Anthropological Methods

Objective:

• To learn about Malinowki´s method.

• To recognize the differences and similarities between Malinowski´smethods and modern day anthropological methods.

• To think critically about the colonial legacy and the Western imperialist interests tied to the discipline

The Subject, Method and Scope of this Inquiry, In Argonauts of the Western Pacific, Brownislaw Malinowski, (1922)

1- According to Malinowski, when are the sources ¨of unquestionable scientific value¨?

1- When are the sources ¨of unquestionable scientific value¨?

• Page 172: I consider that only such ethnographic sources are of unquestionable scientific value, in which we can clearly draw the line between, on the one hand, the results of direct observation and of native statements and interpretations, and on the other, the inferences of the author, based on his common sense and psychological insight.

Participant observation is what gives validity to the anthropologist´s data

2- How does the ethnographer bridge the distance between himself and the natives?

2- How does the ethnographer bridge the distance between himself and the natives?

Page 172: The Ethnographer has to traverse this distance in the laborious years between the moment when he sets foot upon a native beach, and makes his first attempts to get into touch with the natives, and the time when he writes down the final version of his results.

In other words, the ethnographer needs to spend years doing fieldwork

3- What are the three main principles of method?

3- What are the three main principles of method?

Page 174:

1- The student must posses real scientific aims, and know the values and criteria of modern ethnography.

2- Secondly, he ought to put himself in good conditions of work, that is, in the main, to live without other white men, right among the natives.

3- Finally, he has to apply a number of special methods of collecting, manipulating and fixing his evidence.

4- What does Malinowski say about informants? How should the relationship be between the ethnographer and the informant?

4- What does Malinowski say about informants? How should the relationship be between the ethnographer and the informant?

Page 174: It is very nice to have a base in a white man's compound for the stores, and to know there is a refuge there in times of sickness and surfeit of native. Bu t it must be far enough away not to become a permanent milieu in which you live and from which you emerge at fixed hours only to ¨do the village¨ It should not even be near enough to fly to at any moment for recreation. For the native is not the natural companion for a white man, and after you have been working with him for several hours, seeing how he does his garden's, or letting him tell you items of folklore, or discussing his customs, you will naturally hanker after the company of your own kind. But if you are alone in a village beyond reach of this, you go for a solitary walk for an hour or so, return again and then quite naturally seek out the natives' society, this time as a relief from loneliness, just as you would any other companionship. And by means of this natural intercourse, you learn to know him, and you become familiar with his customs and beliefs far better than when he is a paid, and often bored, informant.

Don´t pay your informants! Instead, establish relationshipswith people!

5- What does Malinowski think about pre-conceived ideas?

5- What does Malinowski think about pre-conceived ideas?

Page 175: If a man sets out on an expedition, determined to prove certain hypotheses, if he is incapable of changing his views constantly and casting them off ungrudgingly under the pressure of evidence, needless to say his work will be worthless.

6- What does Malinowski have to say about the word ¨savage¨?

6- What does Malinowski have to say about the word ¨savage¨?

Page 176: Ethnology has introduced law and order into what seemed chaotic and freakish. It has transformed for us the sensational, wild and unaccountable world of "savages" into a number of well ordered communities, governed by law, behaving and thinking according to consistent principles. The word "savage," whatever association it might have had originally, connotes ideas of boundless liberty, of irregularity, of something extremely and extraordinarily quaint. In popular thinking, we imagine that the natives live on the bosom of Nature, more or less as they can and like, the prey of irregular, phantasmagoric beliefs and apprehensions. Modern science, on the contrary, shows that their social institutions have a very definite organization, that they are governed by authority, law and order in their public and personal relations (…)

¨Savages¨ (remember this is a scientific term for the time) are not wild but actually, have laws and organized societies just like us!

7- What is ¨the method of statistic documentation by concrete evidence¨?

7- What is ¨the method of statistic documentation by concrete evidence¨?

Page 179: To summarize the first, cardinal point of method, I may say each phenomenon ought to be studied through the broadest range possible of its concrete manifestations ; each studied by an exhaustive survey of detailed examples. If possible, the results ought to be embodied into some sort of synoptic chart, both to be used as an instrument of study, and to be presented as an ethnological document. With the help of such documents and such study of actualities the clear outline of the frame- work of the natives' culture in the widest sense of the word, and the constitution of their society, can be presented. This method could be called the method of statistic documentation by concrete evidence.

Use tables and charts!

8- What is the ¨imponderabilia of actual life¨?

8- What is the ¨imponderabilia of actual life¨?

Page 181: there is a series of phenomena of great importance which cannot possibly be recorded by questioning or computing documents, but have to be observed in their full actuality. Let us call them the imponderabilia of actual life. Here belong such things as the routine of a man's working day, the details of his care of the body, of the manner of taking food and preparing it; the tone of conversational and social life around the village fires, the existence of strong friendships or hostilities, and of passing sympathies and dislikes between people ; the subtle yet unmistakable manner in which personal vanities and ambitions are reflected in the behavior of the individual and in the emotional reactions of those who surround him.

9- When does Malinowski mention ¨participant observation¨?

9- When does Malinowski mention ¨participant observation¨?

Page 182: Again, in this type of work, it is good for the Ethnographer

sometimes to put aside camera, note book and pencil, and to

join in himself in what is going on. He can take part in the

natives' games, he can follow them on their visits and walks,

sit down and listen and share in their conversations.

10- What does Malinowski say about the local language?

10- What does Malinowski say about the local language?

Page 184: In working in the Kiriwinian language, I found still some difficulty in writing down the statement directly in translation which at first I used to do in the act of taking notes. The translation often robbed the text of all its significant characteristics rubbed off all its points so that gradually I was led to note down certain important phrases just as they were spoken, in the native tongue. As my knowledge of the language progressed, I put down more and more in Kiriwinian, till at last I found myself writing exclusively in that language, rapidly taking notes, word for word, of each statement.

Learn the native language!

11- What is the final goal of the ethnographer?

11- What is the final goal of the ethnographer?

Page 184: the final goal, of which an Ethnographer should never lose sight. This goal is, briefly, to grasp the native's point of view, his relation to life, to realize his vision of his world. We have to study man, and we must study what concerns him most intimately, that is, the hold which life has on him.

12- Is it possible to study everything about a culture like Malinowski says?

So, then, what´s Malinowski´s Method for fieldwork?

Malinowski´s Method

1- Go to the field and live with the natives

2- And spend a long period of time (years) doing fieldwork

3- To learn the native language

4- And establish relationships with people – don´t have paid informants!

5- Engage in Partcipant Observation - ¨to put aside camera, note book and pencil, and to join in¨ (page 182)

6- To learn about the ¨imponderabilia of actual life¨ (page 181) –those Little things we do everyday without even realizing that that´s culture

7- In order to reach the final goal of ¨Grasp(ing) the native´s point of view¨(page 184)

In Mirror for Humanity: A Concise Introduction to Cultural Anthropology, Conrad Phillip Kottak

Chapter 3: Ethics and Methods, Page 46-63

Ethics and Anthropology

In the Code of Ethics, The American Anthropological Association (AAA) states that:

Anthropologists should be open and honest about . . . their research projects

with all parties affected by the research. These parties should be informed about

the nature, procedures, purpose(s), potential impacts, and source(s) of support

for the research. Researchers should not compromise anthropological ethics in

order to conduct research. They should . . . pay attention to proper relations

between themselves as guests and the host nations and communities where they

work. The AAA does not advise anthropologists to avoid taking stands on

issues.

The Code of Ethics, The American Anthropological Association (AAA) 2012

1. Do No Harm

2. Be Open and Honest Regarding Your Work

3. Obtain Informed Consent and Necessary Permissions

4. Weigh Competing Ethical Obligations Due To Collaborators and Affected Parties

5. Make Your Results Accessible

6. Protect and Preserve Your Records

7. Maintain Respectful and Ethical Professional Relationships

Code of Ethics, The American Anthropological Association (AAA)

http://www.aaanet.org/profdev/ethics/upload/ethicscode1998.pdf

Informed Consent

Is the agreement to take part in the research, after having been so informed

Participant Observation

The process of taking part in the events one is observing, describing, and analyzing.

Participant Observation has been in fact called ¨Deep Hanging Out¨ byanthropologist Clifford Geertz in 1998.

Participant Observation and Ethnography

¨A research process in which the anthropologist closely observes, records, and engages in the daily life of another culture—an experience labeled as the fieldwork method—and then writes accounts of this culture, emphasizing descriptive detail”

(Marcus and Fischer 1986, p. 18)

Traditionally, ethnographers have tried to understand the whole of a particular culture (or, more realistically, as much as they can, given limitations of time and perception). Nowadays

ethnographies tend to be more issue-based.

Ethnographic or Field Techniques

1- Direct, first hand observation of behavior, including participant observation.2. Conversation with varying degrees of formality, from the daily chitchat, which helps maintain rapport and provides knowledge about what is going on, to prolonged interviews, which can be unstructured or structured.3. The genealogical method.4. Detailed work with key consultants, or informants, about particular areas of community life.5. In-depth interviewing, often leading to the collection of life histories of particular people (narrators).6. Discovery of local (native) beliefs and perceptions, which may be compared with the ethnographer’s own observations and conclusions.7. Problem-oriented research of many sorts.8. Longitudinal research—the continuous long-term study of an area or site.9. Team research—coordinated research by multiple ethnographers.

Approaches in anthropology REMEMBER THIS FOR PAPER 1

Emic Approach

An emic approach investigates how local people think. How do they perceive and categorize the world? What are their rules for behavior?

What has meaning for them? How do they imagine and explain things? Operating emically, the ethnographer seeks the ¨native viewpoint,¨

relying on local people to explain things and to say whether something is significant or not.

Etic Approach

The etic (scientist-oriented) approach shifts the focus from local observations, categories, explanations, and interpretations to those of

the anthropologist. The etic approach realizes that members of a culture often are too involved in what they are doing to interpret their

cultures impartially.

IMPORTANT:

Cultural ¨insiders¨ and ¨outsiders¨ are equally capable of producing emic and etic accounts of their culture.

Do not assume that etic always refers to objective or outsider accounts or say that because the anthropologist is not from

that particular culture he or she cannot provide an emic account. Or because is a native anthropologist that they will

always provide and emic approach

The Native Anthropologist

A ¨native anthropologist¨ is often simplified as an insider with an ¨authentic¨ point of view.

However the ¨native anthropologist¨ is also ¨distanced -by factors as varied as education, class, or emigration-¨ from the people and the societies they

supposedly represent (How ¨Native¨ is the Native Anthropologist? Kirin Narayan 1993: 677).

All anthropologists have ¨multiplex subjectivity,¨ in the sense that anthropologists have multiple and complex identities that are constantly

changing according to the specific situations they face. (Culture and Truth: The Remaking of Social Analysis.Renato Rosaldo 1989)

The Native Anthropologist

According to Narayan, then, the main difference between the ¨native¨and the ¨non-native¨ anthropologist is that ¨instead of learning conceptual categories and then, through fieldwork, finding the contexts in which to apply them, those of us who study societies in which we have preexisting experience absorb analytic categories that rename and reframe what is already known¨ (Narayan 1993: 677).

Then: Ethnographic Realism

Was the style that dominated ¨classic¨ ethnographies. The writer’s goal was to present an accurate, objective, scientific account of a different

way of life, written by someone who knew it first hand. This knowledge came from an ¨ethnographic adventure¨ involving immersion in an

alien language and culture.

Ethnographers derived their authority—both as scientists and as voices of ¨the native¨ or ¨the other¨—from this personal research experience.

Then: Ethnographic Present

The period before Westernization, when the ¨true¨ native culture flourished. This notion often gives classic ethnographies an unrealistic timeless quality. Providing the only jarring note in this idealized picture are occasional comments by the author about traders or missionaries, suggesting that in actuality the natives were already part of the world

system.

In other words, classic ethnographies tend to have a very synchronicperspective (they did not consider history)

Now: Reflexive Ethnography

Here the ethnographer puts his or her personal feelings and reactions to the field situation right in the text. Experimental writing strategies

are prominent in reflexive accounts. The ethnographer may adopt some of the conventions of the novel, including first-person narration,

conversations, dialogues, and humor.

Nowadays, there´s a recognition of biases in the production of ethnographic knowledge

The Colonial and Western Imperialist Legacy

Anthropology and the Colonial Legacy

Anthropology is often thought of as no more than a tool of the imperial administration, and as perpetuating the implicit and explicit power asymmetries of the colonial era. In particular, the British Colonial

power in Africa and its other colonies.

Anthropology and the Colonial Legacy

¨The Rhodes-Livingstone Institute¨ was set up in 1937 in Northern Rhodesia ¨to generate ´scientific´ knowledge about the subjects of

British colonial rule in Central Africa. On the other hand, it would also provide the colonial authorities with useful information that could be used to facilitate the smooth and humane operation of colonial rule.¨

(The Fractured Community Landscapes of Power and Gender in Rural Zambia, Kate Crehan, 1997)

Anthropology and the Colonial Legacy (?)

¨The Chrysanthemum and the Sword¨ published in 1946 by Ruth Benedict was the study of the culture of Japan through its literature,

newspaper clippings, films and recordings, etc., and it was used when anthropologists aided the United States and its allies in World War II. They were attempting to understand the cultural patterns that might

be driving their aggression, and hoped to find possible weaknesses, or means of persuasion that had been missed.

Anthropology and the Western Imperialist Legacy

“Project Camelot” (1964) in which anthropological studies of Latin America were funded by the US military in the hope that the

information gathered might be of use in the case of future military operations in the region.

Anthropology and the Western Imperialist Agenda

¨The U.S. Army Human Terrain System functions as the primary and enduring social science-based human domain research, analysis, and training capability, focused on enabling leaders to remain adaptive when shaping current and future complex strategic and operational environments which support Unified Action Partners world-wide.¨

http://humanterrainsystem.army.mil/

Anthropology and the Western Imperialist Agenda

¨In October 31, 2007, The American Anthropological Association’s Executive Board issued a statement on the US Military’s Human Terrain

System (HTS) project. The statement outlines the ways that the HTS project violates the AAA Code of Ethics, a code which mandates that

anthropologists do no harm to their research subjects¨

http://www.aaanet.org/issues/AAA-Opposes-Human-Terrain-System-Project.cfm

http://www.aaanet.org/about/Policies/statements/Human-Terrain-System-Statement.cfm

Anthropology and the Colonial Legacy

In a response to Malinowski’s ¨Practical Anthropology¨ (1930), the colonial officials suggested, plainly, that anthropologists should let administrators get on with administrating, and that the opinions of

anthropologists were in fact of very little use to ¨practical men¨.

Moreover, anthropologists at the time thought they were doing a goodjob helping ¨savages¨ become ¨civilized¨ or even simply just preserving

cultures (salvage ethnography) before they disappeared due to acculturation.

Writing about ¨the other¨

The Crisis of Representation

This phrase was coined by George Marcus and Michael Fischer (1986) to refer specifically to the uncertainty within the human sciences and particularly, anthropology, about adequate means of describing social

reality.

This crisis arises from the claim that no interpretive account can ever directly or completely capture lived experience. It was argued that

ethnography misrepresented ¨the Other¨, spatially, temporally, perhaps literally, as much as it really ¨represented¨ them.

The Crisis of Representation

It is now clear that ¨classic¨ ethnography represented not scientific ¨facts¨, but rather at best romanticized interpretations or, more

dangerously, conscious or unconscious misrepresentations of societies, which perpetuated the power inequalities founded by the colonial

system or Western Imperialist Powers.

Partial Truths

The tension of the written account was thought to have been removed, only by the denial of multiple perspectives within societies in

favor of the supreme authority of the experience of the author, who was, in general , a Western academic claiming ¨expert¨ knowledge of a

previously ¨unknown¨ cultural trait, system or experience.

Thus, ethnography became as much a literary as a scientific activity, providing not ¨facts¨ but a version of a truth, or as James Clifford puts it ¨fictions¨ in the sense of ¨something made or fashioned¨ (1986: 6), at

once both partial and mediated through the pen of the subjective anthropologist.

Crisis of Representation or Crisis of Relevance?

Removed from the comfort zone, both geographically and intellectually, of the colonial era, anthropology, and the study of the ¨exotic¨, no

longer have their exclusive niche, either in terms of subject matter or methodology, and thus the very point of ¨being¨ an anthropologist, as

distinct from a sociologist, say, is being called into question.

So then, is anthropology still important? Should peoplestill practice it?

Applied Anthropology

Through applied anthropology, anthropologists can exert greater positive influences on policy and practice in the ¨real world¨ rather

than in academia (teaching) with a self-aware practice of ¨writing¨ a culture, and to that of ethically advocating for the interests of that

culture.

AAA Task Forces

Currently there is a task force bringing together anthropologists from around the world with expertise in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and

Nigeria, other Ebola-affected regions, and in infectious disease management to address critical issues in the current Ebola outbreak.

This task force will generate a series of short briefing papers that provide actionable guidance to real-time actors in the field for how to proceed with technical, political, social, and economic management

and containment of the current crisis.

Anthropologists as ¨Handmaidens of Development¨

(The Anthropologist as Apologist?: Colonial Heritage, Ethnographic

Representation and the Ethics of Advocating Practice, Matt Whiffen2004)

We´ll talk more about this once we study Interpretive orSymbolic Anthropology, Development Anthropology and Post

Modernism