Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites in India ... · bamboo drip irrigation technology, which might have been the source of thought in the development of the present-day

Full-length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 14, No. 2, 2010 (133–156)133

AbstractThe Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia Hills region, with its unique landscape, climaticphenomenon of heavy cloud cover and torrential rainfall, and agricultural richnessinvolving the majority of the population, has been proposed as another NationalAgricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site based on six indices. The region is very rich infloristic and agricultural biodiversity, because being part of one of the biodiversityhotspots, the Indo-Burma Region, supporting cultivation of a large number ofdomesticated species using appropriate practices, innovated indigenously, facilitatingharmonious interaction with the landscape. It can be credited with development of theshifting cultivation system, which has been the next step in the evolution of agriculture,from ‘domiculture’ , using the concept of “farming the forests”. Further, it has to itscredit the development of the practice of the “sacred grove”, which essentially is themanagement of the forest with sustainable conservation of biodiversity, and can beconsidered as the mother of all the approaches proposed on “nature reserves” (in-situconservation). Culturally, the region is inhabited by the two dominant local tribes,Khasi and Jaintia, who are predominantly Christians, but with the strong influence ofAryan culture and Hindu religion, the basis of several practices and the compositeculture that is followed. For example, the unique system of matrilineal inheritancepossibly evolved for better and prolonged care of parents by the youngest daughter ofthe family. The present article discusses these and several other aspects of the regionin detail, justifying the proposition of the Heritage Site.

Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites inIndia: V. The Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia Hills Region

Anurudh K Singh

2924, Sector 23, Gurgaon 122017, Haryana, India (email: [email protected])

The three hilly regions – Garo Hills, KhasiHills, and Jaintia Hills – representing theWestern, Central, and Eastern parts of thestate of Meghalaya, are agriculturally unique.The name Meghalaya literally means the‘Abode of the clouds’, describing the uniqueclimatic phenomenon that brings torrents of

rain to this region. Agriculture in this regionis the main occupation, with 83% of the totalpopulation being dependent on it for theirlivelihood. The region can be credited withthe development of the shifting system ofcultivation, which in the evolution ofagriculture, is a transition from the initial

134 Biodiversity heritage site: Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia Hills

‘domiculture’. Under this system,economically selected plant species andcrop cultivars are being grown inconcentration in agricultural plots, made outof cleared forest, as a part of multi-speciescomplex agroecosystem, and overalllandscape organization (Ramakrishnan,1992). The shifting agriculture is essentially“farming the forests” and is the nextimportant step in the socio-ecologicalevolution of agriculture from ‘domiculture’(Singh and Varaprasad, 2008). Further, theecological diversity of the region haspermitted cultivation of a large number offield and more so horticulture crops. Thishas led to the evolution of a wide spectrumof genetic variability in these crops forvarious traits. The crop diversity has alsobeen enriched with the introduction,acceptance, and adoption of new crops fromoutside, such as the potato, which is playinga major role in the economy of the region.Many more crops are being adopted inrecent times. In potato, the local farmershave also developed several in-situ and ex-situ methods for storage to facilitate year-round market supply as per the demand andavoid losses in storage (Sah and Kumar,2008). Similarly, to capture water in thedifficult undulating hilly terrain and tofacilitate its efficient use, the local peoplehave developed ingenious bamboo dripirrigation technology, which might have beenthe source of thought in the development ofthe present-day drip irrigation systempracticed globally.

Culturally, the region has been influencedby races of Indo-Mongolic and Austric originand by Hindu and lately Christian religions.They have made great impact both on social

and agricultural practices. The occurrenceof a number of sacred groves, untouchedby humans is entirely due to the tirelessefforts of the communities of the region whocan be credited with the development of thisunique concept of forest management. Thesacred groves have been able to preservethe biological diversity of the region – whichotherwise might have vanished from thesurrounding areas – contributingsignificantly to the in-situ conservation ofeconomically important plant biodiversity(Roy and Tomar, 2000) of the region. Thishappened under the influence of Hinduculture, which preaches respect for forestsunder the belief that our culture was bornand nourished by the forest, and that humansurvival is dependent on the continuedexistence of forests. In the Vedic era, menwere taught to revere Vanaspati, the Lordof the Forest, celebrated in many hymns.Therefore, it is quite logical to conclude thatthe way these protected forests werecreated, managed, and developed, probablyled to the development of the modernscientific concept of nature reserves,protected areas, parks, wild life sanctuaries,etc. (Singh, 2002). Another unique culturalfeature of the region is the development ofsocial customs, of the matriarchal law ofinheritance, by which custody to propertyand succession of family position passesfrom the mother to the youngest daughter

The three hilly regions – Garo Hills,Khasi Hills, and Jaintia Hills –

representing the Western, Central,and Eastern parts of the state of

Meghalaya, are agriculturally unique.

Asian Agri-History Vol. 14, No. 2, 2010135

(instead of passing to the son, as is the morecommon practice worldwide), to securebetter and prolonged care of the parents inold age. These unique features, qualify theregion to be proposed as anotherAgricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site asper the indices suggested by Singh andVaraprasad (2008). Nevertheless,identification of actual epicenter/site(s) ofthese unique features/systems needs to beexplored.

Location and extentThe Khasi, Jaintia, and Garo Hills aregeographically located in the area that lies26°0’ to 26°10’ N and 89°45’ to 92°45’ E.These hills have significant variation in altitude.Basically, the Meghalaya plateau is a tableland with the altitude varying from 610 m to1,950 m, with its Shillong Peak at 1,950 mabove mean sea level. The hill ranges areundulating in nature with an east-westorientation, with the Surma ravines and smallrivulets separating them. The three hillyregions – Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia Hills –constitute the state of Meghalaya,representing Western Meghalaya, CentralMeghalaya, and Eastern Meghalaya,respectively. However, the state comprises

seven districts: East Garo Hills, West GaroHills, South Garo Hills, East Khasi Hills, WestKhasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Ri-Bhoi. Theinfluence of this agricultural biodiversityheritage site extends to most districts coveringall hills of Meghalaya. The Meghalaya stateis bounded by Assam in the north and theeast, and the plains of Bangladesh in the southand the west (Fig. 1).

LandscapeThe landscape of the region is mostly rollingplateau with extremely steep south-facingslopes. With the hills rising to 1,950 m, theregion remains cool despite its proximity tothe tropics. The region reveals a wonderfulfairyland of great scenic beauty, a panoramaof lush, undulating hills, fertile valleys,meandering rivers, waterfalls, sparklingmountain streams, lakes, etc., beautifullyornamented with the natural occurrence of250 species of orchids. The Khasi and JaintiaHills form the central and eastern part ofMeghalaya, an imposing plateau with rollinggrassland, hills, and river valleys. Thesouthern face of the plateau is marked bydeep gorges and abrupt slopes, at the footof which a narrow strip of plain land runsalong the international border withBangladesh. The Garo Hills have manycaves and lakes. There are no navigablerivers in the region, though small boats canply in a few streams on the lower slopes.All the principle rivers in the State run eitherin a northerly or in a southerly direction andjoin the Brahmaputra or its tributaries.Around 30% of the total land in Meghalayais under forest cover. One of the uniquefeatures of the landscape is the occurrenceof numerous sacred groves found all over

Similarly, to capture water in thedifficult undulating hilly terrain andto facilitate its efficient use, the local

people have developed ingeniousbamboo drip irrigation technology,

which might have been the source ofthought in the development of thepresent-day drip irrigation system

practiced globally.


the region, which are untouched andprotected by the local communities. Thesegroves of plantations are considered sacredby the Khasis. The sacred groves commonlycomprise mixed evergreen forest with oak,rhododendrons, species of Schima (anattractive genus of evergreen trees), andcinnamon (small evergreen tree). Thesegroves contain a number of orchids andepiphytes, which, sometimes form a richoutgrowth of bushes and cover the trees.At a distance, rings of indigenous pines arefound surrounding the groves, like protectivehedges.

AgroclimateThe Khasi, Jaintia, and Garo Hills constitutea warm perhumid ecoregion with red andlateritic soil, as in other northeastern hills.The climate is characterized by warmsummers and cold winters, and is greatly

influenced by the region’s topography. Thesudden rise of hills in the south across theregion is responsible for heavy rainfall. Theannual rainfall varies from 1,600 to 2,600mm, with potential evapotranspiration (PET)between 1,400 and 1,600 mm, leading to(moist-perhumid) moisture regimesthroughout the year (Sehgal et al., 1992).The region is directly influenced by thesouthwestern monsoon that originates in theBay of Bengal. The monsoon begins in Mayand continues until October, bringingtorrential rains. The rainfall pattern variesfrom place to place, and from altitude toaltitude. There is a perceptible variation inrainfall within the region from south to north.Two villages in the southern part of thisregion have vied with each other for theworld’s highest rainfall record: Cherrapunjee(now known as Sohra) and Mawsynram.During the last two decades, rainfall at

Figure 1. Location and extent of the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia Hills.


Cherrapunjee ranged from 11,995 to 14,189mm, and at Mawsynram, from 10,689 to13,802 mm. The mean temperature rangesfrom 16 to 24°C. The summer lasts about 5months, from May to September. Therefore,the growing period extends up to 270 days.The region may experience dry spells onlyin the post-monsoon period from Novemberto April. Winter begins in December andlasts until February. The higher ranges ofKhasi and Jaintia Hills enjoy a moresalubrious Mediterranean type of climate.

The soils are reddish and lateritic in origin,and vary from shallow to very deep sandyloam, red and yellow loam to clayey loamsoils. The major soils in the area includeshallow to very deep loamy red and yellowsoils. They are acidic and are low inphosphorus (Sehgal et al., 1992). Thevariation in agroclimate has contributed tothe evolution of significant genetic diversityin crops and other economically importantplant species, along with diverseagricultural practices to overcome variousconstraints.

Floristic diversityThis region is a part of the Indo-BurmaBiodiversity Hotspot, which has a wide

variety of ecosystems, flora, and fauna andis very rich in floristic diversity with anestimated 7,000 native plant species. Ofthese, 3,331 floral species have beenrecorded from Meghalaya, of which 1,236(37.11%) are endemic (Khan et al., 1997).Nature has bestowed Meghalaya withunique vegetation, ranging from tropical andsubtropical, to temperate or near temperatetypes. In general, the region is richlyendowed with natural vegetation, whichmostly comprises wet evergreen and tropicalmoist deciduous forests. The vegetationcomprises floristic elements of Indo-Burma,Eastern Himalaya, and Peninsular India.The natural vegetation is classified into thefollowing forest types: (1) Tropicalevergreen and semi-evergreen forest,with the dominant species Castanopsisindica (Roxb.) A.DC., Bischofia javanicaBlume, Tetrameles nudiflora R.Br.,Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume,Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br.;(2) Tropical moist and dry deciduousforest, with dominant species such asAlbizia lebbeck (L.) Benth., Shorearobusta A.DC., Toona ciliata M.Roem.;(3) Subtropical pine forest, with Pinuskesiya Royle ex Gordon, Schima wallichiiChoisy, Lyonia ovalifolia Hort.;(4) Temperate forest, with Lithocarpusfenestratus Rehder, Quercus griffithii

The region reveals a wonderfulfairyland of great scenic beauty, apanorama of lush, undulating hills,fertile valleys, meandering rivers,

waterfalls, sparkling mountainstreams, lakes, etc., beautifullyornamented with the natural

occurrence of 250 species of orchids.

One of the unique features of thelandscape is the occurrence of

numerous sacred groves found allover the region, which are untouched

and protected by the localcommunities.


Hook.f. & Thomson ex Miq., Schimakhasiana Dyer, Betula alnoides Buch.-Ham., Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon; and(5) Bamboo forest, with Bambusa tuldaBenth., Bambusa pallida Munro,Melocanna baccifera Skeels,Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees & Arn.ex Munro.

Most of the hills are covered with mixedevergreen sal forest, bamboo jungle andcanes in some parts of the area. Thenorthern hills facing the Brahmaputra valleyhave tropical vegetation. The important treesare sam (Artocarpus chaplasha Roxb.),sal (Shorea robusta), gomari (Gmelinaarborea Roxb.), siris (Albizia Durazz spp.),and teak (Tectona grandis L.f.). Thefloristic diversity has further been enrichedand beautified by orchid species diversity.Of the total orchids found in the world, about1,250 exist in India; about 700 species ofthese are distributed in the northeasternstates, of which about 300 are found inMeghalaya.

The Khasi-Jaintia Hills function as acorridor of the southeast Asian floristicelements into the Indian subcontinentthrough the Arakan arc. The altitudinalvariation and rainfall patterns of thesouthwest and northeast monsoons play asignificant role in the development ofdiverse ecological niches in thisregion. The Khasi Hills region

encompasses more than 2,000 floweringplants in a radius of 15 km fromCherrapunjee. Of these, around 150 areferns with a profusion of mosses, fungi,and lichens, more than 250 species oforchids, 25 species of balsams, 20 speciesof palms, and 150 species of grasses. Wildspecies of apples and rhododendrons arefound in the higher parts of the centralplateau. In the upper hills from 1,500 mand above, in the central plateau of theKhasi Hills, coniferous vegetation, suchas pines, oaks, and ferns are found. Thismakes it a distinct and interesting naturalvegetation belt, the like of which cannotbe found anywhere in the country in asingle region. This ecological variation hasproduced a significant amount of naturalgenetic diversity in most economicallyimportant plant species. Efforts have beenmade to conserve this useful variability in-situ with the establishment of sanctuariesin the Tura range of the Garo Hills for theconservation of rich native diversity ofwild Citrus L. and Musa L. species.

Agriculture andagrobiodiversity

The hilly landscape of the region, which ischaracterized by elevated ranges, foothills,and valleys, has less than 10% of thegeographical area under cultivation,although agriculture is the main occupation,with 83% of the total population dependenton agriculture for their livelihood. Slopesare broadly used for horticulture. Due toits peculiar topography and richness inhorticulture biodiversity, the people of theregion depend more on such sectors as

The variation in agroclimate hascontributed to the evolution of

significant genetic diversity in crops.


forestry, horticulture, and animal husbandrythan on traditional agriculture. For thisreason, the indigenous farming systems ofthe region have a traditional base offorestry, and the local tribes have developedfarming systems in which trees and cropsare grown together to meet the householdneeds on a sustainable basis. Therefore,most of the traditional farming practices,besides agroforestry, revolve aroundsilviculture, the science and art of cultivatingforest crops, based on the knowledge ofthe life history and general characteristicsof forest trees and horticulture, resulting inthe development of systems, such as agri-silviculture, agri-horticulture, silvi-horticulture, pastoral-silviculture, andpastoral-horticulture. It includes mixedfarming, which sometimes may includeeven medicinal plants along with crop ortree species.

Shifting cultivation, involving slashing andburning of sites followed by cultivation of anumber of diverse species to meet diverseneeds (Fig. 2) and terrace (bun) agricultureare the two major farming systems prevalent

in the region. Cultivation of economicallyimportant species in the indigenous shiftingsystem called jhum has been the traditionalway of farming, which is now being replacedwith scientific methods, bringing lands underpermanent cultivation. However, the Jaintiasof the North Cachar Hills district still dependon traditional jhum or slash-and-burncultivation. Jhum is a major component ofthe larger agroecosystem. It comprisesagriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing, andis a land-use system based on a traditional,year-round, community-wide, self-contained, and ritually sanctioned way of life.The Garos have more efficient slash-and-burn agriculture and animal husbandrysystems compared with the others, whohave more dependence upon the forest forfood. Additionally, the local people makesustainable use of other available naturalresources that include bamboo, cane, pine,and trees, such as Artocarpusheterophyllus Lam. (jackfruit), A. chamaBuch.-Ham. (syn. A. chaplasha Roxb.; wildjackfruit), A. lakoocha Roxb. (monkeyjack), Garcinia spp., Licuala peltata Roxb.ex Buch.-Ham. (palm), Caryota urens L.(toddy palm), Mangifera indica L. (mango),Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. (soap nut),Tectona grandis L.f. (common teak),

Figure 2. Burning of slashed site for jhumcultivation.

The floristic diversity has further beenenriched and beautified by orchid

species diversity. Of the total orchidsfound in the world, about 1,250 existin India; about 700 species of theseare distributed in the northeastern

states, of which about 300 are foundin Meghalaya.


Toona ciliata M.Roem. (red cedar), Cassiasiamea Lam. (senna – medicinal), etc., fordifferent purposes.

Jhum has progressed to tree-based organizedfarming systems prevalent in the region. Thecrops are grown in association with such treespecies as alder (Aquilaria Lam.), areca-nut, coconut, bamboo, Khasi pine, etc. Dueto the undulating topography and hilly terrain,to support these cultivations, the farmerspredominantly use indigenously developedbamboo drip irrigation technology (Fig. 3).Bamboo species such as Phyllostachysbambusoides Siebold & Zucc. andDendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees & Arn. exMunro are cultivated for the construction ofhouses and other domestic uses.

Rice and maize are the major food crops, andare commonly cultivated in the valleys and interraces on the hills. Other crops grown arepea, nigerseed, and rapeseed/mustard. Thecommon crop rotations are rice–mustard,rice–pea, rice–vegetable, rice–cotton, rice–food crop, maize–mustard, and nigerseed–mustard. The harvesting of crops adds a newdimension towards improvement of soilfertility. In addition, commercial crops suchas jute, mesta (Hibiscus spp.), short-staplecotton, ginger, and turmeric are also grownin diverse combinations and systems. Addingnew dimension to crop harvest, the farmersharvest only the earheads and leave otherplant parts on the cultivated land todecompose/recycle and contribute to thesustenance of soil fertility. The farmers storegrains in structures made of soil and plantmaterials. The seed storage structures aretraditional and insect-proof.

The important fruit crops are oranges (Khasimandarins), pineapple, lemon, guava, litchi,jackfruit, while banana, tezpatta (bay-leaf),areca-nut, betel leaf, and black pepper arethe chief plantation crops grown underdiverse systems. Displaying acceptance tonew crops and technology from otherregions/parts of the world, the region, in therecent past has successfully adopted thecultivation of non-traditional crops such astea and cashewnut in plantation; wheat andoilseeds, such as groundnut, soybean, andsunflower in field crops; tomato invegetables; and mushroom in household/home gardens. Mixed farming/cropping isalso practiced involving a number of species,facilitating management of tree species andproviding food and raw material to meetother needs (Fig. 4).

The Khasi Hills region encompassesmore than 2,000 flowering plants in aradius of 15 km from Cherrapunjee.

Figure 3. Ingenious bamboo drip irrigation,trapping and carrying water to the field.


Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), anintroduced crop, is one of the most importantcrops grown in the hilly regions ofMeghalaya. An indigenous and traditionalmethod of land preparation – locally calledNur Bun – for potato cultivation is practiced.“Nur” is the agricultural land unit in the localKhasi language, and refers to one raised bed,which is usually 1–1.25 m wide and 2–7 mlong (Shantanu Kumar Dubey and Sah,2009).

The Pnar tribe of the Jaintia Hills district,whose main occupation is agriculture, eventoday uses plant species – such as Buteabuteiformis (Voigt) Grier. & Long,Castanopsis indica A.DC., Castanopsistribuloides (Sm.) DC., Phoenix humilis

Royle ex Becc. & Hook.f., Pinus kesiyaRoyle ex Gordon, Quercus serrata Thunb.,and Schima wallichii Choisy – as indicatorsfor systematizing the steps they followseason-wise for achieving the bestproductivity of rice and other agriculturalcrops. Each plant indicator is provided witha vernacular name, the relevant plant partsindicative of the agricultural seasons andtheir significant role in agriculturalproductivity.

Representative plant species invarious crop groups

Cereals and pseudocereals. Coixlacryma-jobi L. var. ma-yuen (Romaner)Stapf ex Hook.f. (soft-shelled forms), fingermillet (Eleusine coracana Gaertn.), foxtailmillet [Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv.], grainamaranth (Amaranthus hypocondriacusL.), maize (Zea mays L.), rice (Oryza sativaL.), and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.).

Legumes and oilseeds. Black gram[V igna mungo (L.) Hepper], castor(Ricinus communis L.), groundnut(Arachis hypogaea L.), nigerseed[Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass.], pea(Pisum sativum L.), pigeonpea [Cajanuscajan (L.) Millsp.], rapeseed/mustard(Brassica L. spp.), ricebean [Vignaumbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi],sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), soybean(Glycine max), and sunflower (Helianthusannuus L.).

Fiber and forages. Boehmeriamacrophylla Siebold & Zucc. (fiber), jute(Corchorus capsularis L.), tossa jute(Corchorus olitorius L.), mesta (Hibiscuscannabinus L., H. sabdariffa L.), short-

Figure 4. Multiple mixed farming andintercropping facilitating tree management.

The Garos have more efficient slash-and-burn agriculture and animal

husbandry systems compared with theothers ...


staple cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), andTrema orientalis (L.) Blume (strings aremade from the bark).

Vegetables and tuber crops. Aroid(Alocasia acuminata Schott), bitter gourd(Momordica charantia L.), brinjal(Solanum melongena L.), cabbage(Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata L.),cauliflower (B. oleracea L. var. botrytisL.), kakrol [Momordica cochinchinensis(Lour.) Spreng.] and kartoli (M. dioicaRoxb. ex Willd.) in the Garo Hills (Ram etal., 2002), meetha karela (Cyclantherapedata Schrad.), Flemingia vestita Benth.ex Baker – a root crop of the Khasi Hills,pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioicaRoxb.), potato (Solanum tuberosum L.),radish (Raphanus sativus L.), soh-phlanh(Pueraria tuberosa DC.) – tubers areedible, sponge gourd (Luffa cylindricaM.Roem., L. graveolens Roxb.), sural[Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. var.chinensis (Ohwi) Maesen & Almeida exSanjappa & Pradeep] – roots are edible, taro[Colocasia affinis Schott, C. fallax Schott,C. esculenta (L.) Schott], tomato(Lycopersicon esculentum L.), white yam(Dioscorea alata L.), and yam (Dioscoreapentaphylla L. var. hortorum, D. prazeriPrain & Burkill, D. trinervia Roxb. ex Prain

& Burkill). Additionally, edible bamboos arecultivated, such as bans kaban(Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees & Arn.ex Munro; giant bamboo) – young shootsare edible, Melocanna baccifera Skeels,and Bambusa balcooa Roxb. – cooked asvegetable.

Spices. Ajwain (Trachyspermumkhasianum H.Wolff), ladja goah (Alpiniamalaccensis Roscoe) – yields oil, bay-leaf/tezpatta (Cinnamomum tamala T.Nees &Eberm., Cinnamomum pedunculatumJ.Presl var. angustifolium, C. pauciflorumNees), Bengal cardamom (Amomumaromaticum Roxb.), black pepper (Pipernigrum Beyr. ex Kunth, P. khasianumC.DC.), ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.,Z. capitatum Roxb.), tirphal or chirphal(Zanthoxylum rhetsa – also medicinal), andturmeric (Curcuma domestica Val.).

Fruits. Clausena excavata Burm.f.,Docynia indica Decne., Docyniahookeriana Decne. – the fruits are ediblefresh and in pickles, as well as in jellypreparations, Eriobotrya angustissimaHook.f., ginger citrus (Citrus assamensisS.Dutta & S.C.Bhattacharya), guava(Psidium guajava L.), jackfruit(Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.),khachur (Cornus macrophylla Wall.),Khasi papeda (Citrus latipes Tanaka),Khasi black currant (Antidesma khasianumHook.f.), lemon [Citrus lemon (L.)Burm.f.], litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.),mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco), mango(Mangifera indica L.), mangosteen(Garcinia xanthochymus Hook.f., G.atroviridis Griff. ex T.Anderson, G.pedunculata Roxb. ex Buch.-Ham.) – large

The important fruit crops are oranges(Khasi mandarins), pineapple, lemon,guava, litchi, jackfruit, while banana,tezpatta (bay-leaf), areca-nut, betelleaf, and black pepper are the chief

plantation crops grown under diversesystems.


fruits used in curries, and as substitute forlemon, G. sopsopia (Buch.-Ham.) Mabb.– stem used as a rootstock for mangosteen,G. stipulata T.Anderson, Melanesianpapeda [Citrus macroptera Montrouz.(syn. C. papuana F.M. Bailey), C.aurantium L. subsp. saponacea Saff.],monkey jack (Artocarpus lakoochaRoxb.), orange [Citrus sinensis (L.)Osbeck], passion fruit (Passiflora edulisSims.), peach [Prunus persica (L.)Batsch], pear (Pyrus communis Durieu),persimmon [Diospyros lancifolia Roxb.,D. nigrescens (Dalzell) C.J.Saldanha],pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.],plum (Prunus domestica L.), pumello[Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.], redbayberry (Myrica rubra A.Chev.), soh-khlur (Elaeagnus pyriformis Hook.f.),sour orange (Citrus aurantium Linn.),taranj (Citrus medica L.), and evergreendogwood [Benthamidia capitata (Wall.)Hara, syn. Cornus capitata Wall.].

Beverages and other plantationcrops. Areca-nut (Areca catechu L.),betel-vine (Piper betle L.), cashewnut(Anacardium occidentale L.), coffee(Coffea khasiana Hook.f.), plantain (Musaacuminata Colla), sugarcane (Saccharumofficinarum L., Saccharum L. spp.), andtea (Camellia sinensis Kuntze var.assamica).

Timber. Hollock (Terminalia myriocarpavan Heurck & Muell.-Arg.), hollong(Dipterocarpus macrocarpus Vesque),Mesua ferrea L., Artocarpus chaplashaRoxb., Khasi pine (Pinus kesiya Royle exGordon), chir pine (Pinus roxburghii Sarg.),red cedar (Toona ciliata), Schima indica,

Castanopsis indica A.DC., teak (Tectonagrandis), and sal (Shorea assamica Dyer).

Bamboos and canes. Biswas (1988)has reported 36 species of bamboobelonging to 14 genera from Meghalaya.The important clump-forming speciesinclude Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.)Nees (syn. Bambusa stricta Roxb.), D.hamiltonii Nees & Arn. ex Munro,Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd., B.pallida Munro, B. tulda Roxb., whereasMelocanna bambusoides Trin. is theimportant non-clump forming species.Other important species are Arundinariaclarkei Gamble ex Brandis, A. falcataNees, A. gracilis (Hort. ex Riv.) Blan.,A. griffithiana Munro, A. hirsuta Munro,A. khasiana Munro, A. mannii Gamble,A. polystachya Kurz ex Gamble, A.prainii Gamble, Bambusa jaintianaR.B.Majumdar, B. khasiana Munro, B.pseudopallida Majumdar,Chimonobambusa callosa Nakai,Decalepis hamiltonii Wight & Arn.,Dendrocalamus calostachys (Kurz)Kurz, D. sikkimensis Gamble ex Oliv.,Drepanostachyum khasianum (Munro)R.B.Majumdar, D. polystachyum (Kurzex Gamble) Ohrnb., Melocalamusgracilis W.T.Lin, M. indicusR.B.Majumdar, Neomicrocalamusclarkei (Gamble ex Brandis)R.B.Majumdar, N. mannii (Gamble)Majumdar, N. prainii (Gamble) Keng f.,Phyllostachys assamica Gamble exBrandis, P. bambusoides Siebold &Zucc., P. mannii Gamble., P. nigra (Lodd.ex Lindl.) Munro, Pseudotenantheraalbociliata (Munro) R.B.Majumdar,Racemobambos prainii (Gamble) Keng


f. & T.H.Wen, Schizostachyum dullooa(Gamble) R.B.Majumdar, S. helferi(Munro) Majumdar, S. polymorphum(Munro) R.B.Majumdar, Sinarundinariafalcata (Nees) Chao & Renvoize, S.griffithiana (Munro) Chao & Renvoize,S. hirsuta (Munro) Chao & Renvoize, S.polystachya (Kurz ex Gamble) Chao &Renvoize, and Teinostachyum helferi(Munro) Gamble.

Medicinal plants. The report of the StateLevel Planning Committee, Meghalaya lists850 species of medicinal plants, 377 of whichare used by 70–80% of the State’s populationfor primary health care (http://megforest.gov.in/activity_medic_plants.htm).Some representative species areAchyranthes aspera L., Acorus calamusL., Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa ex Roxb.,Arisaema jacquemontii Blume,Aristolochia tagala Cham., Asparagusracemosus Willd., Baliospermummicrathum Muell., Catharanthus roseus(L.) G.Don, Centella asiatica (L.) Urban,Cinnamomun bejolghota (Buch.-Ham.)Sweet, C. tamala, Clerodendrumserratum (L.) Moon, Costus speciosusSm., Curcuma longa L., C. zeodoria Rosc.,Cuscuta reflexa Roxb., Dioscorea alataL., Eryngium foetidum Walter, Fagopyrumdibotrys (D.Don) Hara, Gloriosa superbaL. , Gynocardia odorata R.Br.,Houttuynia cordata Thunb., Hedychiumspicatum Sm., kayaphal (Myricaesculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don),Lycopodium clavatum L., Nepentheskhasiana Hook.f., Ocimum sanctum L.,Oxalis corymbosa L., Panaxpseudoginseng Wall., Piper longum L., P.nigrum L. , Plantago ovata Forsk,

Plumbago zeylanica L., Scroporia dulcisL., Solanum khasianum C.B.Clarke,Swertia charayita (Roxb. ex Flem.)Karst., yew (Taxus baccata L.), Terminaliachebula Retz., Viburnum foetidum Wall.,Zanthoxylum armatum Druce, etc.1

Ornamentals. About 300 ornamentalspecies are found in the rich forestland,gardens and nurseries of Meghalaya.Amongst the State’s rare species are theinsect-eating pitcher plant and pygmy lily. Thehighest numbers of orchid species are locatedin Mawsmai and Mawmluh villages. En routeto Cherrapunjee, the forest at Sohrarim is abotanist’s paradise. Blessed with differentclimatic conditions, the region boasts a varietyof plants, from the rhododendron forest(Shillong Peak) to the insectivorous pitcherplants found both in the Jaintia and the GaroHills. Meghalaya is home to about 300 knownorchid species of the 17,000 species of orchidsfound in the world (http://megtourism.gov.in/flora.html). Some representative ornamentalspecies are Corybas purpureus Joseph &Yog., Corylopsis himalayana Griff.(flowers used as pot herb), Cypripediumhimalaicum Rolfe, Goodyera recurvaLindl., butterfly lily (Hedychiumaurantiacum Wall.), white ginger lily(Hedychium coronarium J.Koenig), H.ellipticum Sm., H. elwesii Baker, H. hookeriC.B.Clarke ex Baker, H. radiatum A.S.Rao& Hajra, H. robustum A.S.Rao & Hajra,H. spicatum Sm.), Hypericum

1. For recent information, see Base Line Informationon Medicinal Plants Conservation and SustainableUse (sponsored by UNDP/GEF, MoEF,Government of India and coordinated byFoundation for Revitalisation of Local HealthTraditions (FRLHT), Bangalore).


hookerianum Wt. & Arn. var. lobbii(N.Robson) S.N. Biswas, Impatiensdepauperata Hook.f., I. formosa Hook.f.,I. khasiana Hook.f., I. striloba Hook.f.,Jejosephia pusilla (Joseph & Deka) A.N.Rao & K.J. Mani, Liparis assamica King& Pantl., Nepenthes khasiana Hook.f.,Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum Pfitzer, P.insigne Pfitzer, P. venustum Pfitzer,Pennilabium proboscideum A.S. Rao &Joseph, Thrixspermum muscaeflorum var.muscaeflorum A.S. Rao & Joseph, voodoolily (Amorphophallus bulbifer Blume), etc.

Multipurpose species. Alnusnepalensis D.Don. (used in making boxes,in light construction, as firewood, for erosioncontrol and nitrogen fixation), rudrakshatree (Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume –fruits edible and medicinal; E. lancifoliusRoxb. – seeds used as beads in rural areas),Chrysanthemum coronopifolium Vill.(ornamental, insecticidal), Solanumsisymbrifolium Lam. (native of Africa,grown for vegetable and medicine). Manyorchids have been used as medicinal agentsby the tribals. For example, the juice fromcut leaves of Cymbidium giganteum Sw.is used by the Khasis for clotting blood.

Wild relatives of crop plants.Amomum aromaticum Roxb.,Amorphophallus bulbifer Blume,Camellia caudata Wall., Citrus indicaTanaka, Citrus latipus (Sw.) Tanaka(Khasi papeda), Citrus macropteraMontr. (Melanesian papeda), Citrusmedica Linn. (turanj), Coffea fragransWall., C. jenkinsii Hook.f., C. khasianaHook.f., Corchorus capsularis L. (wildforms), Cucumis hystrix Chak., Curcuma

amada Roxb., Digitaria cruciata (Neesex Steud.) A. Camus, Dioscorea hispidaDennst., Fragaria nilgerrensis Schlecht.,Luffa graveolens Roxb., Mangiferakhasiana Pierre, M. sylvatica Roxb.,Momordica macrophylla Gage, M.subangulata Blume, Mucuna bracteataDC., Musa flaviflora Simmonds (syn. M.thomsoni King ex Cowan), M. assamicaG.Mann. ex Baker, M. sikkimensis Kurz,M. superba Roxb. [syn. Ensete superba(Roxb.) Cheesman], M. velutina H.Wendl.& Drude, Narenga fallax (Palansa) Bor.(syn. Saccharum longifolium Munro exBenth., Phoenix dactylifera L., Piperattenuatum Herb. ex Link, P. cornilimbumC.DC., P. khasianum C.DC., P. oldhamiiC.DC., Prunus arborea (Blume)Kalkman, P. cornuta Wall., P. nepalensisK.Koch, P. wallichii Steud. (syn. P.acuminata Dietr non Michx), Pyruspashia Ham. ex D.Don, P. pyrifoliaNakai, Rosa gigantea Collett ex Crép.,R. longicuspis Bertol., Rubus ellipticusSmith, R. moluccanus Linn., R.paniculatus Smith, R. rosaefolius Smith,Setaria pallide-fusca (Schumach.)C.E.Hubb., Solanum khasianumC.B.Clarke, S. kurzii Brace ex Prain,Trichosanthes himalensis C.B.Clarkevar. himalensis, T. khasiana Kundu, T.wallichiana Wight, T. bracteata Voigt,Vigna clarkei Prain, and Zingibercapitatum Roxb. (Arora and Nayar,1984).

Amongst the State’s rare species arethe insect-eating pitcher plant and

pygmy lily.


Endemic species

Baliospermum micrathum Muell.,Bambusa pseudopallida R. Majumdar,Bupleurum khasianum (Cl.) P.K. Mukh.,Chrysanthemum coronopifolium Vill.,Cinnamomum pedunculatum Nees var.angustifolium Hemsl., Coix lacryma-jobiL. var. ma-yuen, Corybas purpureusJoseph & Yog., Cotoneaster khasianusKlotz, Crotalaria noveoides Griff.,Dalbergia debilis Baker, D. millettiiBenth. var. oldamii Toth., D. rimosa Roxb.var. griffithii Toth., D. volubilis Roxb. var.assamica Toth., Daphne shillongii Banerji,Eriobotrya angustissima Hook.f.,Euonymus lawsonii, Goodyera recurvaLindl., Hedychium ellipticum Smith var.asraoii Srivastva & Jain, Holboelliakhasiana, Hypericum hookerianum Wt.& Arn. var. lobbii (N.Robson) S.N. Biswas,Ilex embelioides Hook.f., Impatiensdepauperata Hook.f., I. formosa Hook.f.,I. khasiana Hook.f., I. striloba Hook.f.,Indigofera bracteata Grah. ex Baker var.khasiana Sanj., Jasminum andophyllumWall ex DC., Jejosephia pusilla (Joseph& Deka) A.S. Rao, Liparis assamica King& Pantl., Mahonia simonsii Takeda,Micromeles meghalayensis Panigrahi, M.polycarpa (Hook.f.) Panigrahi, Nepentheskhasiana Hook.f., Pennilabiumproboscideum A.S. Rao & Joseph,Peristrophe acuminata (Wall.) Nees var.khasiana, Piper cornilimbum C.DC., P.oldhamii C.DC., P. parvilimbus C.DC.,Polyalthia meghalayensis Prakash &Mehrotra, Sterculia khasiana Debbearm.,Thrixspermum muscaeflorum A.S. Rao &Joseph var. muscaeflorum, Trichosantheshimalensis C.B.Clarke, T. majuscula

(C.B.Clarke) Kundu, and Viburnumsimonsii Hook.f. (Nayar, 1996). Table 1 listsrepresentative endemic species ofeconomically important plants.

Threatened economic species

Agapetes obovata (Wight) Hook.f.,Boesenbergia rubrolutea Kuntze, Citrusindica and C. macroptera (Malik et al.,2006), Citrus latipes, Cypripediumhimalaicum Rolfe, Hedychiumauranticum, Ixonanthus khasiana,Jasminum adenophyllum Wall.,Mangifera khasiana Pierre, Musaflaviflora, Nepenthes khasiana Hook.f.,Piper peepuloides, Nostolachma jenkinsii(Hook.f.) Deb & J.Lahiri, and Sterculiakhasiana Debbearm. have been reportedto be endangered. In addition, many morespecies, such as Ilex khasiana Purkayastha(tree) are being reported to be under threat,because of various developments, includingintensification of agriculture andinfrastructure development. Rhododendronarboretum ssp. arboretum is under threatdue to overexploitation (Yunnam, 2008). Ina recent study, higher land cover dynamicshas been observed in the Garo Hills showingmore alternations in the landscape during thestudy period (Roy and Joshi, 2002). Forexample, plant species such as Cycaspectinata Griff. and Dipteris wallichi(R.Br.) T.Moore have been lost inMeghalaya (Kataki, 1983). Also species,such as Diospyros undulata Hiern,Nymphaea pygmaea [Dryand.] andSageretia hamosa Brongn. are consideredextinct, and Luvunga scandens (Roxb.)Wight is thought to be locally extinct (Khanet al., 1997; Roy and Tomar, 2000).


Table 1. Representative agriculturally important species endemic to the Khasi,Jaintia, and Garo Hills: Meghalaya.

Species Family Habit Distribution Remarks/Use

Bambusa pseudopallida Bambusoideae Tall shrub Khasi-Jaintia HillsOrnamentalBupleurum khasianum Apiaceae Herb Khasi-Jaintia Hills MedicineChrysanthemum Asteraceae Herb Khasi-Jaintia Hills Ornamental,coronopifolium insecticidalCinnamomum Lauraceae Tree Khasi Hills Spicepedunculatumvar. angustifoliumCoix lacryma-jobi Poaceae Herb Garo-Khasi Hills Foragevar. ma-yuen Corybas purpureus Orchidaceae Tiny herb Khasi Hills Pinkish white

flowersDalbergia volubilis Fabaceae Tree Meghalaya Woodvar. assamicaEriobotrya angustissima Rosaceae Shrub Khasi-Jaintia Hills FruitEuonymus lawsonii Celastraceae Small tree Garo-Khasi- Medicinal, wood

Jaintia HillsGoodyera recurva Orchidaceae Epiphyte Khasi Hills OrchidHedychium ellipticum Zingiberaceae Herb Khasi-Jaintia Hills Medicinal andvar. asraoii aromaticImpatiens depauperata Balsaminaceae Herb Khasi- Jaintia Hills OrnamentalImpatiens khasiana Balsaminaceae Herb Khasi-Jaintia Hills OrnamentalImpatiens striolata Balsaminaceae Herb Khasi-Jaintia Hills OrnamentalJejosephia pusilla Orchidaceae Herb Khasi-Jaintia Hills OrnamentalLiparis assamica Orchidaceae Herb Khasi-Jaintia Hills OrnamentalMahonia simonsii Berberidaceae Shrub Khasi Hills Roots with alkaloidNepenthes khasiana Nepenthaceae Herb Khasi Hills Pitcher plantPennilabium proboscideumOrchidaceae Herb Khasi-Jaintia Hills OrnamentalPeristrophe acuminata Acanthaceae Herb Khasi Hills Medicinalvar. khasianaPolyalthia meghalayensis Annonaceae Shrub Khasi Hills; Wood, avenue tree,

800–900 m genetic resourceSelinum striatum Apiaceae Herb Khasi Hills Indicator speciesSterculia khasiana Sterculiaceae Shrub Khasi-Jaintia Hills Medicinal/

multipurposeThrixspermum muscaeflorumOrchidaceae Epiphyte Khasi-Jaintia HillsOrnamentalvar. muscaeflorumTrichosanthes himalensis Cucurbitaceae Scandent Khasi-Jaintia Hills Vegetable,

herb genetic resourceTrichosanthes majuscule Cucurbitaceae Scandent Khasi-Jaintia Hills Vegetable,

herb genetic resourceViburnum simonsii Sambucaceae Small tree Khasi-Jaintia Hills With red drupes


Representative economically importantspecies under threat are listed in Table 2.

Associated culturesThe region is inhabited by Mongoloid andAustric races, with the influence of Aryanculture and Hindu religion and lately that ofChristianity. Tribal people make up themajority of Meghalaya’s population. It ispredominantly inhabited by the Khasi, theJaintia, and the Garo tribal communities. The

Table 2. Representative agriculturally important species under threat in the Khasi,Jaintia, and Garo Hills: Meghalaya.

Species Family Habit Threat level1 Remarks/Use

Agapetes obovata Ericaceae Shrub I Ripe fruits are edibleCitrus indica Rutaceae Small tree I Wild orange, genetic

resourceC. macroptera Rutaceae Small tree I Wild orange, genetic

resourceCypripedium Orchidaceae Herb EN Beautiful blossomhimalaicumIlex khasiana Aquifoliaceae Tree EN Ornamental, medicinalIxonanthus khasiana Ixonanthaceae Tree VU Wood for cabinet workJasminum Oleaceae Shrub EN Fragrant ornamentaladenophyllumLuvunga scandens Rutaceae Woody climberLocally EX Medicinal; antifungal;

essential oil from fruitMangifera khasiana Anacardiaceae Tree I Wild relative of mango;

fruit eaten by nativesNepenthes khasiana Nepenthaceae Climbing shrub CR Used for urinary problemsNymphaea pygmaea NymphaeaceaeHerb EX Miniature water lily, best

grown in tub gardensRhododendron Ericaceae Shrub EN Ornamentalarboretumssp. arboretumSterculia khasiana Sterculiaceae EX; CR MedicinalVanda coerulea Orchidaceae Herb R Ornamental of high value

1. CR = Critically endangered; EN = Endangered; EX = Possibly extinct from wild; I = Indeterminate; R = Rare;VU = Vulnerable.

Khasis and the Jaintias trace their lineageto the Mongolian race, while the Garosbelong to the Tibeto-Burman race. Theircultural trails and ethnic origins remaindistinctive, mainly due to their geographicalisolation. However, Meghalaya is dominatedby the Khasis and the Garos. The Khasisare the largest group (49%), followed by theGaros (34%). These were among thoseknown to the British as “hill tribes”. Othergroups include the Koch, the Hajong,


Dimasa, Hmar, Kuki, Lakhar, Mikir, Rabha,Nepali, etc. The stone monoliths that canbe seen around the state were erected bythe Khasis to commemorate tribal chieftains.The Khasi traditional female dress is ratherelaborate with several pieces of cloth, givingthe body a cylindrical shape. It consists ofchecked cotton cloth pinned on eachshoulder (jainsem) and a shawl (tapmoh).Although they are Christian, it is not unusualfor the Khasis to sacrifice chickens andgoats at festivals to ensure the return of thesun, and chewing betel (the Khasis call it‘kwai’), which is considered a semi-religioushabit. Bullfights in many Khasi village fairsare common. However, in their version ofbullfighting, called ‘yaturmasi’, one bull ispitted against another.

The Khasi, Garo, Jaintia, and Hajong arethe dominant tribes associated withagriculture. There are numerous myths andlegends regarding the origin, transmittedorally, over the centuries from generation togeneration, for want of any written script.Among the Khasis and the Jaintias, the storyof the celestial origin of their Hynniew Trep(“Seven Families”) tribe is narrated in thefollowing words: in the good old days, therewere sixteen families living in Heaven. Theydescended on earth whenever they liked byclimbing down the Golden Stairs on the peakof Sohpetbneng (the navel of Heaven), afew kilometres away from the Umiam Lakeon the way to Guwahati. It is said that sevenfamilies wished to live on earth. When Godgranted their wish, these seven families(known as Ki Hynniew Ha Tbian) camedown to live in the hills. However, Godsnapped the Golden Stairs and the sevenfamilies were left permanently on earth. The

Khasi-Pnars originated from these ‘SevenFamilies’, but even today they have notforgotten the other ‘Nine Families’ living inHeaven. Whenever the Khasis pray to God,they remember to make a request to these‘Nine Families’ to forgive them for theiromissions.

One of the unique features of the regionis that the majority of the tribal populationsfollow a matrilineal system, where lineageand inheritance are traced through thewomen. Under the matriarchal law ofinheritance, custody to property andsuccession of family position passes fromthe mother to the youngest/selecteddaughter, rather than from the father tothe son, as is common worldwide. As perthe tradition, among Khasis, a boy or girlborn of a Khasi mother, belongs to thefamily of the mother. The property isinherited by the youngest daughter,probably to ensure prolonged care ofparents in old age. The Khasi society isdivided into clans or Kurs, which areactually outgrown families. As per thetraditional matrilineal norm, the “KaKhadduh” (the youngest daughter)inherits all the property and acts as thecaretaker of her aged parents and anyunmarried siblings. However, the sons,particularly the mother’s brother, mayindirectly control the ancestral propertysince he may be involved in importantdecisions relating to property including itssale and disposal.

In the case of Garo society, the parents havethe option to select any one of their daughtersas the heiress. The Garo society is dividedinto three major clans or Katchis. Each of


these Katchis is further subdivided into anumber of lineages called Machongs, whichform the basic unit in the Garo social structure,and are named after animals, rivers, caves,etc. The dominant Machong in a villageselects its Nok-ma or the headman. Nok inGaro means house, while ma stands formother. Though the headman is a male, theycall him Nok-ma. This shows the importancethe Garos attach to the woman.

Traditionally animist-Hindu, more than 80%of the Garo are now Christian. The Khasisnow are also mostly Christians. However,witch doctors are still common andWangala dances are held in order toinsure a good harvest. Individuals taketheir clan titles from their mothers and theyoungest daughter (nakma) inherits theproperty from her mother. The sons leavethe parents’ house at puberty, and aretrained in the village bachelor dormitory(nokpante). After getting married, theman lives in his wife’s house. The tribalpeople of Meghalaya are part of what maybe the world’s largest surviving matrilinealculture. It has implications, as accordingto India’s National Family Health Survey,Meghalaya is the state where parentshave shown the least interest in having amale child – 73% less than the nationalaverage.

The region also practices a unique landtenure and management system: forexample, in the Garo Hills, the headman ofa cluster of villages owns the land on behalfof his clans-men and allocates for cultivationas per the requirement and expected familyinput. In the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, privateownership of land also exists.

Technology and productsOne of the major technologies contributedfrom the region is the evolution of theconcept of sacred groves for forestmanagement, facilitating the conservationand sustainable use of forest resources. Thesacred groves were established by the localpeople to keep the vegetation unchanged,and were often integrated with theregeneration of forest and forest work-plansfor commercial extraction of timber,firewood, and other forest produce organizedby the local communities. This helped toavoid considerable devastation that couldhave been caused by overexploitation offorest resources. A recent study on thediversity of vascular plants in three sacredgroves of the Jaintia Hills recorded about395 species belonging to 250 genera, and108 families, comprising pteridophytes,gymnosperms, and angiosperms.Orchidaceae, Rubiaceae, Asteraceae, andLauraceae were dominant families andFicus was the largest genus, with ninespecies. About 160 tree species were founddistributed in canopy, sub-canopy, and undercanopy strata (Jamir and Pandey, 2003).They had tropical and temperate elementsof the neighboring Sino-Himalayan andBurma-Malayan regions with 54 endemic,31 rare, and 38 primitive species, survivingin these groves due to favorable climaticconditions and prolonged protection,

The region is inhabited by Mongoloidand Austric races, with the influenceof Aryan culture and Hindu religion

and lately that of Christianity.


reflecting successful management andconservation of the rich species diversityalong with forest wealth through this uniquetraditional approach (Khan et al., 1997). Inthis manner, local communities have madea significant contribution towards theconservation of bio-resources (particularlyplants) of the region.

The agroecological conditions of the regionfavor the cultivation of horticulture crops.To facilitate their cultivation, the locals havedeveloped an ingenious system of tappingof stream and spring-water by using bamboopipes to irrigate plantations (Fig. 3). About18–20 L of water entering the bamboo pipesystem per minute gets transported overseveral hundred meters and finally getsreduced to 20–80 drops per minute at thesite of the plant. This 200-year-old systemis used by the tribal farmers of Khasi andJaintia Hills to drip-irrigate their black peppercultivation. Bamboo pipes are used to divertperennial springs on the hilltops to the lowerreaches by gravity. The channel sections,made of bamboo, divert and carry water tothe plot site where it is distributed withoutleakage into branches, again made and laidout with different forms of bamboo pipes.Manipulating the intake pipe positions alsocontrols the flow of water into the lateralpipes. Reduced channel sections anddiversion units are used at the last stage ofwater application. The last channel sectionenables the water to be dropped near theroots of the plant. Bamboos of varyingdiameters are used for laying the channels.About a third of the outer casing in lengthand internodes of bamboo pieces have tobe removed while fabricating the system.Later, the bamboo channel is smoothened

by using a dao, a type of local axe, a roundchisel fitted with a long handle. Othercomponents of the system are small pipesand channels of varying sizes used fordiversion and distribution of water from themain channel. About four to five stages ofdistribution are involved from the point ofthe water diversion to the point of application(http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/Rural/nehr_tradi.htm). This unique ingeniousbamboo drip irrigation system has helped inconserving forests and natural resources inaddition to the efficient use of water forcultivation of horticulture plants.

The diverse ecologies of the region havepromoted evolution of rich genetic diversityboth in field and horticulture crop species.In rice, it has resulted in variability thatincludes stem borer resistance, Tungro virusresistance, gall midge and drought tolerance,and waxy endosperm rice landraces (Siddiqet al., 2006). Similarly, among grain legumesand oilseeds, particularly, in the case ofIndian mustard, the region is known forvariability in number of seeds per pod. Theregion is also known for the occurrence ofErianthus arundinaceus, a genus relatedwith Saccharum, the sugarcane, and isknown for its thick stem, broad leaves withresistance to insect pests, high tillering, highyield, and low nutritional requirement(Sreenivasan and Amalraj, 2004).

This region, like other parts of the sub-Himalayan region, is very rich in geneticdiversity of Solanum melongena for fruitand plant characteristics. Solanumkhasianum reported from the region hasbeen found to have resistance to stem andfruit borer (Kalloo, 1993). Solanum kurzii


Brace ex Prain used as vegetable andmedicine is endemic to Garo Hills. In chili,a genotype with high pungency has beenreported from the region (Kalloo et al.,2005). In cucurbits, genetic diversity hasbeen collected in Momordica charantia,Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.,Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.,Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw., etc. (Sirohi etal., 2005). The wild Cucumis hardwickiiRoyle, the likely progenitor of cultivatedcucumber, found growing in natural habitatsin the foothills of the Himalayas, also occursin Meghalaya. In okra, it is one of the regionswith possible variability for plant type andfruit type in local landraces with varyingdegree of tolerance to stresses.

The region is very rich in species diversityfor tropical fruits, both of major and minorimportance, and has contributed significantlytowards the evolution and selection of usefulgenetic diversity. In case of mango, theKhasi Hills have an endemic species,Mangifera khasiana, which is not knownin much detail, but is distinguished from M.sylvatica, in having smaller and narrowerleaves, small flowers and inflorescence withfasciculate divergent branching, oval tolanceolate petals, and disc glandular or withdistinct lobes (Mukherjee, 1985). Incultivated mango, the region is known fordwarf and poly-embryonic types. Similarly,the region displays significant speciesdiversity in the case of Citrus species, incontinuum of the Northeastern region as awhole, recording 8 of the 17 species reportedfrom the region. Several Citrus species, suchas C. indica, C. macroptera, C. latipes,etc., present rich genetic diversity resultingin the development of cultivars from native

germplasm. Similarly, the Northeasternregion is the main center of species andgenetic diversity for Musa L. Musaflaviflora Simmonds is localized to Manipurand Meghalaya. Additionally, four morespecies have been reported from the region.Other fruits with significant variability areArtocarpus heterophyllus, Litchichinensis, etc. The region also harborsgenetic variability for several temperate fruitspecies, such as Malus spp., Pyrus spp.,Prunus spp. (wild) and Prunus persica,Rubus spp., Sorbus spp., Corylus spp. andfor Castanea sativa Mill., particularly in theKhasi Hills (Sharma et al., 2005). TheShillong plateau of the Khasi Hills hasPrunus species such as P. nepalensisK.Koch, P. undulata Buch.-Ham., and P.cerasoides D.Don. The Asian pear treePyrus pyrifolia Nakai cv. Cubha makai isgrown semi-commercially in Meghalaya,Manipur, and other places.

The Northeastern and Southwestern regionsare recognized as two independent centersof diversity of spices in India. This region ofthe Northeast is one of the main areas ofcultivation and diversity for spices, such asblack pepper, ginger, and turmeric. In thecase of pepper (Piper nigrum), it is secondto the Malabar region in variability and alsopresents maximum variability for ginger.Significant levels of variability have also beenrecorded in turmeric (Cucurma longa). The

This 200-year-old system is used bythe tribal farmers of Khasi and

Jaintia Hills to drip-irrigate theirblack pepper cultivation.


cultivar Megha Turmeric 1 has beenproduced through selection from the localLakadong type with high curcumin contentand bold rhizome (Ravindran et al., 2005).Also, the region is rich in diversity of aroidsand minor tuber crops. These reports ofuseful genetic diversity reflect the significantcontribution of the region towardsconservation and sustainable use of geneticresources that have either contributed orhave potential for contribution in geneticimprovement of respective crop species.

The local tribes have developed valuableknowledge about the medicinal value of theplants growing in the region. For example,according to Sajem and Gosai (2006), themedicinal plant species used by Jaintias ofthe neighboring North Cachar Hills districtof Assam are distributed across 27 familiesand 37 genera. Different parts of medicinalplant species are used for curing ailments.The use of aboveground plant parts washigher (76.59%) than the underground plantparts (23.41%). Of the aboveground plantparts, leaves were used in the majority ofcases (23 species), followed by fruits (4).Different underground parts of the plant,such as root, tuber, rhizome, bulb, andpseudo-bulb have been found to be in useas a source for curing ailments. The wholeplants of five species, Centella asiatica (L.)Urban, Cuscuta reflexa Roxb., Oxaliscorymbosa L., and Clerodendrumserratum (L.) Moon, and Scroporia dulcisL., were used. In total, 39 medicinal plantspecies were used in curing about 30 typesof ailments, of which the highest numbersof plant species (20 species) were used forthe treatment of gastrointestinal disorders,such as indigestion and constipation. About

eight medicinal plant species were used incuring cough and cold, and five for healingcuts and wounds. The root powder ofAsparagus racemosus Willd., known asShatavari, has been found to be effectivein chronic peptic ulcer; the Jaintias use itfor urinary disorders, as well as stomachachethat could be due to high peptic juicesecretion.

Future perspective

The rich heritage of species and geneticdiversity of the region is getting depletedbecause of several factors such aspreparation of land in the hill slopes forshifting cultivation, cutting, overexploitation,and burning of valuable forest products,which is also causing serious damage tothe ecology and natural environment.Indiscriminate destruction of forests thatexposes vast tracts of hilly lands to erosioncauses rapid depletion of the valuablefertile top soil and other nutrients, creatinglow-base-status soil. Further, inadequateknowledge about the value of diversity isalso resulting in the destruction ofvegetative cover and removal of valuableflora causing irreparable genetic erosion.Therefore, efforts are needed to developawareness, remediation and initiation ofappropriate policy initiatives to restrict theseprocesses.

This region, like other parts of thesub-Himalayan region, is very rich in

genetic diversity of Solanummelongena for fruit and plant

characteristics.


The region has a vast potential for developinghorticulture due to its climatic variations,which offers much scope for cultivation oftemperate, subtropical, and tropical fruits andvegetables. The region is very rich inhorticultural crop species and considerablediversity exists among the regionalhorticultural crops, for plant type,morphological and physiologicalcharacteristics, reactions to diseases andpests, adaptability and distribution, offeringvast opportunities for cultivation andcommercial exploitation. This would helpinitiate income-generating and poverty-alleviation programs in the rural areas. It mayinclude non-traditional crops such ascashewnut, strawberry, tea and coffee,mushroom, medicinal plants, orchids, andcommercial flowers.

Different studies have shown that aroundtwo-thirds of medicinal plants of the totalreported from all over the country are fromthe Northeastern region, including this region,where the medicinal plant species used bythe Jaintias only, are widely distributedacross a large number of families andgenera. This situation offers greatopportunity to the region for commercialexploitation of medicinal and aromatic plantsreported from the region based on validationof reported facts and their improvization.

Animal husbandry is one of the principalcomponents of agriculture, which requires

the availability of quality feed and fodder inrequisite quantities to ensure the productivityof livestock. Therefore, certain initiatives areto be taken to attain required quantities ofcereals and oil meals for livestock andpoultry sector. Non-conventional animalfeed resources are to be exploited to obtainprotein for livestock feeding. More seedproduction farms must be established tomeet the requirement of fodder and fodderseed, by increasing area under fodder crops,agroforestry, etc., and utilizing uncultivated,barren, and fallow lands (grasses, pasture,etc.) on priority with appropriate resourcesand technologies.

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The local tribes have developedvaluable knowledge about the

medicinal value of the plants growingin the region.

The region has a vast potential fordeveloping horticulture due to its

climatic variations, which offers muchscope for cultivation of temperate,subtropical, and tropical fruits and

vegetables.


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Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites in India ... · bamboo drip irrigation technology, which might have been the source of thought in the development of the present-day