remember we are looking at it critically …. Critical Discourse
Analysis. I shall pick some aspects from text, then I show you kay ye hy text may? [I
shall show you the text.] The presenter further raised some questions in the mind of the
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audience to develop/enhance the interest and curiosity of the audience; she said “… is
ganay kay baray may meray zehan kuch sawal han jesay [I have some questions in
my mind regarding this song.] what is the place of production? Could this text be
produced earlier than this? Is this simple a popular music song? Or how could this
discourse be produces outside Pakistan anywhere else? What contextual factors involved
in the production and interpretation of this song? Two way relationships someone is
producing and we are looking at it. Finally I will be explaining with reference to the
society.” She further explained the data through various images extracted from the video
of the songs as she said “see the images, ye dekhain lagta hay koi news channel hay
jahan news chalai ja rahi hay. This is the part of the song, har cheez emergency
bana di gai hay. Har cheez critical bana kay dekhai jati hay. [Look, this is looking
like some news channel where news is being announced. Everything is portrayed as if
there is some kind of emergency.] Look at the pictures how the meanings are created. Ye
sab images han song may dollars kay, pounds kay, pesay kay … ye dekhain yahan
pay likha hua hay kay baghair peson kay meri file pass kara do. [The images of
dollars, pounds and money are show in this video. Look, it is written over here to forward
my file without money.] All the texts tell the story. By the way agar kisi nay song
dekha ho tu ye likha hua tha “Shehzad Roy nay gana gaya, kisi ko samajh nhi aya.
Aagay.. aagay.. Angelina Jolie Pakistan ai tab un ko samajh may aya. [By the way, if
somebody has seen the song, it is written over there that Shehzad Roy has sung that song,
nobody could understand that. When Angelena Jolie came to Pakistan then they were
able to understand.] Again irony and satire, which is linked.” At the end, presenter gave
the conclusion and finally findings of her presentation and added “Institutionalized
practices of songs are being changing. Jesay Faiz Ahmad Faiz kay ganay han. Satire,
pehlay bi tha, irony pehlay bi thi, nothing new in this. Crude humour hay, jesay
bilkul third class, low class logon wala. Rap add kia hua hay. Text clips ham atay
han, us kay baad abusive language bohat ziada use hui hay. [There are some songs of
Faiz Ahmad Faiz, these are very good. The techniques of satire and irony are utilized in
old times as well but trends are changing now like this is crude humor of third class
people. Rap has been added. There are text clips and there is excessive use of abusive
language.]”
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The overall plan of presentation is as follows:
Figure 4.5: Overall Lesson plan of Example 5
The presenter followed proper formal presentation plan. The ideas are logically arranged
and supported with visual images and examples from the data. It is not presupposed by
the presenter that the attendees were already familiar with the song, so she played a little
part of the song for the audience.
Background of Research
What is media and Social Media
Media Discourse Aims of Current Research Introduction to the Study
Criteria of Data Collection
Research Framework
Literature Review
Analysis Explanation through Examples
Conclusion
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4.13.6 Example 11
The presentation started with the brief introduction of the presenter, followed by
introduction and purpose of the study. To create the interest of the audience, the presenter
said “We are going to start our presentation today and it is slightly different from the
other topics of today. It is related to the different levels of language as we just gone
through. It will take you back either you have taught at O-Level., junior level school,
sorry secondary level school. It will take you back there and if you have no teaching
experience of that particular level, it will take you back to your school time. All right...”
while introducing the core idea of her research, she elaborated her research question as
“Are Activities Involving cognitive under skills responsible for facilitating for effective
reading skills in learners. The basic focus is high cognitive skills here.” she further
pointed out the reviewed literature briefly which stated “cognitive development and
“ways to improve understanding” like “understanding that can be improved through
word-meaning activities, reading aloud, facts description etc.” The presenter’s point of
view is “When you give them (students) questions even low in nature, there will be points
where there will be full stop there… Right. Critical thinking will stop at that position.
Now if you give them high nature problems like you giving them facts, you give them
situations, you bring the surrounding(into consideration), there is a feel of environment,
then they critically think and they will solve that and there will no limit to it.” She further
described research methodology which stated that population and sample and method of
data collection: “Sample was 34 students. They were from semi-government and private
sector…. Right you know they were just randomly picked. There were six teachers of the
same level. The students were from class 8. The teachers were those who teach these
students. The tool which we selected was a passage selected from Dawn
magazine.”(Comprehension passage is designed further which was given to the students
as an activity to solve)As it is traditional pattern of research based presentations that
results are at the end, so in this presentation, the presenter presented the results and
recommendations at the end: “Result was The students of semi government sector. all of
them started asking questions like how should I solve that? Should we try to find the
answers from the given passage? Are we supposed to pick it up from the text and write as
it is? This is basically related to the concepts which the teachers are not giving to their
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students. That is freedom to work. Every step is like they take ungli pakro or chalao [At
every step, they do spoon feeding]. It’s very simple thing like they just have to read and
answer the questions. Thanks God for the private sector that their students are doing these
activities. I am not saying that these are best best schools. The six questions were given to
the students and they move from very low cognitive skills to very high cognitive skills.
Result were surprisingly that both private and semi government students just picked the
answers from the passage without any change and wrote that. The sentence is long, they
wrote the whole sentence. They did not skip the end wala part till the full stop. [They did
not skip last part.] They did not understand the question.” The proposed
recommendations were “teachers are focusing on reading, vocabulary building, writing
but the result oriented part is missing. The activities should be based on “silent reading,
jigsaw reading, difficult words drills and framing questions” and instructor should keep
in mind the aspect of cognitive development. The overall presentation plan is as follows:
Figure 4.6: Overall Lesson plan of Example 6
Introduction of presenter
Introduction To Study
Literature Review
What is understanding?
Cognitive Development
Methodology
Findings/Results and recommendations
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4.14 Relative Relevance in Conference Presentations
Although, the conference presenters most of the times follow logical or direct
relevance (according to Grice observe the maxim of relevance) but I found some
instances which report indirect or relative relevance. To explain the idea of
relative/indirect relevance, I extracted various examples from the transcribed data which
reveal various incidences relevant to the ideology of relative relevance. In conference
presentations, I found instances of co-relational and situational relevance but recreational
relevance is rare. First example illustrates situational relative relevance while second and
third examples illustrate co relational relevance.
4.14.1 Example 12
Time management is no doubt a skill. Limited time was allocated to the presenters
to present that may be ranged from fifteen to twenty minutes. Sometimes, presenters
were unable to manage their time and looked worried during the presentation, I observed
that some presenters asked how much time is left? Or often, the facilitator warned them
that they have short time now. For example, one participant asked, “I hope that I am not
transgressing the time limit” and facilitator replied “No” and Presenter said “Ok, Ok/l/”.
In another instance, the facilitator reminded the participant about limited time of
presentation and she responded “Oops I got just five minutes left and I have to discuss
my entire paper.” These temporary interruptions are not the part of presentation; so, I
believe that this is not the non-observance of relevance rather it is relative relevance
because it fits into the pragmatic ideology of relevance. Furthermore, I feel that these
interruptions divert the attention of the listeners and even participant felt uncomfortable
when he/she realized that he/she has short time.
4.14.2 Example 13
Conference presentations are followed by question-answers sessions. Sometimes,
observers ask the questions which have no direct link to the presentation. For example, in
question-answer session, one attendee ask from the presenter “Iqbal did not know while
raising his voice about Mujahidins that he will have to face the Britishers as we are facing
now a days with different connotations, what is your view about this idea”. Although the
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question did not have any direct link with the idea presented in presentation but listener
/attendee felt that the presenter has sufficient knowledge about the ideology of Allama
Iqbal, so he raised the question. The response of the presenter was not direct. As the
attendee was asking about the views related to “mujahideen” while the presenter recite
another verse of Iqbal which is related to the beauty of women that this universe if
beautiful (colorful) due to women. Furthermore, he told the qualities of text and said,
“Wajood-e-zan say hay tasveer-e-kainaat may rang then women is just an object. But he
has the power to say something more than that. Text are instrumental, I mean we
instrumentalize text; for politics and for our poetics.” In the same discussion one more
attendee asked from the presenter, “As a critic, Where would you place Iqbal, I mean he
is modern, postmodern, post postmodern?” Again, instead of replying directly, initially
he praised the question and said that “students are studying him (Allama Iqbal) in
Germany and his western education polished his (presenter) skills. He further said that
Iqbal is a modern subject for him. The phrase “for him” shows that he is not quite sure
about the statement because he has not provided any adequate reference/evidence of his
statement.
4.14.3 Example 14
Conference presentations are based on research conducted by various participants,
they cannot say directly that one thing or idea is opposite or similar to the other. To
identify the similarity or difference or to extract meanings they need to justify that with
example. Initially, he described the ideology of Allama Iqbal in detail. While he wanted
to deliver the idea that Iqbal has the thoughts quite similar to Ghazali and Ibn-e-Fehmia,
he did not say that directly; rather described the ideology of both Ibn-e-Fehmia and
Ghazali and then related it by giving the ideology of both. Hence, it is presupposed by the
presenter that the attendees might not be familiar with the ideologies of Ghazali, Ibn-e-
Fehmia and Allama Iqbal, so he described their ideologies in detail. As one presenter said
that “the most famous critique of Ghazali comes from the deconstruction of religious
thoughts, there is one turn in Ghazali’s thought and I think that it is two year period, and
between Ghazali last four or five years, he withdraws himself from public debates, and he
comes back, his approach is no longer theological explication mode, he is more mystical
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and he becomes more philosophical, and he starts then theorizing in the pattern of Arabi,
and the question of love. …Right and that strain, Iqbal criticized in reconstruction of
religious thoughts. Now Ibn-e- Fhmia is most famous for his Aljawabus Sahi that is his
enticement for the concept of trinity and the concept of Wahdat-ul-wajood, in which Ibn-
e-Fehmia argued that creation and creator cannot be won… Right and the reason that they
cannot be won is the creation is in flux and they cannot be won at the moment. The
creation would engulf the creator itself. It’s like if you believe that the God is static
itself.. Right and you attribute certain attributes of GOD. Then you cannot have wahdat-
ul-wajood, Right … you see these are the people that Iqbal chooses as philosophical
influences, both at the end of the day want.
4.15 Relative Relevance in Classroom Sessions
I have divided relative relevance in three parts co-relational, recreational and
situational. I could not any incident of recreational aspect of relative relevance in
conference presentations but there are some instances of relative relevance. There can be
various reasons for that like one instructor taught during the whole semester of six
months and students got familiarity with that particular instructor so the high level of
familiarity lessen the level of formality while in conference presentations, presenters
usually do not know the audience so the low level of familiarity leads to high level of
formality and the aspect of relative relevance from recreational and occasional
perspective is relatively low in conference presentations.
4.15.1 Example 15
In the following example the instructor was asking to look at various websites to
resolve their task. Initially he tried to find that particular website through computer but
unable to open that. Then he asked for a smart phone from a guy to explore the specific
site, the guy was hesitant and the instructor said you look a bit confused as there can be
some fallacious or personal message appear in your smart phone and in that situation the
rest of the class started laughing. The conversation between instructor and students is as
follows:
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“I want you to look at those studies that will give you an idea how to make your
own business plan? Acha. [OK] Who has the copy of that business plan to which I am
talking about? Ok. Let’s look at the organizational plan. Now I want to do is, first is the
form of ownership which we are going to discuss now. We are going to do different
forms of ownership and what type of ownership that you will have? Is may koi ghalat
message tu nhi a jay ga? [I hope, I shall not receive any wrong message in that] Is liay
ghabraay huay han./L/”
S: “nhi nhi Sir. Asi koi baat nhi. [No sir, it’s not like that] /L/”
4.15.2 Example 16
The instructor discussed the topic of paragraph writing. She told that there was a
logical sequence in paragraph writing like how to boil an egg; you have to follow some
order otherwise the idea will not be clear to the students. She further talked about
Zubaida Aapa who is public figure in Pakistan and famous for telling home remedies
(nuskhay) and cooking. Most of the youngsters make fun of her when the instructor
mentioned her name and said that she (Zubaida Aapa) knew everything, the reset of the
class started laughing. Hence, the instructor presupposed that the students already knew
about the public figure, Zubaida Apa. Although talking about Zubaida Apa is nothing to
do with paragraph writing but it seems that the instructor wanted to break the
monotonous routine of the class. In her own words:
“What is the third point? Interest to read story book. But this will not happen
when you will read chemistry book or other. How many of you have interest to read
chemistry book like novel or story book? Ok, that picks of another kind of experience ok
right logically from beginning to end. Well this is when you are writing about some event
for describing. For example, if you are asking to write paragraph to boil an egg what will
you do? You need to have that you know the logical order, that comes at end of process
here you are describing the process ok so you need to have that orders …. Logical
orders. Zubaidaapa is talking about everything if you listen carefully you don’t need any
doctor, she is known to talk about everything ok coming back to lesson girls and boys
using active verbs help the reader to visualize.”
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In the same classroom, the instructor was going to tell the joke to the students but
soon realized that the presence of the researcher and said to the students that she would
tell them some other day.
In another lecture the instructor initially told the students that they were not
supposed to make a noise as this lecture would be recorded and in response, students
laughed; as he said, “Ye device hay jis ka matlab hay k aj ap logon nay ziada shor nhi
dalna. Ziada mazak nhi karna ye record ho ra hay” ( L)
S: Sir, phir lecture kesay ho ga. [Sir, How will you carry on this lecture?] /L
The former example is related to recreational relative relevance and the latter is
related to situational relative relevance. Although, these given examples show that these
are not the part of lecture as such but these are the part and parcel of that particular
context and fit into the thematic ideology of context in pragmatics.
4.15.3 Example 17
In another example, the instructor delivered the lecture on Speaking and various
models of speaking. At the end of the class, she started discussing the previous trip to
Thandyani with the students as they spent very good time there. I judged through the
conversation that some students hired a car while some students availed university
transport to go to trip. The conversation between the students and the teacher is as
follows:
S: Mam ham bi wahan thay. [Madam, we were also there]
T: Ap bethay kahan han. Ap tu havaon may uray han. [You were not there,
actually you were flying in the air.]
S: mam enjoy karnay kay liay gay thay. [Madam, we went there to enjoy]
T: abi ap kay parents ko pata nhi hay ka wahan kia kuch kartay rehtay han.
[Your parents know that you are going but they do not know what you were doing
there]
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S: un ko bataya tha mam. [We told them Mam]
T: ka yap log is tarha wapas ain gay. [That you will behave like that at picnic.]
S: unhain pata tha kay ham ja rahay han. [They know we are going]
T: unhain pata tha ka yap ja rahay han. Unhain pata tha ka ap seat pay beth
kay ja rahay han yeh tu nhi pata tha kay hawaon may urrr kay ja rahay han.
/i/ [They know that you are going but they donot know what you did there?]
S: mam enjoyment kay liay gay thay. [Mam, we went there to enjoy]
T: Theek hay, lekin apni safety ka bhi khayal rakhna chahiye. .[Fine, but you
should take care of yourself]
S: mam mosam bhi acha tha us din. [Madam, weather was very pleasant that day.]
T: ji mosam tu wesay aj bhi acha hay. [Yes, Weather is awesome today as well. Aj
bi mosam hay trip ka. [Even today, weather is good that you can arrange trip.]
Next time, be careful about your safety. Take care. Allah Hafiz. See you in
next class.
4.15.4 Example 18
In another example, the instructor asked the students to write the most
embarrassing moment of your life. Different students wrote different incidents. Similarly,
one student described the incident which was hilarious and the rest of the class started
laughing. The incident described by the student is as follows:
“Ma’am first time in my life I was travelled to Karachi by air,I don’t know well
about plane and uhh the washroom system of the plane then I uhh uhh and then I walked
with my brothers and when I came back from ahh I said that “lota nahi tha! [There was
no lota there]”
I found that the incident shared by the student in the class is funny and linked to
the topic as well. Moreover, it bursted the whole class into laughter but the incident is
quite relevant to the context and task of the class.
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4.15.5 Example 19
I observed that occasionally, the instructor explained the whole concept in English
language while some students are unable to understand that particular concept and asked
the instructor to explain in Urdu language. In the following example, the instructor
explained the concept of one subject of social sciences. Although the instructor said that
the concept will be easy for you but the students were unable to understand that and
asked to elucidate that in Urdu language.
T: “There is no condition between this condition and this condition. This is the
investigation of convergence in the neighborhood of infinity and this one is saying that
our series are with positive terms only. There is no relationship between those conditions.
Don’t confuse. This test will remind some questions from your midterm exam so it will
be interesting for you.”
S: “Sir please in Urdu, Concept samajh nhi aya. [Sir, could you please explain
this concept in Urdu?”
In another example, the instructor is instructing about essay writing. In an
interactive classroom, she asked various questions about essay writing and connected it to
paragraph writing. During the discussion, one student asked whether the punctuation will
be included in exam or not. Although, it was not related to the topic which was under
discussion but she replied to the students and it fits into the pragmatic ideology of
context. In her own words:
Teacher: so waseem will tell me about Essay?
Waseem: An essay is a collection of paragraphs basically pointing the maid idea or
the main subject.
Teacher: well …good, collection of ideas ….
Teacher: Moving on …from here yes Arousa what is the meaning of essay. Please
class listen to what she is trying to say….! Yes?
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Arousa: An essay is a group of many paragraphs having main idea related to a
particular subject and comprising of basic ideas.
Teacher: Good …very good .Arousa!
Teacher: OK. What is the page of the…
Students: 48 I can’t find…. What is the page number bacho [Students/kids]?
Student: Punctuation naikrni?
Teacher: G?
Student: Punctuation?
Another student: (48) (48)
Teacher: Nai bachay [No son] punctuation was not included in our exam…
Course outline. OK! So please look at this diagram that you have in your…That is on
page number 50. And you can see the diagram tells us this… this actually talks about
different units of an essay. A formal essay structure and the first part, first unit is
introductory paragraph in which you have thesis statement so topics and you
might…well… this is /r/ actually a… basically the diagram is about an argumentative
essay right but we are talking about any essay, general structure of the essay right? OK
Instructors and students mostly use Urdu and English in classrooms. When
students were asked about the relevance of instructors in classrooms; 40 % students were
agree and 24 % were strongly agree that the instructor remain relevant in classroom. The
results show that 64% students were agree that the instructor remain relevant (to the topic
or context) in classrooms.
4.16 Maxim of Quantity
Grice’s maxim of quantity states that speaker should be as informative as required
and he should not contribute more information than required. In Cooperative principle,
Grice stated two extremes of observance and non-observance of maxim of quantity but he
did not propose any criteria to measure the quantity of information delivered by the
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speakers. Hence, there are two known approaches to analyze quantity of information.
First, it can be calculated through the number of words uttered by the speakers in given
time period.
However, testifying the required number of words let us say per minute may
depend on one and/or several linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. For instance
linguistic factors such as speaker’s linguistic competence and competency on the topic
spoken on might contribute significantly in articulation of rate words per minute. But
how much rate of word per minute is required to be spoken mainly depend on some
extra-linguistic factors such as genre, audience and context especially.
Genre is a major determiner of uttering required number of words, for example,
word limited is usually expected in case of performing written genres such as research
articles, book reviews, and essays. Such constraints of limiting rate of words on spoken
genres are generally imposed by allocating total time instead of words of speech/talk to
the speaker.
In addition to genre, the second extra-linguistic factor which determines the
required quantity is purely based on amount of information anticipated by the audience.
The speaker needs to consider expectations, level and response of the audience in order to
decide about rate of words to be spoken. Depending on these manifestations of audience
it may desire to listen more in less words and vice versa.
Besides genre and audience, it is context which plays major role in determining
articulation of required number of words within particular situation. When human beings
interact with each other, they share contextual information explicitly and/or implicitly
while exchanging idea with certain purpose of achieving communicative goals. This
sharing of contextual information may occur at different level of context including
linguistic, situational and cultural which are better catered through different theories of
pragmatics. These theories help understanding different manifestations of context in
deciphering the intended meanings of interlocutors. Firstly, linguistic context refers to the
context within discourse like coherence and cohesion in speech. Secondly, situational
context decode language used in a specific environment/situation, time and territory.
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Finally, cultural context deals with pragmatics of linguistic codes to the epoch, culture
and custom of speakers. Hence, the contextual use of language appears to be significant
feature of academic discourse where speakers (teachers and presenters) display their
linguistic performance according to the context. For instance, teachers utter words during
classroom sessions according to the need of the students in that specific atmosphere. This
atmosphere is, furthermore, affected by various generic constraints such as content to be
taught, personal beliefs of teachers and students, institutional norms and intended goal to
be achieved through these classroom sessions. Hence, in sum, these are the various
factors related to context are most likely to affect rate of words produced by the speakers.
These factors at time may determine the actual requirement of quantity of words to be
uttered, for example, the same factor let us say content to be taught may be affected by
some other factor such as institutional norms which would result into saying more words
on the topic and vice versa.
Similar to discussion made in previous paragraphs on factors affecting quantity of
words to be uttered by the speaker, in conference presentations too these factors, to the
noticeable extent, affect rate of number of words to be spoken by the presenters.
Moreover, contrary to the expectation of the audience of classroom session, it is
presupposed by the presenters that listeners already have some idea about the topic of
presentations; hence, more information is conveyed in less words in this genre. However,
establishing an absolute yardstick of rate of words seems hard to establish for this genre
too.
For quantitative analysis, Lisa B Marshall (2013), Brizendine (2006) and Miller
(2006) projected the idea of ideal speakers that concentrates on the ideal delivery of
words uttered by the speakers per minute. So, this section encompasses the analysis of
maxim of quantity at two levels. Firstly, quantity of words uttered by the speakers and
secondly, contextual analysis of transcribed data.
4.16.1 Ideology of Ideal Speaker
Lisa B Marshall (2013) has pointed out that an ideal speaker can utter 110 to 150
words per minute during formal conversation. Natural informal speech may results in
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utterance of the more rapid words. In a situation when speakers are in a hurry and they
intend to deliver a very important message, then they utter words quickly. Hence, the
WPM will be higher than in normal formal conversation. Furthermore, she said that there
is a cultural and personal aspect as well which may affect the delivery of words per
minutes. Brizendine (2006) said that WPM uttered by females is nearly 250 while males
WPM are 125. Having a look at the psychological perspective of speech Miller (2006)
said that the faster speaker of 195 WPM is more convincing and persuasive than the
speaker with 102 WPM in counter-attitudinal conversation. Binnenpoorte (2005)
recorded fifty speeches of male participants and fifty eight females and concluded. They
concluded that Male participants contributed 223 WPM while female participants
contributed 220 WPM with pauses while without pauses 266 WPM for females and 274
WPM for males. In this case WPM of males is higher than females.
4.16.2 Ideology of Ideal Speaker and Delivery of Information in Academic Discourse
Keeping in view the idea of ideal speaker, the quantity of the information
delivered is analyzed. I calculated the words per minute (WPM) as notified by Lisa B
Marshal, Binnenpoorte and Brizendine. The following formula will be employed to
calculate the words per minute.
Words per minute = Total words spoken
Total time consumed
I recorded the data of fifteen male instructors. The detailed description of duration
of class, total words uttered by the male instructors in the class and words spoken per
minute for male participants is presented in the table 4.31.
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Table 4.31: The Detailed Description of Male Instructors
Male Instructor Time Consumed Total Words (uttered by
instructor)
Words per minute
(approximately)
M1 1:03:38 4239 67 words
M2 44:41 3100 70 words
M3 45:34 5100 111 words
M4 51:57 7110 139 words
M5 51:53 3450 66 words
M6 50:54 3388 58 words
M7 54:08 3310 61 words
M8 50:01 3075 62 words
M9 40:39 4010 102 words
M10 43:01 3388 78 words
M11 43:11 2700 62 words
M12 44:26 4210 96 words
M13 1:04:01 4198 65 words
M14 59:38 3810 65 words
M15 57:10 4200 73 words
Total 765 minutes 58288 1175
The above table shows the complete picture of the words spoken per minute by
male instructor. The highest frequency of words uttered by the male participant in
classroom is 111 words per minute and lowest frequency is 58 words per minute. If we
see the criteria of Lisa B Marshal, only two speakers fulfill the criteria of ideal speaker.
Binnenpoorte (2005) said that males contributed 223 WPM. If I compare the results of
recorded and transcribed data, there is no participants uttered 223 WPM. The total range
of uttered words lies from 58 to 139 words. From quantitative perspective only two
speakers fulfill the criteria of ideal speaker as far as Lisa B Marshall’s point of view is
concerned and no participant fulfill the criteria of ideal speaker, if I analyze it from
Binnenpoorte’s and Brizendine’s point of view.
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Table 4.32: The Detailed Description of Female Instructors
Female Instructors Time Consumed Total Words (uttered by
instructor)
Words per minute
(approximately)
F1 1:2:30 5360 87 words
F2 50 minutes 2105 42 words
F3 1:3:00 6038 96 words
F4 01:07:15 6124 92 words
F5 40 minutes 2345 59 words
F6 38 minutes 2790 74 words
F7 50 minutes 3232 65 words
F8 50 minutes 1610 33 words
F9 49 minutes 5586 114 words
F10 1:3:21 4681 74 words
F11 58:3:00 4590 80 words
F12 51:40:00 3220 63 words
F13 57:4:30 4510 79 words
F14 55:23:00 4410 80 words
F15 34:28:00 3100 91 words
Total 755 minutes 69704 1129
Table 4.32 shows the words uttered by female participants per minute with
complete description of time and total words uttered during the whole lectures. It is
observed that only one participant satisfies the criteria of Lisa B Marshall and no female
participant observe the criteria of spoken words presented by Binnenpoorte. The total
range of uttered words lies from 33 to 114 words. Total recorded data of female
classrooms is 755 minutes and total words uttered by the instructors are 69704.
The data was collected from two international conferences; ‘The Literary Present
and the Post-Colonial Condition’ and ‘First Kashmir International Conference on
Linguistics’. The detailed description of time and total words spoken per minute by the
male presenters in ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ is described in
detail in the following table.
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Table 4.33: The Detailed Description of Male Presenters
Male Presenters Time Consumed Total Words (uttered by
Presenter)
Words per minute
(approximately)
MP1 16:23 2277 139
MP 2 14:44 2239 152
MP 3 12:07 1720 142
MP 4 20 3020 151
MP 5 13 1794 138
MP 6 16 1888 118
MP 7 15:13 2115 139
MP 8 10 1510 151
MP 9 18 2808 156
MP 10 10:51 1562 144
Total 148 minutes 20933 1430
It is clear from the above description that all the participants fulfill the criteria of
Lisa B Marshall (110 to 150 WPM). Brizendine (2006) presented the idea that females
uttered nearly 250 WPM and male participants uttered 125 WPM while this data shows
that male participants are somehow near to the described idea of words while female
participants uttered less word than described by Brizendine. The presented data shows
that no participants observe the criteria of Binnenpoorte. The highest frequency of WPM
of male participants in ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ is 159 and
lowest frequency of WPM is 112.
The conference presentations of ten female participants have been extracted from
‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ for analysis. The detailed
description of time, total words spoken by each female participant and total words spoken
per minute by ten female presenters in ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial
Condition’ is as follows:
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Table 4.34: The Detailed Description of Female Presenters in ‘The Literary Present And The Post-
Colonial Condition’
Female Presenters Time Consumed/m Total Words (uttered by
presenter)
Words per minute
(approximately)
FP1 15:41 2804 188
FP2 10 1580 158
FP3 21 2327 110
FP4 14:38 2128 149
FP5 10 1420 142
FP6 12:38 1819 144
FP7 14:47 2483 168
FP8 16:50 2541 151
FP9 12:27 1377 110
FP10 11 1661 151
Total 139 minutes 30749 2227
The above table demonstrates that all the participants fulfill the criteria of Lisa B
Marshall (110 to 150 WPM). Brizendine (2006) presented the idea that females uttered
nearly 250 WPM and male participants uttered 125 WPM while this data shows that male
participants are somehow near to the described idea of words while female participants
uttered less word than described by Brizendine. The presented data shows that no
participants observe the criteria of Binnenpoorte. The highest frequency of WPM of
female participants in ‘The Literary Present and the Post-Colonial Condition’ is 188 and
lowest frequency of WPM is 110.
The conference presentations of ten male Presenters have been extracted from
‘First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics’ for analysis. The detailed
description of time, total words spoken by each male participant and total words spoken
per minute by ten male presenters in ‘First Kashmir International Conference on
Linguistics’ is presented in Table 5.35.
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Table 4.35: The Detailed Description of Male Presenters In ‘First Kashmir International Conference
On Linguistics’
Male Presenters Time Consumed Total Words (uttered by
presenter)
Words per minute
(approximately)
MP11 19:39 2338 119
MP12 20 2620 131
MP13 16:04 2281 142
MP14 28 3892 139
MP15 10 1520 152
MP16 22 2860 130
MP17 21 2541 121
MP18 16:51 1853 110
MP19 19 2888 152
MP20 12 1656 138
Total 183 minutes and 30
seconds
24449 1334
The data shows that all the presenters satisfy the criteria of Lisa B Marshall (110
to 150 WPM). Brizendine (2006) presented the idea that females uttered nearly 250
WPM and male participants uttered 125 WPM while this data shows that male
participants are somehow near to the described idea of words described by Brizendine.
The presented data shows that no participants observe the criteria of Binnenpoorte. The
highest words per minute frequency (WPM) of male participants in ‘First Kashmir
International Conference on Linguistics’ was152 and lowest frequency (WPM) was 110.
Similarly conference presentations of ten female Presenters have been extracted
from ‘First Kashmir International Conference on Linguistics’ for this research. The
detailed description of time, total words spoken by each female participant and total
words spoken per minute by these presenters in ‘First Kashmir International Conference
on Linguistics’ is described in table 4.36.
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Table 4.36: The Detailed Description of Male Presenters In ‘First Kashmir International Conference
On Linguistics’
Female Presenters Time Consumed Total Words (uttered by
presenter)
Words per minute
(approximately)
FM11 15:31 2296 148
FM12 17:13 2272 132
FM13 24 3792 158
FM14 10 1520 152
FM15 10 1640 164
FM16 10 1490 149
FM17 30 4320 144
FM18 26 4212 162
FM19 11 1573 143
FM20 10 1580 158
Total 163:44 24695 1510
The quantitative analyses of conference presentations show that most of the male
and female presenters follow the criteria of ideal speaker as far as words per minute are
concerned. Almost all the presenters follow the criteria of ideal speaker with respect to
the WPM given by Lisa B Marshall and Brizendine but do not follow the criteria of
Binnenpoorte.
The highest frequency of WPM of male instructors in classrooms is 111 and the
lowest frequency of WPM is 58. The highest frequency of WPM of female participants in
classrooms is 114 and lowest frequency is 33. The lowest frequency of WPM of female
instructors in classrooms is comparatively low than male instructors. The highest
frequency of WPM of male participants in conference is 159 and lowest frequency is 112.
On the other hand, the highest frequency of WPM of female participants in conference is
188 and lowest frequency is 110. I found that WPM of female presenters is high in
classrooms and conference presentations while lowest frequency of WPM of male
presenters is high in classrooms and conference. Table 5.7 clarifies the whole picture on
WPM of male and female participants.
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Table 4.37: WPM of Male and Female Participants
Type Gender Highest Frequency
WPM
Lowest Frequency
WPM
Classrooms Male 111 58
Classrooms Female 114 33
Conference Male 159 112
Conference Female 188 110
The total time of lecture recording of male instructors is 765 minutes and total
words uttered during this time were 58288 while the total time of lecture recording of
female instructors was 755 minutes and total words uttered during this time are 69704.
The total time of conference recording of male presenters was 331 minutes and total
words uttered during this time are 49144 while the total time of lecture recording of
female instructors is 302 minutes and total words uttered during this time were 55444.
The results show that the frequency of total words per minute uttered by female
participants is relatively high in classrooms and conference i.e. 92 WPM in classrooms
and 183 WPM in conference presentations than male participants who have 76 WPM in
classrooms and 148 words per minute in conference presentation. Table 4.38 gives the
complete picture of total time, total words and WPM.
Table 4.38: Total Time, Total Words and WPM of Male and Female Participants
Type Gender Total Time(in
minutes)
Total Words Total WPM
Classrooms Male 765 58288 76
Classrooms Female 755 69704 92
Conference Male 331 49144 148
Conference Female 302 55444 183
The statistical results of the recorded data shows that both male and female
instructors do not fulfill the criteria of ideal speaker presented by Lisa B Marshall,
Brizendine and Binnenpoorte. As far as conference presentations are concerned, male
presenters fulfill the criteria of Liza B Marshall while female presenters speak more than
the criteria of ideal speaker. As far Brizendine ideology of ideal speaker is concerned
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(250 WPM for females and 125 WPM for males), male presenters speak more than the
described criteria while female participants speak less than the described criteria while no
participant fulfill the criteria of Binnenpoorte (223 WPM for male and 220 WPM for
females)
I observed that in classrooms, majority of the instructors use English and Urdu
languages in classrooms. When the students were asked about the clarity of concepts and
orderliness of ideas, majority of the students agree that the instructors remain orderly and
avoid obscurity of expressions in classrooms as 38 % students were agree and 43 %
students were strongly agree that the instructors remain clear (avoid obscurity of
expression) in classrooms and 39 % students were agree and 31 % were strongly agree
that the instructor remain brief and to the point in classrooms.
4.16.3 Limitations of Maxim of Quantity
For maxim of quantity, Grice has given two main postulates. First is “make your
contribution as informative as is required during conversation” and second is “do not
make your contribution more informative than required.” The philosophy of ideal speaker
allows the speaker to speak given amount of words (as presented by Lisa B Marshall,
Brizendine and Binnepoorte). Suppose
i. A has said a statement B
ii. There is an expression C which is more informative than B.
iii. But the given word limit (WPM) strategy to measure ideal speakers behavior does
not allow him to speak more than the limit because this may not adhere to the
standard of ideal speaker. There can be a possibility if the speaker observe the
maxim of quantity, he may flout the maxim of relevance because the speaker may
not be possible to deliver the idea in a given word limit.
iv. The use of less words (WPM) may mean that the speaker wants to avoid a breach;
not to deliver extra information and the use of more words (WPM) may mean that
the speaker wants to breach; make his/her contribution as informative as required
and he should not exceed from the given word limit. But practically, it is not
possible for the speakers to count the words at the spot in a given situation.
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4.16.3.1 Measurement of Quantity of Information
I feel that it is not possible to measure the quantity of information deliver by the
speakers. It is relative and based on individual experiences. One sentence may fulfill the
criterion of quantity for one person; there is a possibility that it may not fulfill the criteria
for the other person. As far as postgraduate classrooms are concerned, syllabus/ course
outlines are already designed and approved by HEC and instructors teach according to
the given course outlines. They have to cover the given syllabus in a specific period of
time. They cannot teach any extra topics or cannot give the information which is not
required to the students. it is found that in almost all classrooms, instructors are found to
use two languages (English and Urdu) in classrooms and when they were asked through
questionnaires (question no 14) that “The instructor provides sufficient information
(explanation) when he/she switches from one language to another”; 32 % students were
agree and 33 % were strongly agree to the statement and it is explained in detail with
examples in previous sections.
4.16.3.2 Classroom Activities
I found various reasons of less use of words in classroom sessions. In classrooms,
instructors conduct activities like taking tests, pair work or group activities. Moreover,
they use white board (to write) or use power point slides while speaking. It may be
possible, when your brain works on two kinds of activities, the speaking speed may
lessen. In most of the recorded lectures of males and females instructors, I found that they
use white board to explain various concepts.
The instructors may ask the students to do various tasks in classrooms like
reading handouts or they may take a test. During that time, the instructors remain silent
and they play the role of an observer. Hence, they utter comparatively less words in that
time period. In the following example, the instructor asked the students to sit in groups to
discuss about essay writing. I observed that during this period, although the students
discussed but the instructor uttered only few words i.e. twenty two words per minute. It
does not mean that the instructor is not providing sufficient information or she is not an
ideal speaker. It proves the contextual use of fewer words in that particular situation.
“T: Using our previous knowledge about this particular writing now I will ask you
what an essay is. Okay you can discuss this with me but first of all discuss it in your
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group. Umar come here and sit with this group. (Meanwhile the class began discussing
with each other.)
After sometime,
Teacher: ok I think all of you have discussed .Now who will tell me the definition
of an essay. One of students raised her hand)”
4.16.3.3 Need of the Students
Instructors speak according to the need of the students. In interactive classrooms,
instructors give opportunity to the students to share their ideas and their words
delivery/minute may be low. In some other situations when students ask questions from
the instructors, the WPM uttered by the instructors may be high. In the following
example, the instructor delivered a talk on “speaking skills”; during the session, the
students asked a question from the instructor. While instructor was replying, her WPM
delivery is comparatively high i.e. 109 WPM than the previous situation.
“T: aik time may ap sun rahay ho lekin thori der baa dap bolo gay na. You will
take the place of a speaker. Theek hay. That is a role play kay kabhi ap listener ho
gay kabhi speaker ho gay. [At one time, you will be listening but after some time, you
will speak as well and you will take the place of speaker. Right. This is role play, at one
time you will be listener while the other time you will be speaker.] The idea of speaking
is clear now? Ok. What is speaking?
S: Agar koi question pochna ho tu /i/ [Do you want to ask any question?]
T: Han tu jo symbols ap kay mind may save ha nap un ko use karo gay na. Question
pochnay kay liay, for example agar may kahon kay teacher is teaching and you are
standing infront of a door. Tu ap kay mind may ye aay ga kay may poch lon kay kia may
ander ajaon? [Yes, these symbols are saved in your mind. When you want to ask some
questions, you use these symbols. You may use these symbols for permission from your
instructor to enter the class like May I come in?]
So what you will do? You will utilize those symbols which are saved in your
mind.”
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4.16.3.4 Delivery of Words in Various Contexts
The use of words in certain situation is context dependent. The speaker cannot
count the number of words in a given period of time. As far as the concept of quantity of
information is concerned, it is relative i.e. its concept varies from person to person. I
observed that the classrooms, there can be back and forth movement from formal to less
informal. In formal situation like delivering a lecture on particular topic, the delivery of
words is relatively low than the words uttered on less informal situation like telling jokes
or sharing previous events. In a situation, the instructor is discussing the previous trip; the
delivery of words in that less informal situation is high i.e. 121 WPM than teaching in
formal situation.
4.16.3.5 Limited Presentation Duration in Conference
In conference presentations, the criterion of word delivery is quite different as the
situation is highly formal and the delivery of words is high as compared to the formal and
less informal situation of classrooms. I found that limited time was given to each
presenter (10 to 20 minutes) and they have to deliver the idea of whole research paper i.e.
introduction, literature review, methodology, analysis and conclusion in that limited time.
They intended to describe the whole idea in that limited time so their uttered words
frequency is comparatively high than classrooms. I found it difficult for the presenters to
deliver the whole research paper in 10 to 15 minutes. When the presenters were intimated
about less time, they got confused or tried to wind up their presentation in that limited
time and uttered the words in comparatively high rate. The statistical results show that the
delivery of WPM of male and female presenters is comparatively high i.e. 148 WPM for
male and 183WPM for females than the delivery of WPM by male and female instructors
in classrooms i.e. 76 WPM for males and 92 WPM for females. I found that in
conference presentations, the presenters elaborate appropriate information in a proper
sequence as describe earlier in the section of maxim of relevance. The presenters cut
delivered brief presentation. One presenter said that she will not describe literature
review in detail because of the shortage of time. She gave brief description of the term
critical discourse analysis. In her own words:
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“bohat ziada time nahi guzaron gi literature review may bus thora hi time
lon gi, ham jab bgi baat kartay han. [I shall not spend much time in describing
literature review] Whenever we use the term critical, whenever the word critical comes, it
is related to power, it donated and it denotes both power. Whenever we talk about critical
discourse analysis, it is related to power or power relations, power of youth, power of
media and power of politics, three things that I have already told you.”
I found that in conferences there are thematic divisions of various topics and the
listeners who are interested in any field can attend that particular session. Furthermore,
sometimes conference presenters discussed diverse topics and broad ideas; they
presupposed that listeners have sufficient knowledge about these concepts. Hence, they
do not describe minute details of the topic. Moreover, if attendee found any difficulty in
understanding the relevant themes, they can ask questions at the end of each session.
Grice talked about the contribution of speaker that “speakers should be as
informative as required” but I feel that “speaker should be as explanatory and informative
as accordant and compatible with the current conversation” During exchange of dialogue
and delivering information, context plays a key role. The use of less words or less
information suits to the particular situation while on the other hand, often, the use of
more words and some extra information create the equilibrium in utterances. The
collected data shows that in academic discourse, academicians (instructors and
presenters) follow fixed patterns of conversation/utterance which suit to their topic. If
they feel, they need to deliver more information or they need to speak more words, they
utter accordingly. The use of more words does not mean that the speaker (instructor,
presenters) is more informative than required; rather he/she repeats the previous idea for
the understanding of the listener (students, participants). Grice (1961) himself said that
“one should not make a weaker statement rather than a stronger one unless there is a good
reason for doing so”
4.17 Maxim of Manner For maxim of manner, Grice said:
i. Speaker should be perspicuous.
ii. Speaker should be brief and orderly.
iii. Speaker should avoid the obscurity of expression.
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iv. Speaker should not be ambiguous.
I found that Gricean maxims are interrelated and one concept supports the other.
Speaker should be brief (maxim of manner) means that he should not give more
information than required (maxim of quantity). The idea of conciseness, briefness and the
use of words in classrooms and conference with reference to ideal speaker are discussed
in detail under the heading of Maxim of quantity. Grice said that the speaker should
remain relevant during conversation (Maxim of relevance) and when he/she remains
relevant, he/ she will remain orderly as well (maxim of manner), otherwise, the speaker
will not remain comprehensible to the listener. So this point is already discussed in
Sequential Relative Relevance Model of Communication (in Logical/direct relevance)
proposed by me. The rest of the postulates like speaker should be perspicuous and he/she
should avoid the ambiguity of expression and obscurity. Ambiguity or obscurity is
created when the speaker use difficult lexical items or difficult expressions. I observed,
when the students are not sure about the meaning of words or idea, he/she raise questions
and the instructors answer these questions at the spot. During conference presentations,
listeners/observers do not interrupt during the session rather they extract the contextual
meaning of the words and ask questions on ideas, ideology, methods, analysis, results and
findings. In conference presentations, observers raise questions because they are not
convinced with the idea of the presenter or they want to build the argument with the
presenter while in classrooms questions are asked because they faced difficulty in
understanding the concept. So, the observers can agree or contradict with the presenter.
Moreover, for the maxim of manner as well, I shall not use the term observance and non-
observance or flouting of maxim of manner because I believe that these terms are not
applicable in academic discourse. Although instructors use difficult lexical items or
expressions (sentences) but afterwards they explain these (difficult lexical items or
expressions) to the students, otherwise they (instructors) try to remain perspicuous.
During conference presentations, themes of the presentations are already given in the
booklet, Attendees may attend the conference presentations either, they have sufficient
background knowledge or they want look into particular theme. So it is pre supposed by
the presenters that observers have sufficient background knowledge and they (presenters)
do not give the minor details of the topic.
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4.17.1 Strategic Use of Lexical Items and Sentences
From the transcribed data, I found that most of the times, instructors remain brief
and orderly but usually they do code-switching (from English to Urdu and Urdu to
English), use ambiguous words, ironical expressions, and indirect expressions but It does
not mean that listeners/students are unable to understand them (according to Grice, this is
non-observance of maxim of manner) because in a given situation/context, these
expressions/lexical items are meaningful and follow the pragmatic ideology of meaning
in context.
4.17.2 Ease in Expression
In classrooms, instructors use easy language for the convenience of the students
and usually, they use Urdu language for the ease in understanding of expressions. In the
following example, the instructor lectured on Speaking. To confirm, whether the given
idea is clear to the students or not, she used the expressions “theek hay” and “right”. In
her own words:
“Ok. Today we shall discuss, what is speaking? Basically, when you read and
when you listen, you encode certain messages and when you speak you decode that
message. Theek hay. Kuch symbols hotay han which are saved in your mind and when
you speak in certain situation, you decode that message. Jo symbols hotay ha ap kay
mind may, jab ap kisi specific situation may enter hotay ho, tu ap kai kartay ho? Ap un
symbols ko use kartay ho. So that is speaking. Right.”
The next example is extracted from conference presentation. The topic of
presentation was based on critical discourse analysis of Pakistani songs. The presenter
wanted to tell the criteria of the songs selected for analysis. The expressions are very
lucid and clear. Although, it is found that presenter has sound proficiency in English
language, yet she switched her code from English to Urdu language. There is a possibility
that she wanted to attract the attention of the listeners by creating familiar/easy
expressions for them.
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“Now criteria of my data collection, wo kia cheez hay jiska may nay analysis kia.
Jesa kay may nay shoro may hi kha kay may nay data collect kia from political songs
which termed as sociopolitical songs [The question is How did I collect my data? I
collected my data from political songs which are termed as sociopolitical songs.] This is
genre of protest songs. I have taken the data from the turn of the decades i.e. of 2012 how
I have selected so, the idea is popularity. ..Number of viewers on youtube. Two lac was
the minimum number that I have because during the last two years, there is a very big
political upheaval. I selected four songs keeping in view the popularity criteria. Two
songs were selected from 2011 and two from 2012”
4.17.3 Use of Ambiguous Words
Some lexical items are the part of scientific vocabulary and these lexical items do
not fit into the context of describing various aspects of language. For example X-ray,
ultrasonic examination, stylistic gymnastic etc. In the following example the presenter
wanted to describe that Manto (Urdu writer) conducted in depth study of the post-
independence era of Muslims of Sub-Continent and he used the expressions:
“Manto in his Urdu short fiction X-Rays most part in post-independence body
whereas Daniyal Mueenuddin in his recently published short stories with the title “In
others Rooms, In Other Wonders” gives a kind of Ultrasonic examination of
predominantly contemporary Pakistani society. “
In another example, the presenter wanted to explain the extravagant use of
stylistic devices by modern Pakistani writers. She said, “Most of the modern Pakistani
writers who are writing in English language, element of stylistic gymnastic and flowery
expressions are the dominant features of their writing style.”
Although the lexical items “X-ray”, “ultrasonic examination” and “stylistic
gymnastic” are not usually used to describe the various aspects of language but no one
asked the question related to the use of these words during question-answer session. It
seems that the observers were quite mature to understand the expressions or they drew
the contextual meanings of the statements and uses of these lexical items fulfilled the
criteria of communicative intention of the speaker.
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In another example, the presenter explored the notion of self and others in Bapsi
Sidhva’s writings. She used various words which are not understood by a common man
but the contextual meanings may be understood by the observer like “problematize”,
“desanctified”, “multifaceted hegemonic structure”, “homogeneous monolith
community” and “Gynocriticism”, In her own words:
“this paper explore the paradigm of post-colonial studies that have problematize
and desanctified the notion of self and other, us and them, center and margin, the very
notion of others who exist on the other side of the gender culture and racial boundaries,
have put under the scrutiny by the writers like Bapsi Sidhva, who turned their gays
inward and look at the multifaceted hegemonic structure that exist in so called
homogeneous monolith community, occupying all margins. The notion of others as lack
the object essentialize the image of self has been utilized in this context to contemplate
the image of self has been utilized to contemplate the presence of others in the same
sisterly communities. The notion of community is tightly closed to the other
Gynocriticism that show the essential attributes of care, nurture, selfless devotion united
resistance to oppression based ethos of motherhood an sisterhood , nurturing the realm of
maternal instead of paternal. Gynocriticism is related to the law of mother, not with the
law of father. The creation of this maternal domain is directly opposing the paternal
domain, the law of the father.”
4.17.4 Hedges
I found that presenters and instructors use hedges during presentations (question-
answer session) and classrooms). Hasselgreen (2004) identified eight hedges which are
mostly used by speaker in her collected data; these are “I think”, “like”, “sort/kind of”, “a
bit”, “just”, “or something”, “not really” and “everything/that/stuff/things. Wilamova
(2005) stated that hedges weakens the statement and the use of hedges create negative
polite discourse while Neary-Sundquist (2013) said that hedges play significant role in
interpersonal communication and create equilibrium in conversation by moderating the
force of utterance and by creating the certainty in its content. I shall explore the effects of
using hedges in classrooms and conference presentations.
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The end of the conference presentation is usually followed by question-answer
session. During question answer session, one observer asked question from the presenter
“As a critic, Where would you place Iqbal, I mean he is modern, postmodern, post
postmodern?” the presenter replied:
“That’s a very good, that is a very very good question. I think Iqbal is a modern
subject, after all he has been read in Germany. He is prominent figure from quite some
time. You cannot construct Iqbal without his western education. I am not saying that it
enriched him but gave him an understanding at philosophical level where the west was. I
mean, if you read reconstruction, those are the series of six lectures and I think these are
the most current, I mean even he is quoting the theory of relativity which has been just
make it public about three years ago. So for me Iqbal is a modern subject, there is no
doubt about it, but in terms of his politics and poetics I consider him a form of modernity,
where modernity is opted as certain aspects of it and then he tried to cut it diagonally
across it to give it a different view which is embedded in the understanding of Islam.”
In this example, the presenter has used “I think” (two times), “quite some time”,
“I mean”, “just” and “so for me”. In this example, the presenter used hedges to show that
it is his own point of view. He remained orderly and did not use ambiguous expressions.
4.17.5 Indirectness
Tsuda (1993) identified that indirectness is common in formal speech. I found
some instances of indirectness in classroom and conference presentations. Although the
speaker did not use the direct expressions but the idea is clear. The instructor was going
to start her class but some students were making a noise. She said, “do not make a noise,
otherwise I shall send you out of the class.” The instructor did not specify any student.
She indirectly asked the whole class to remain silent and the students who were speaking,
turned to silent. In her own words:
“Please turn on the lights. Tomorrow is the quiz. We have a class tomorrow or
day after tomorrow? So that will be, your quiz will be on lexical semantics and only on
word relations. And, it should be only word relations or meaning of…different types of
meaning as well? Only word relations! So, only one topic quiz on one topic of lexical
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relation of words where we have discussed five relations. Yes that one topic will be your
quiz. (noise) do not make a noise, otherwise I shall send you out of the class. No! Lexical
relations only. Lexical relations those five relations that we have discussed and then after
that we had discussed different types of meaning and then… Urooj, Umar please… You
should have your own ball pen…And then we discussed about different further concepts
about meaning like they said that there is a reference and then for reference, every
reference we have a reference, and for every reference we make some sense, right?”
In another instance, the instructor is talking about Zubaida Aapa who is a public
figure and famous for her cooking and home remedies (nuskhay). Although, she was
teaching about paragraph writing but to break the monotonous routine of the class, she
talked about Zubaida Apa while the rest of the class started laughing. In her own words:
“What is the third point? Interest to read story book. But this will not happen
when you will read chemistry book or other. How many of you have interest to read
chemistry book like novel or story book? Ok, that picks of another kind of experience ok
right logically from beginning to end. Well this is when you are writing about some event
for describing. For example, if you are asking to write paragraph to boil an egg what will
you do? You need to have that you know the logical order, that comes at end of process
here you are describing the process ok so you need to have that have that orders ….
Logical orders. Zubaidaapa is talking about everything if you listen carefully you don’t
need any doctor, she is known to talk about everything /L/ ok coming back to lesson girls
and boys using active verbs help the reader to visualize.”
In another instance, the presenter was going to start her presentation. She wanted
to add an incident before commencing her presentation; apparently the incident has no
direct link with the topic. In her own words:
“The story is about a Yamni Muslim, Ahmad Hassan and the time was 1942 when
the Second World War raised. Yamani Muslim, Ahmad Hassan, he appeared in United
States District court in Michigan and his petition was on Nationalization and that is for
nationality and it was 1942….remember the time and his petition was denied because the
judge who was well versed in American Nationalization because he knows that this law is
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for the people who come under the whiteness and surely that whiteness was whiteness by
law. Now when he denied the petition to Hassan, and he wrote the decision and it was
long three paged decision. I only quote few lines from his decision, and then we will start
our discussion. What he wrote, he said, Arabs are not white persons within the meaning
of nationality act. Then he further explained, apart from the dark skin of the Arab, it is
well-known that they are the part of Muhammadan world and the wide gulf separate their
culture from that of predominantly Christian people of Europe. Therefore it cannot be
expected that as a class, they would readily intermarry with our population and be
assimilated into our civilization. Thus ladies and gentleman, for him religion determines
the race. So this idea of racism in American history and we have been talking about
racism against African and all others but in the wake of nine eleven and new concept
emerge out of this racism which we say neo-racism. Now what make it new racism and
how it is different from racism. From racism to new racism, the culture of otherness,
concept of new racism, area of decolonization, racism without race. The traditional idea
of race based on biological characteristics, blood and color. People have different
biological hereditary characteristics and they are marginalized on the basis of that but in
the wake of nine eleven, it was not the blood or biological characteristics but it was the
religion and cultural identity based on religion. That actually created a different race,
racial difference and cultural other. So this new racism is culturalist and differentialist.”
4.17.6 Irony
I found some instances in which the instructors use ironical expressions. I shall
elaborate it with two examples. The student came late in class and asked instructor to
enter in class. The instructor instead of replying commented that he is the most punctual
student of the class. In her own words
T: “The most punctual student of this class. You always come late to attend the
class”
S: “Sorry Mam”
The first sentence is ironical and it carries double meaning. The surface meaning
is student is punctual while the underlying meaning is student is not punctual. I found that
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the use of intonation and the context in particular situation is very important in
communicating the meanings in a given situation.
In another example, the instructor is talking about the trip after finishing her
lecture. The context of the discussion is that students went Thandyani with their
instructor. The students enjoyed a lot and the instructor said “on the day of trip, you were
not on earth, you were in air, flying”. This statement has two different meanings; explicit
meaning is he is flying in air and the implicit meaning is he enjoyed a lot.
4.18 Summary
Different participants use different languages in their home like pushto, punjabi,
sindhi, Arabic, Brushki and Urdu while most of the students were taught in English and
Urdu language at their school level (79.3%) and at university level (72%). Languages
used in educational settings are different from the languages used in home. In educational
setting, more than one language is used as a medium of instruction and the statistical
analysis shows that most of the participants believe that learning in more than one
language is beneficial for them. On the other hand, most of the participants (32 % agree
and 30 % strongly agree) agreed with the statement that learning the course in one
language makes the course easy to understand. The statistics shows the participants
believe that code-switching is beneficial for them and in our educational settings; two
languages; English and Urdu are used frequently. So different functions of code-
switching like elucidation, giving instruction, translation, change/introduce any topic,
asking question, responding questions, building argument, explanation with examples
and telling jokes for recreation are explored in this study. The quantitative rating of the
students in favor of the use of two languages is very high and through recorded
(audio/video) data, it is clear that most of the instructors and students use both English
and Urdu languages in classrooms. The frequent use of these two languages in
classrooms shows that most of the instructors believe that the use of these two languages
in educational setting make the things comprehensible for the students.
The questionnaire highlights the students’ perception about the uses of language
in classrooms and their chances of passing the exams. Most of the students believe that
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the use of two languages increase their chances of passing the exams. It supports the
previous part of this research where I identified different function of code-switching in
classrooms. Students were also asked to share their views regarding the use of language
in classrooms; the results show that large number of participants (46% agreed) consider
that the combination of Urdu and English is best as a medium of instruction because the
use of these two languages will increase their chances of passing the exams while 37%
participants were agree on the use of English language as a medium of instruction and
29% participants agree on using Urdu or any other regional language as a medium of
instruction.
Furthermore, this research explores the observance or non-observance of Gricean
Maxims when the students and instructors switch their code from one language to another
in classroom setting. Statement no 13 of the questionnaire refers to maxim of quality
which focuses on the adequate evidence and true statements from the part of teacher in
classroom and the statistics show that majority of the students (33 % agree and 32
%strongly agree) believe that the instructor provides adequate evidence when they
deliver lectures in both languages (English and Urdu). They remained true and do not
provide false information. Statement number 14 deals with maxim of quantity that was
related to the contribution of information on the part of instructor. Most of the students
(33 % agree and 32 % strongly agree) believe that instructors provide sufficient
information when they switch their code from one language to another. Statement
number 15 is related to the relevance of lecture. Most of the participants (41%agree and
24% strongly agree) that the instructors remain relevant when they switch their code from
one language to another. Statements number 16 to 20 is related to the maxim of manner.
Statements number 16 and 17 are related to the clarity of ideas and its relevance to the
use of language; the comparative study of statement number 16 and 17 shows that the
participants felt that the instructors remain more relevant to the topic when they use two
languages (Urdu and English) in classrooms. By the same time participants consider that
considerable number of instructors remain brief, to the point (39 %agree and
31%strongly agree) and orderly (48 % agree and 23 % strongly agree) when they switch
their language from one language to another. Although some participants hold an opinion
that the instructors do not follow the Grician Maxims when they switch their code from
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one language to another but majority of the participants believe that the instructors
observe Gricean Maxims when they switch their code from one language to another. The
contexts of observance and non-observance are discussed in detail in chapter number 5.
Section C comprised of two open ended questions. First question is related to
their choice and reason of their choice of language use in classrooms. Although some
participants believe that regional language, Urdu and English should be used in
classrooms but majority of the participants of the view that English and Urdu (code-
switching) should be used to clarify the concepts in classrooms. I observed the patriotic
feelings of our youth as some of them emphasized the use of Urdu language in
classrooms while others aim to excel at international level, they argued that English
should be used as a medium of instruction because English is an international language
and our course books are in English language. On the other hand, the love of the region
motivates some of the students to select regional language as a medium of instruction.
The results show that the participants agree on the use of two languages i.e. Urdu and
English in classrooms. The statistical results of the questionnaires show that students
highly recommend the use of English and Urdu language in classrooms as a medium of
instruction. This idea is authenticated through the recorded (video and audio) data that
most of the instructors use English and Urdu language and do code-switching (English
and Urdu language and Urdu to English) and students feel quite comfortable with their
language use in classrooms.
I observe that in classrooms, there is to and fro movement from formal to less
informal while in conference presentations, the communication remain highly formal to
formal; the reason is most of the times the presenters meet observer first time and they do
not know each other before. Every presenter is allowed to speak for the limited time
frame in which he has to deliver the whole idea like introduction, literature review,
methodology while in classrooms if the students feel that the topic is difficult, it may
precede two to three lectures. After presentation, there is question-answer session while
during classroom lectures; students may ask questions during the lectures. Code-
switching (from Urdu –English and English-Urdu) is quite common in classrooms while
in conference presentations code-switching is infrequent. There are various purposes of
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code-switching in conference presentations like some words in Urdu language cannot be
replaced as these words have no translation so presenters use the words of in their actual
form like “ghairat”. Proper nouns like the names of the novels are spoken in its actual
form (Urdu language) like “Lehaf” work of Ismat Chughtai. The names of some religious
concepts are delivered in its actual from (Urdu language) like “wahdata-ul-vajood”.
Presenters elaborate some actual piece of poetry like Urdu which he/she does not
translate in English language. I found that code-switching is less frequent among
conference presentations as compared to classroom sessions and it is evident from the
results as well. In Pakistani classrooms, two languages (Urdu and English) are used as a
medium of instruction. In English language/linguistics classrooms, English language is
used as a marked choice while in some subjects of arts like Pakistan Studies and Islamiat,
English language is used as unmarked choice. Urdu is used as a marked choice in the
subjects of Arts while English is used as unmarked choice. This idea leads towards the
contextual use of language. Instructors and presenters use language according to the
context. When speakers switch their code from one language to another, it depends upon
the context. So I called it “pragmatic switching”.
Language performs various functions and utterances or even one word can carry
different meanings in different situations. J L Austin (1962) presented his theory of
locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary speech acts. Locutionary acts are related to
the construction of meaning from speakers’ point of view. Illocutionary acts are related to
the pragmatic illocutionary force which gives importance to utterance in a specific
situation, thus highlights socio-verbal links/actions. Perlocutionary acts are related to the
effects of utterances on listeners. Moving towards Grice ideology of observance and non-
observance of maxims of quantity, relevance and manner is quite ambiguous; when he
says that speakers non-observe the maxim of relevance, it means that speakers speak but
the utterances are not relevant which does not fit into the pragmatic ideology of context
and meaning, non-observance of maxim of quantity states that speaker should be as
informative as required while there is no scale to measure information and it is quite
relative, depends upon the hearers; how he/she perceives the given information and
maxim of manner states that the speaker should be orderly and brief, should avoid
obscure and ambiguous expression. To elaborate the ideology of relevance in any
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context, I proposed a model of “Relative Relevance Model of Communication” which
highlighted the importance of meaning in language in a given context with specific
reference to speakers and hearers. It can be inferred from the data that the instructors and
presenters remain orderly and brief and in conference presentations if observers find any
ambiguous expressions, they extract the contextual meanings of the utterance as recorded
data shows that they did not ask any question regarding ambiguous expressions. On the
other hand, if students find any difficulty in understanding the expressions, they can ask
repeatedly and in this case the instructor may speak more words but it does not mean that
he/she is giving more information than required (according to Grice, non-observance of
maxim of quantity). In nutshell, Gricean maxims of relevance, quantity and manner (with
specific reference to Grecian ideology) are not applicable to academic discourse.
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter is divided into three parts. First part relates to the re-examining of
research question and its correspondence with the analysis and results. The second part
consists of various theoretical and practical implications of this research. Third part deals
with the pedagogical implications and conclusions.
5.1 Summary of Results
The collected data shows that most of the students were taught in English and
Urdu in their schools and colleges. Referring to this research, 68.9 % students in schools,
79.3% students in college and 72 % students in university were taught in English as well
as Urdu. Although students reported English, Urdu and other regional languages were
also used as a medium of instruction but the percentage of the use of English and Urdu in
educational institutes is comparatively higher than the other languages. The response of
the students’ show that they use English and Urdu languages in formal situation of
classrooms as well as communication with instructors while Urdu language is used to
converse with friends, classmates, family and university staff. Some students added some
other languages to converse to their family and friends like Punjabi, Pashto, and
Brushaski. The results show the prevalence of Urdu and English language in classrooms,
so there is a need and desire to explore the purpose of switching English and Urdu
languages in classrooms. Various purposes of code-switching (From English to Urdu,
Urdu to English) have been explored and discussed with examples in chapter no 4.
Although code-switching performs various functions in classrooms but I delimited my
study to 7 functions; elucidating, giving instructions, translating, changing/introducing
the topic, asking questions, building arguments and telling jokes/recreation. Most of the
students believe that studying the course in more than one language is beneficial for
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them. The results of the statement 1 of section B of questionnaire shows that 29% agree
and 56% strongly agree with the statement. The results demonstrate that most of the
participants believed that they can understand in a better way if they are taught in more
than one language. The results of the part B statement 2 of questionnaire show that 32 %
students are agree and 30 % students are strongly agree with the statement. Code-
switching or the use of two languages is helpful in clarifying the concepts as majority of
the students disagreed (44% disagree and 24 %strongly disagree) with the point of view
that students got confused when the instructor switched from one language to another.
When students were questioned about strengthening of English language; most of the
students disagreed (41% disagree and 13% strongly disagree) with the statement that
“mixing of English and any other language results in weak English” which means that
code-switching may either results in increasing the proficiency of English language or the
previous knowledge will remain consistent. Similarly, the results of statement number 5
shows that the use of English language with mother tongue in classrooms does not affect
the English language proficiency as majority of the students (43 % disagree and 14 %
disagree) were disagreed with the statement that mixing of English and mother tongue
weakens my English. The results of statements number 7, 8 and 9 and the transcribed
data reveals that students respect the instructors and the feeling of respect does not
depend upon the use of language (English or Urdu) in classrooms. When the students
were questioned about the use of language and the chances of passing the exams; the
results of statement numbers 10, 11 and 12 show that students prefer the use of English
and Urdu languages rather than any regional language or solely English language as they
believed that learning the course in English and Urdu may increase their chances of
passing the exams. Statements numbers thirteen to nineteen are related to Grecian
maxims. The results of the statements number 14 shows that the instructors provide
sufficient information when he/ she switches his/her code from one language to another
as majority (33 % agree and 32 % strongly agree) and it is also proved with the examples
extracted from the transcribed data. Majority of the participants (41 % agree and 24 %
strongly agree) agreed that the instructors remain relevant when he/she switches from one
language to another and it is authenticated from the transcribed data as well, as the
instructors remain relevant to the topic and context in classrooms. The theory of relative
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relevance proves the importance of utterances in context and utterances are always
meaningful in particular context according to the pragmatic ideology of context.
Moreover, the collected data reveal that the instructors and conference presenters remain
relevant, to the point, clear and organized in relevant context of classrooms and
conference presentations.
5.2 Findings
Instructors switch their code from English to Urdu to elucidate the points which
are difficult for the students to understand in English language. The elucidation of various
ideas are explained with examples in chapter no 4. Instructors switch their code to
instruct the students like to change their seating arrangement, to solve some activity and
to sign the attendance sheet. Sometimes instructors tend to emphasize upon some idea or
they want to translate the idea for the better understanding of the students. Translation,
sometimes use to elaborate the examples in two languages like instructors want to give
the idea of “position” and further said “jaga ka”; same word can carry different
meanings and it depends upon the context in which particular words are used. The above
mentioned example (“position”) clarifies the idea. I found that students feel comfortable
when they ask questions in Urdu language or use both English and Urdu language. Most
of the students agreed that the use of more than one language does not confuse them. The
analysis through transcribed data reveals that code-switching plays a vital role to clarify
the concept. The responses of the students reveal that students feel themselves in comfort
zone when they switch their code from one language to another; that’s why the
instructors use the strategy to use both languages in delivering the information in
classrooms. Code-switching is considered as one of the important floor holding technique
and it is used to build argument. As Urdu is national language of Pakistan and its use in
everyday life is quite evident from the results of section A of questionnaires so students
feel comfortable when they speak and listen in both languages. When the question of
fluency was brought into consideration, majority of the students disagreed (41 % disagree
and 13 % strongly disagree) that mixing of English and any other language results in
weak English and when the students were asked that mixing of English and mother
tongue weakens their English; most of the students were disagreed with the statement (43
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% disagree and 14 % strongly disagree). Moreover, the students gave their positive
consent when they were that learning the course in English and Urdu increases my
chances of passing the exam. In a nutshell, various purposes/functions of code-switching
are explored and supported by the examples extracted from the transcribed data.
Although, there can be many functions or purposes of code-switching but I delimited my
study to ten functions that I frequently found in the collected data.
Relevance, quantity of information and the clarity of ideas deliver by instructors
in classrooms have been explored through the questionnaire. Most of the students (41%
agree and 24 % strongly agree) believed that the instructors remain relevant when they
switch their code from one language to another. Although the information is an abstract
idea and it cannot be measured but I questioned from the students about the quantity of
information delivered by the instructors when they switch their code from one language
to another; most of the students believed (33 % agree and 32 % strongly agree) that the
instructor provide sufficient information when he/she switches code from one language to
another. Similarly, the response of most of the students remains positive when they were
asked about the clarity of ideas (36 % agree and 46 % strongly agree), orderliness (48 %
agree and 23 % strongly agree) and briefness (39 % agree and 31 % strongly agree). I
found that instructors (students as well) switch their code from on language to another
while s/he remains relevant, orderly, brief, to the point and provide sufficient
information. It means they (instructors) use the language/expressions according to the
context and it confirms the idea when they switch from one language to another, it
depends upon the context (of classroom) as well. Hence, I believed when instructors
switch their code from one language to another, it is contextual and I called it, “pragmatic
switching” rather than code-switching because of contextual switching from one
language to another use in classrooms.
5.3 Conclusion
A notable number of students were agreed on the utility of code-switching in
classrooms but I observed that the switching of code can be disadvantageous.
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Some students responded that in classrooms, English language should be opted as
a medium of instruction as it is an international language and most of the learning
material (syllabus) is compiled in English language while some students said that Urdu
should be used as a medium of instruction because it is our national language while
majority of the students said that both languages should be used and instructors should
give the importance to both languages. I found variation in the use of language in schools
and colleges like some students studied in English medium private schools where
medium of instruction is English, some students who studied in government schools
where medium of instruction is Urdu or Urdu and English and a few students studied in
government school where some regional languages (Punjab, Pashto, and Sindhi) are used
as a medium of instruction. So, the diverse background of the students is very helpful in
the generalization of results where majority of the students were agreed on the use of
English and Urdu as a medium of instruction and through the recorded data, I found the
wide prevalence of the use of English and Urdu, both in classrooms.
Conference presentations and classroom lectures are two different genres and both
genres come under the heading of academic discourse. Conference presentations are
formal than classroom lectures. It was observed that in classrooms, there is to and fro
movement from formal to less informal while in conference presentations, the
communication remain highly formal to formal; the reason is most of the times the
presenters meet observer first time and they do not know each other before. Every
presenter is supposed to deliver the whole idea like introduction, literature review,
methodology while in classroom sessions if the students feel that the topic is difficult, it
may precede two to three lectures. After presentation, there is question-answer session
while during classroom lectures; students may ask questions during the lectures. Code-
switching (from Urdu to English and English to Urdu) is quite common in classrooms
while in conference presentations, code-switching is infrequent.
I found that code-switching is less frequent among conference presentations as
compared to classrooms and it is evident from the results given in chapter no 4. Mayer
Scottons Markedness model (1984) of code-switching is applied to explore the
functions/purposes of code-switching in academic discourse. She proposed ‘surface
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discourse structural characteristics’ to explore the uses of language particularly specific
language choices in specific context. This model seems some connection with Elster’s
Rational choice model. He said that speaker rationally analyze the situation like cost-
benefit i.e. if he/she utter some expressions in particular situation, there can be some
benefits of the utterances. Mayer Scotton said that marked and unmarked choices can be
identified according to the use of language. In Pakistani classrooms, two languages (Urdu
and English) are used. In English language/linguistics classrooms, English language is
used as a marked choice while in some subjects of arts like Pakistan Studies and Islamiat,
English language is used as unmarked choice. On the other hand, keeping in view the
results of majority of students, Urdu is used as a marked choice in the subjects of Arts
while English is used as unmarked choice. This idea leads towards the contextual use of
language. I found the in academic discourse language is used according to the context.
When speakers switch their code from one language to another, it depends upon the
context. So I called it “pragmatic switching”
5.3.1 Relative Relevance Model of Communication
Grice (1976) proposed two extremes of these maxims, observance and
nonobservance. Observance means that the instructors should remain relevant to the topic
while nonobservance mean that the instructors should not deviate from the topic. I found
that instructors/speakers remain relevant. Sometimes, the instructors do not talk about
that particular topic which is under discussion in class earlier and started conversation on
any other topic but it does not mean that he/she is irrelevant, rather s/he remains relevant
in that particular context. I believe that the contribution of every speaker is according to
the context and s/he remains relevant in that particular context. So, I found that Grecian
maxim of relevance is not effective in determining the relevance in classroom sessions
and conference presentations.
Keeping in view the philosophy of relevance, I devised my own model
“Sequential Relative Relevance Model of Communication”. I divided this model into two
parts, direct/logical relevance and indirect/relative relevance. Direct relevance is related
to straight, objective, analytical, scientific and explicit utterances a particular situation. In
this research, I discussed direct relevance with two perspectives, Syllogism and
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Sequential while indirect relevance is revealed with three perspectives co-
relational/quasi-relational, recreational and situational. The results with the examples are
explained in chapter no 4. I found that the instructors/speakers remain relevant and there
is no concept of non-observance because speaker/instructor cannot be irrelevant. I found
that Grice maxim of relevance is not an effective strategy to determine relevance in
academic discourse (classrooms and conference presentations).
The results show that very few instructors fulfill the criteria of ideal speaker while
most of the conference presenters fulfill the criteria of the proposed idea of ideal speaker.
But majority of students (may be considered as observer in bilingual classrooms) were
agree that the instructors remain relevant to the topic when they switch their code from
one language to another. The ideology of quantity of information (as presented by Grice)
does not fit into the pragmatic ideology of context. The results reveal that
speakers/instructors should be as explanatory and informative as compatible to the
context/situation of the conversation. Moreover, the quantity of information is abstract
and it cannot be measured and the requirement may vary from person to person.
Grice’s maxim of manner states that speakers should be perspicuous. He should
remain brief and orderly, and avoid obscurity of expressions. Obscurity/ambiguity of
expression is created when speaker use difficult lexical items. In classrooms, I observed
that instructors seldom use difficult vocabulary but most of the times, they explained
difficult vocabulary items on their own or students ask questions and they further explain
the ideas. I found that during conference presentations, if presenters use any difficult
vocabulary item, observers do not ask questions rather they draw the contextual meaning
of the vocabulary item or sometimes they even know various difficult terms because the
thematic division is already given and they attend the sessions according to their interests.
5.5 Limitations of the Study
The purpose of the study is to explore the interactional behaviors of academicians
(instructors and presenters) in classrooms and conference presentations. I observe less
participation of students in classrooms. Although some instructors try to maintain the
interactional environment of classrooms but some students do not initiate any interaction
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during classroom lectures. Less participation of students is major limitation of this study.
There are many other factors which caused complexity and problem like time constraint,
general attitude of participants towards recording the lectures and limited financial
resources.
The recorded data comprised of forty conference presentations and thirty
classroom lectures and one of the limitation of this research is to transcribe the entire data
which is the most difficult and hectic part of this study. During the completion of this
task, I felt serious health issues and at last this laborious work came to an end with the
continuous efforts of ten months.
Being researcher, my presence in classrooms and conference presentations was
also one of the limitations. I asked instructors, students and presenters to ignore my
presence but instructors sometimes started discussing with me or sometimes tried to take
my opinions on various issues. So I felt that the presence cannot be neglected rather
instructors tried to remain more formal, tried to pronounce the words appropriately and
tried to use English language as a medium of instruction. Some instructors tried to
realizes the students the presence of the observer and mention some incidents which they
will tell the students later because of recording of lectures. Some instructors looked
nervous due to my presence as a researcher and tried to remain strict with the students.
The results of the questionnaire reinforce the results of the recorded and
transcribed data as far as the use of language in classrooms is concerned. The participants
of the survey were university students and data was also recorded from the same
classrooms. The results show the importance and benefits of code-switching in
classrooms. There is a possibility that the research participants may produce different
results in response to the same inquiry. Another constraint in this study is insufficiency of
research in the native and regional/indigenous languages of Pakistan in relation to
foreign/English language especially at postgraduate/university level and especially on
conference presentations. However I tried to cope with these limitations and conducted
this study to provide and enlighten various issues related to the use of language in
classrooms and conference presentations.
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5.6 Recommendations and Implications
This research will contribute in raising the awareness among instructors,
presenters and students regarding uses of language at postgraduate level and conference
presentations, yet inadequately explored area of academic discourse so far in Pakistan.
Despite the limitations of this research, there are many practical and theoretical
implications of this study. The following implications are derived from the results for the
instructors and future researchers.
5.6.1 Recommendations for Instructors
1. In postgraduate classrooms, students belonged to different backgrounds and there
was variation in learning abilities and motivation among students; despite all
these discrepancies, instructors should maintain the interactive environment in
classrooms. I found that most of the instructors did not create interactive teaching
environment in classrooms rather instructors came and delivered the lectures. It is
clear from the transcribed data that almost 90% of the transcribed data is uttered
by the instructors.
2. Some students are hesitant in asking questions in English language, instructors
give some liberty to ask the questions if they feel any ambiguity/difficulty in
understanding the concepts. The results of this study are beneficial for the
instructors at post-graduate level as they can bring change in teaching
methodologies adopted during lectures.
3. The utility of code-switching in classrooms cannot be neglected as this study
identifies various functions of code-switching and focuses on seven functions
which are frequently observed in postgraduate classrooms. Code-switching was
observed as an effective strategy in elucidation, giving instructions, changing the
topic, asking questions, building arguments and telling jokes. Although code-
switching performs many other functions as well but I delimited my study to these
seven functions due to time and words constraints. Balkan (1970) and Cummings
(1972) said that bilingual children have greater cognitive flexibility; they have
distinct and diverse mental powers than monolinguals. Gulzar (2009) suggested
that all Pakistani education system should be redesigned “on the pattern of
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bilingualism for all, multilingualism for some and monolingualism for none”. On
the basis of findings, I suggest that English and Urdu should be used as a medium
of instruction and any regional language (according to the needs of the students)
should be used in classrooms. The same ideology is presented by Rahman (2002)
and Srivastava (1984). To educate the students, understanding is very important
and results show that various objectives can be achieved if instructors use two
languages (bilingual) in classrooms. The findings reveal that majority of the
students agreed that the instructors remain brief, orderly, clear and relevant to the
topic and situation, when they switch their code from one language to another.
4. English and Urdu languages are used as a medium of instruction and in almost
every classroom, there is code-switching (which is later named as pragmatic
switching) from English to Urdu and Urdu to English but English was observed as
a dominant language in classrooms and sometimes when instructors felt that their
lectures were recorded, they tried to use English language more than the regular
classroom. English is medium of instruction at university level and the excessive
use of L1/Urdu language in Pakistani classrooms may hinder the learning of
English language. Although some students were good in speaking English
language while others were quite hesitant to use English language. Policy makers
may identify the area/need of the students and percentage of the use of Urdu
language/L1 in classrooms. The findings suggest that the use of language as a
medium of instruction should be revised in education policy and guidelines
should be provided to the instructors for the controlled use of language in
classrooms.
5. The contextual use of language is one of the important aspects of academic
discourse. Instructors and presenters use the language according to the context. In
classrooms, instructors use the language which is formal to less informal while in
conference presentations, the use of language is from highly formal to formal. In
classrooms, instructors frequently switch their code from one language to another
(English to Urdu, Urdu to English) while in conference presentations code-
switching is infrequent. The use of language depends upon the listeners as well; as
in classrooms, code-switching is observed as a need of the students in some
236
situations because sometimes students are unable to understand some concepts in
English language and instructors switch their code to Urdu language or sometimes
lack of vocabulary in English language causes the use of Urdu language in
classrooms. Similarly, there are different reasons of switching form English to
Urdu in conference presentations. Switching from one language to another is
always context based, that’s why I named it as pragmatic switching. I suggest that
the use of language should be based on context rather to focus of the use of any
one language. The contextual use of language in classrooms and conference
presentations encourages both Urdu and English language. Code-switching is
observed as a significant strategy in classroom sessions and conference
presentations. It serves various functions in classrooms like to elucidate meaning,
to build argument, to explain with examples. In conference presentations, it serves
to elaborate various concepts like cultural, regional and religious ideas and
sometimes presenters express temporal realization in Urdu language.
6. Grecian maxims of quantity, relevance and manner are not an effective strategy in
determining relevance, quantity of information, orderliness, clarity and
preciseness of concepts and expressions in academic discourse settings. I
proposed “Relative Relevance Model of Communication” to determine relevance
in academic discourse. The contextual study of academic discourse (classrooms
and conference presentations) shows that instructors and presenters remain
relevant, provide adequate information, and remain brief and orderly. The term
non-observance does not comply the pragmatic ideology of context because in
academic discourse, presenters and instructors communicate according to the
topic/subject and situation.
5.6.2 Recommendations for Presenters
This study could be useful for the conference presenters.
1. Code-switching is one of the effective strategies to deliver the appropriate and
logical ideas in different academic settings. In conference presentations, there is
less code-switching (from Urdu to English and English to Urdu) as compared to
classrooms. There are various purposes of code-switching in conference
237
presentations. I found that presenters do code-switching when they want to
deliver any religious ideas (qurbani ki khalein, month of Ramadan), culture
specific ideology (concept of ghairat), sometimes the names of various objects
(Lehaf instead of blanket, uqaab/shaheen instead of eagle) or sometimes pieces
of texts (verses) are spoken as original text during presentations.
2. Two international conferences were recorded for data analysis. I suggest that
presenters should use English as a medium of delivering the idea. If necessary,
they can switch code from English to Urdu but they should try to minimize the
frequency of switching. I found the dominance of English language in conference
presentations. The reason may be that the recorded conference presentations were
of international level and English is an international language. Some presenters
switch their code from English to Urdu according to the need of the topic.
3. Presenters should be provided the time of thirty minutes to present their research
papers. Short time of 10 to 15 minutes was provided to the presenters and they
were supposed to present the whole research paper from introduction to
recommendations/conclusion which was difficult. I observed that some presenters
were not able to present the whole idea due to shortage of time or sometimes they
spoke so quickly. Hence, Organizers should do proper time allocation for
presentation.
5.7 Implication for Further Research
Throughout this study, I feel the inadequacy of information regarding language
use in Pakistani classrooms. The investigation highlights various facts regarding use of
language in classrooms and conference presentations and elaborate that code-switching is
unavoidable practice in classroom discourse and used by presenters where necessary. The
results of this study support the idea of Guthrie (1984), Merrit et.al. (1992) and Anna
Flyman Mattson (1999) in the area of language use in classrooms but there is a need to
explore the use of language in different academic fields/subjects in Pakistani contexts.
1. In future, researchers may concentrate on the functions of code-switching in EFL,
ESL and ELT classrooms. There are more vistas to explore language use and
238
functions of code-switching in the field of medical, engineering, undergraduate
classrooms and even at school level.
2. Two international conferences on literature and linguistics were recorded as data
for this research; researchers may explore the language use in other international
and national conferences related to science and technology.
3. A corpus can be developed through recorded and transcribed data and other
researchers can be benefitted through this corpus.
4. A comparative study can be conducted to explore various patterns of code-
switching used by male and female participants in different subjects/fields of
education.
5. A comparative study can be conducted on the use of language in classrooms and
conference presentations can be conducted.
6. Due to unavoidable constraints of time and content management, I could not
discuss all the possible functions of code-switching that I identified in the
collected data. Owing to constraints of the required size of PhD dissertation, it
seems less likely to delineate all the identified possible functions of code-
switching like elucidation, giving instructions, translation, changing/introducing
the topic, asking question, building argument, telling jokes or recreation, strategy
to fit into the situation or linguistic environment, to say something secret, to show
ethnic solidarity, to capture attention, to establish good will and support.
In a nutshell, this study aims at exploring the purposes of language used in
classrooms and conference presentations. The results of the survey show that code-
switching (the use of two languages English and Urdu) is an integral part of academic
discourse. Code-switching performs various functions such as explanation with
examples; elucidation, build arguments and these are verified from the transcribed data.
The purposes of code-switching in classroom sessions are different from conference
presentations as the former based on the need of the students and later based on the
dimensions (cultural and social) discussed in conference presentation. The purposes of
code-switching in academic discourse are discussed in detail in chapter no 4. I found that
Grecian maxims of relevance, manner and quantity are not effective in determining the
relevance (to the context), quantity of information delivered (in classrooms and
239
conference presentation), and perspicuousness (clarity of concepts and briefness of
ideas). The application of Grecian maxims of relevance, manner and quantity are
discussed in detail in chapter no 4. Furthermore, academic discourse community and
pragmaticians may get benefit from the model, Relative Relevance Model of
Communication in this study to analyze relevance in academic discourse.
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