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©Prentice Hall 2003 9-1
Understanding Psychology6th Edition
Charles G. Morris and Albert A. Maisto
PowerPoint Presentation byH. Lynn Bradman
Metropolitan Community College
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-2
Chapter 9
Life-Span Development
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-3
Enduring Issues and Methods in
Developmental Psychology• What are some of the limitations of the
methods used to study development? • Cross-sectional studies involve studying
different age groups of people• Longitudinal studies test the same group of
individuals at different times in their lives.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-4
Research Methodologies
• Cross-sectional: – Examining groups of subjects who are of
different ages.
• Longitudinal: – Examining the same group of subjects two or
more times as they age.
• Biographical: – Studying developmental changes by
reconstructing subjects’ past through interviews and investigating the effects of past events on current behaviors.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-5
Cross-Sectional Studies
• Advantages– Inexpensive– Relatively quick to complete– No high attrition rate
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-6
Cross-Sectional Studies
• Disadvantages– Different age groups may be dissimilar– Age and maturity may not be equivalent– Confounds cohort and age differences
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-7
Longitudinal Studies
• Advantages– Detailed information about subjects– Provides great detail of developmental
changes– Follows same cohort groups
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-8
Longitudinal Studies
• Disadvantages– Expensive and time consuming– Potential for high attrition rates– May confound age differences & differences
in assessment tools
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-9
Biographical Studies
• Advantages:– Rich detail about one individual’s life– Allows for in-depth study of one individual
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-10
Biographical Studies
• Disadvantages– Individual’s recall is often untrustworthy– Can be very time consuming and expensive
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-11
Prenatal Development
• The period of development from conception to birth.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-12
Prenatal Development
• Prenatal development: – Development from conception to birth.
• Embryo: – 2 weeks after conception to 3 months.
• Fetus: – 3 months after conception to birth.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-13
Importance of the Placenta
• During prenatal development teratogens can pass through the placenta and cause irreparable harm to the embryo or fetus.
• This harm is greatest if the drug or other substance is introduced just at the time when some major developmental process is taking place.
• If the same substance is introduced outside this critical period, little or even no harm may result.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-14
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
• Alcohol is a drug most commonly abused by pregnant women.
• Heavy alcohol consumption by the mother during pregnancy is characterized by facial deformities, heart defects, stunted growth, and cognitive impairments.
• Smaller amounts of alcohol may also cause impairments.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-15
The Newborn
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-16
Reflexes
• Rooting reflex: – A baby turns its head toward something
touching its cheek and gropes around with its mouth.
• Sucking reflex: – Sucking on any object placed in a baby’s
mouth.
• Swallowing reflex: – Enables the baby to swallow liquids without
choking.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-17
Reflexes
• Grasping reflex: – Closing their fists on anything placed in
their hands.
• Stepping reflex: – The light stepping motions made by babies
if they are held upright with their feet just touching a surface.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-18
Temperament
• The physical and emotional characteristics of the newborn child and young infant.
• Babies are born with individual differences in personality called temperament differences.
• Often a baby's temperament remains quite stable over time due to a combination of genetic and environmental influences.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-19
Temperament
• Stability in temperament is not inevitable; changes in temperament can also take place.
• Your own temperament may be both similar to and different from the temperament you displayed as a newborn.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-20
Three Types of Temperaments
• Easy: – Good-natured and adaptable, easy to care
for and please
• Difficult: – Moody and intense, reacting to new people
and new situations negatively and strongly
• Slow-to-warm-up: – Relatively inactive and slow to respond to
new things, and when they do react, their reactions are mild
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-21
Perceptual Abilities
• All of a baby's senses are functioning at birth:– Sight – Hearing – Taste – Smell – Touch
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-22
Vision
• A baby’s least developed sense is probably vision, which takes 6 to 8 months to become as good as the average college student's.
• Infants prefer: a novel picture or pattern with clear contrasts and their own mother rather than a stranger.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-23
Depth Perception
• Crawling babies will not cross over onto the deep side during the visual cliff experiments.
• Babies too young to crawl: – No anxiety, but do demonstrate depth
perception
• 2-4 months old: – Begin to perceive patterns, objects, and
depth
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-24
Other Senses
• Although it is hard to tell exactly what a baby's sensory world is like, newborns seem particularly adept at discriminating speech sounds;
• This suggests that their hearing is quite good.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-25
Other Senses
• Infants have likes and dislikes with regard to smells.
• Infants like sweet flavors, a preference which persists through childhood.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-26
Infancy and Childhood
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-27
Physical Growth
• During the first dozen years of life a helpless infant becomes a competent older child.
• This transformation encompasses many important kinds of changes, including physical, motor, cognitive, and social developments.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-28
Physical Growth
• Growth of the body is most rapid during the first year, with the average baby growing approximately 10 inches and gaining about 15 pounds.
• It then slows down considerably until early adolescence.
• When growth does occur, it happens suddenly, almost overnight, rather than through small, steady changes.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-29
Motor Development
• Babies tend to reach the major milestones in early motor development at broadly similar ages, give or take a few months.
• The average ages are called developmental norms.
• Maturation, the biological process that lead to developmental changes, also is shaped by experiences with the environment.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-30
Developmental Trends
• Cephalocaudal: – Development occurs in areas near the head
(cephalo) first and areas farther from the head develop later (caudal means tail).
• Proximodistal: – Development occurs near the center of the
body (proximal) first and near the extremities (distal) later.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-31
Developmental Trends
• Gross to specific development: – Children tend to gain control of gross (large
muscle) movement before they gain control of specific (or fine motor control) movement.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-32
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-33
Cognitive Development
• According to the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, children undergo qualitative changes in thinking as they grow older.
• Piaget depicted these changes as a series of stages.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-34
Cognitive Development (Piaget)
• Sensory-motor stage (birth-2)• Preoperational stage (2-7)• Concrete operational (7-11)• Formal operational (11-15)
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-35
Sensory-Motor Stage
• Object permanence: – The concept that things continue to exist
even when they are out of sight.
• Mental representations: – Mental images or symbols (such as words)
used to think about or remember an object, a person, or an event.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-36
Preoperational Stage
• A child becomes able to use mental representations and language to describe, remember, and reason about the world.
• Egocentric: – Unable to see things from another person’s
point of view.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-37
Concrete-Operational Stage
• A child can attend to more than one thing at a time and understand someone else’s point of view, though thinking is limited to concrete matters.
• A child can understand conservation.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-38
Principles of Conservation
• The concept that basic amounts remain constant despite superficial changes in appearances.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-39
Formal-Operational Stage
• Teenagers acquire the ability to think abstractly and test ideas mentally using logic.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-40
Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory
• Piaget underestimated the cognitive ability of infants.
• Cognitive milestones are reached sooner than Piaget believed.
• Piaget did not take the role of social interaction into account.
• The stage theory does not address human diversity.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-41
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
• Preconventional: – Interpreting behavior in terms of its
concrete consequences.
• Conventional: – Interpreting behavior in terms of social and
societal approval.
• Postconventional: – Emphasis on abstract principles, for
example justice, liberty, and equality.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-42
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
• Many people never progress beyond the conventional level.
• The theory does not take into account cultural differences in morals.
• Carol Gilligan has pointed out that there may be a gender bias in the theory.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-43
Language Development
• Some psychologists believe that childhood is a critical period for acquiring language.
• If so, this would explain why learning a second language is also easier for children than for adults.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-44
Language Development
• Cooing (around 2 months): – Vowel-like utterances
• Babbling (3-4 months): – Meaningless sounds that are the building
blocks for later language development.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-45
Language Development
• Intonation (4-6 months): – The changing of pitch that adults use to
distinguish questions from statements.
• Holophrases (12-20 months): – One word sentences.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-46
Theories of Language Development
• B. F. Skinner: – Language develops as a result of
reinforcement by the environment.
• Language is a learned behavior like any other human behavior.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-47
Theories of Language Development
• Noam Chomsky: – Humans have an innate ability to acquire
language.
• We are born with a language acquisition device, an innate, internal mechanism for processing speech.
• This device allows children to understand the basic rules of grammar.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-48
Social Development
• Developing a sense of independence is just one of the tasks that children face in their social development.
• During the toddler period, a growing awareness of being a separate person makes developing some autonomy from parents an important issue.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-49
Imprinting
• A form of primitive bonding seen in some species of animals.
• The newborn animal has a tendency to follow the first moving thing it sees after it is born or hatched.
• Human infants do not imprint on the first moving objects they see, but they do form attachment.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-50
Social Development
• Attachment: – The emotional bond that develops in the
first year of life that makes human babies cling to their caregivers for safety and comfort.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-51
Parent-Child Relationships
• Parents can encourage independence in their children by allowing them to make choices and do things on their own within a framework of reasonable and consistently enforced limits.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-52
Parent-Child Relationships
• Other major social issues during the childhood years include:– Forming a secure attachment toward and
trust in other people (infancy) – Learning to take initiative in tackling new
tasks (the preschool years) – Mastering some of the many skills that will
be needed in adulthood (middle and later childhood).
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-53
Parent-Child Relationships
• Socialization: – Socialization, the process by which children
learn their cultures' behaviors and attitudes is an important task of childhood.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-54
Play As Social Development
• Solitary play: – A child engaged in some activity alone; The
earliest form of play.
• Parallel play: – Two children playing side by side at the
same activities, paying little or no attention to each other; The earliest form of social interaction between toddlers.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-55
Play As Social Development
• Cooperative play: – Two or more children engaged in play that
requires interaction.
• Peer group: – A network of same-aged friends and
acquaintances who give one another emotional and social support.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-56
Sex Role Development
• Gender identity (age 3): – The knowledge that one is male or female.
• Gender constancy (age 4 or 5): – The realization that gender cannot be
changed.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-57
Sex Role Development
• Gender-role awareness: – Knowledge of what behavior is appropriate
for each gender.
• Gender stereotypes: – General beliefs about characteristics that
men and women possess.
• Sex-typed behavior: – Socially prescribed ways of behaving that
differ for boys and girls.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-58
What Do You Think?
• Does television viewing have a harmful effect on children?
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-59
Adolescence
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-60
Physical Changes in Adolescence
• Rapid growth and sexual maturation are just part of the transformation that occurs during this period.
• The child turns into an adult, not only physically but also cognitively, socially, and personally.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-61
Growth Spurt
• A rapid increase in height and weight that occurs during adolescence.
• The growth spurt for girls typically occurs around age 10.5.
• The growth spurt for boys typically occurs around age 12.5.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-62
Sexual Development of Females
• The first sign of puberty is the growth spurt.
• The breasts begin to develop and pubic hair begins to appear.
• Menarche (the first menstrual period) occurs a year after the development of the breasts (between 12.5 and 13 years old).
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-63
Sexual Development of Males
• The initial sign of puberty is the growth of the testes (around 11.5 years old).
• During the growth spurt (around age 12.5) enlargement of the penis occurs.
• Development of pubic hair.• Development of facial hair.• The first ejaculation (around age 13.5).• The deepening of the voice is one of the
last changes.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-64
Early Versus Late Development
• Early development for boys has positive impact:– They are better in sports and receive
greater respect from their peers.
• Early development has both positive and negative effects for girls:– Early developing girls may be admired by
other girls, but may be treated as a sex object by boys.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-65
Cognitive Changes
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-66
Cognitive Distortions in Adolescence
• Imaginary audience: – The deluded belief of adolescents that they
are constantly being observed by others.
• Personal fable: – The deluded belief of adolescents that they
are unique, very important, and invulnerable.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-67
Forming an Identity
• Identity formation: – The development of a stable sense of self,
necessary to make the transition from dependence on others to dependence on oneself.
• Identity crisis: – A period of intense self-examination and
decision making; Part of the process of identity formation.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-68
Possible Outcomes of an Identity Crisis
• Identity achievement: – Successful resolution of identity crisis
• Identity foreclosure: – Chosen an identity that pleases others
• Moratorium: – Still exploring various roles, but have not
chosen one yet
• Identity diffusion: – Avoid considering role options in any
conscious manner
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-69
Some Problems of Adolescence
• Declines in self-esteem may result from the physical, social, or emotional changes
• In addition, teenagers have to cope with the demands of their new sexuality, the potential for early pregnancy, and the threat of violence in their peer groups.
• Depression and suicide rates for teens are up from past decades.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-70
Risk Factors of Teen Suicide
• Being female• Thinking about suicide• Having a mental disorder, for example
depression• Having a poorly educated father who is
absent from the home
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-71
Adulthood
• Reaching developmental milestones in adulthood is much less predictable than in earlier years.
• There are certain experiences and changes that take place sooner or later in nearly everyone's life and certain needs that nearly every adult tries to fulfill.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-72
Lifestyle Options in Adulthood
• Marriage (more than 90% of Americans eventually marry)
• Cohabitation• Gay or lesbian relationship• Remaining single
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-73
Adjustments to Parenthood
• Parents may have little time or energy for each other.
• Parents may experience conflict between their careers and home responsibilities.
• Marital satisfaction tends to decline after the arrival of the first child.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-74
Possible Effects of Divorce on Children
• Poorer school performance• Self-esteem problems• Problems with gender-role development• Emotional adjustments• Difficulty maintaining relationships• Negative attitude toward marriage
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-75
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-76
Work
• The vast majority of adults are moderately or highly satisfied with their jobs and would continue to work even if they didn't need to for financial reasons.
• Balancing the demands of job and family is often difficult, however, especially for women, because they tend to have most of the responsibility for housework and childcare.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-77
Work
• Yet despite this stress of a 'double shift,' a job outside the home is a positive, self-esteem-boosting factor in most women's lives.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-78
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-79
Cognitive Changes
• An adult's thinking is more flexible and practical than an adolescent's.
• Whereas adolescents search for the one "correct" solution to a problem, adults realize that there may be several "right" solutions or none at all.
• Adults also place less faith in authorities than adolescents do.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-80
Personality Changes
• Certain broad patterns of personality change occur in adulthood.
• As people grow older, they tend to become less self-centered and more comfortable in interpersonal relationships.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-81
Personality Changes
• They also develop better coping skills and new ways of adapting.
• By middle age many adults feel an increasing commitment to, and responsibility for, others.
• This suggests that many adults are successfully meeting what Erik Erikson saw as the major challenge of middle adulthood.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-82
Middle Adulthood
• Midlife crisis: – A time when adults discover they no longer
feel fulfilled in their jobs or personal lives and attempt to make a decisive shift
– Most people do not experience a midlife crisis.
• Midlife transition: – A process whereby adults assess the past and
formulate new goals for the future.
• Menopause: – The time in a woman’s life when menstruation
ceases.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-83
Late Adulthood
• Over the past century life expectancy in America has increased mainly because of improved health care and nutrition.
• There is, however, a sizable gender gap, with women living an average of 7 years longer than men.
• There is also a sizable racial gap, with white Americans living an average of 5 years longer than blacks.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-84
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-85
Factors that Affect Physical Well-Being
• Diet• Amount of exercise• Quality of health care• Smoking or drug use• Overexposure to the sun• Attitude and interest
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-86
Adjustments to Retirement
• Psychological adjustments• Financial adjustments• Marital (or relationship) adjustments• Social adjustments
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-87
Sexual and Social Behavior
• Although their sexual responses may be slowed, most continue to enjoy sex in their sixties and seventies.
• Still, gradual social changes occur in late adulthood.
• Older adults start to interact with fewer people and perform fewer social roles.
• They may also become less influenced by social rules and expectations.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-88
The Aging Process
• The aging mind works a little more slowly, and certain kinds of memories are more difficult to store and retrieve, but these changes are generally not extensive enough to interfere with most everyday tasks.
• Healthy older adults who engage in intellectually stimulating activities usually maintain a high level of mental functioning.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-89
Alzheimer’s Disease
• A disorder characterized by progressive losses in memory and cognition and changes in personality that is believed to be caused by a deterioration of the brain’s structure and function.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-90
Risk Factors for Developing Alzheimer’s
Disease• Family history of dementia• Having Down syndrome or Parkinson’s
disease• Being born to a woman over the age of
40• Suffering a head trauma• Being heterozygous for a certain gene
located on chromosome 19
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-91
Facing Death
• Most elderly people fear death less than younger people do.
• What they do fear are the pain, indignity, depersonalization, and loneliness associated with a terminal illness.
• They also worry about becoming a financial burden to their families.
• The death of a spouse may be the most severe challenge the elderly face.
©Prentice Hall 2003 9-92
Kübler-Ross’s Stages of Dying
• Denial• Anger• Bargaining• Depression• Acceptance