project report on Islanding System

7/28/2019 project report on Islanding System

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AUTOMATIC ISLANDING SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT ON

AUTOMATIC ISLANDINGSYSTEM

(MICROCONTROLLER 89S51-BASED)

SUBMITTED BY

ANANT.K.MOMAYA FEEG10124

VISMAY.H.NAGDA FEEG10125

NIKHIL .V. PANCHAL FEEG10129

ANUKUL. A .RAMJIYANI FEEG10141

KHUSHAL.M .SAPARIYA FEEG10146

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

PROF.S.N.KOLTE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

K.J.SOMAIYA.POLYTECHNICVIDYAVIHAR

MUMBAI-77

2012-2013




K.J.SOMAIYA.POLYTHECHNIC

VIDYANAGAR, VIDYAVIHAR

MUMBAI-77

CERTIFICATETHIS IS TO MENTION THAT STUDENT MENTIONED BELOW 5TH SEM

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING HAVE SATISFACTORILY COMPLETED

THEIR TERM IN PROJECT WORKSHOP NAMED

ISLANDING SYSTEM

(MICROCONTROLLER 89S51 BASED)DURING ACADEMIC YEAR 2012-2013

SUBMITTED BY

ANANT .K.MOMAYA FEEG10124

PROJECT GUIDE H.O.D OF ELECT DEPT

PROF.S.N.KOLTE PROF.B.S.MOTLING

PRINCIPAL

ELECT EXAMINAR MRS.B.PADMAJA




PREFACE

We take an opportunity to present this project report on

“ISLANDING SYSTEM” and put before readers some useful

information regarding our project.

We have made sincere attempt and taken every care to present this

matter in precise form, the language being as simple as possible.

We are sure that the information contained in this volume would

certainly prove useful for better insight in the scope and dimension of

this project in its true perspective.

The task of completion of this project though being difficult was made

quite simple , interesting and successful due to deep involvement and

complete dedication of our group members and our

Guide, Prof. S.N.KOLTE.









Introduction

When Grid collapses, many questions remain as to what happened to cause the Blackout

and whether it could have been prevented, or at least contained to a smaller area. It willtake some time to sort through the data and figure out answers. In the mean time, we are

all asking – can it happen again? Can it happen here? Unfortunately, the short answer is

yes. No power system is designed to handle simultaneous outages of multiple

transmission lines and generators. We have heard arguments that “it won’t happen here

because we have built in safeguards to prevent this from happening.” However, every

system in the India has these same safeguards, just to a different extent. Unfortunately,

they just did not work as expected on many occasions.

There have been statements made that we have a “Third World” transmission system, that

deregulation of the electric industry is the culprit, or that the opposite is true – the lack of

deregulation is to blame, and that we need extensive investment in the transmission

system. While all of these statements contain a grain of truth, none of them are strictly

accurate. The remainder of this article highlights these grains of truth and more

accurately depicts what steps can be taken to reduce the risks of a widespread blackout.

Although we will need to wait for the Department of Energy’s report on what happened

to get the full picture, there are some immediate and relatively low cost steps that can be

taken now to reduce the chances of another major blackout affecting you and your

customers. Below are the actions utilities can take now:

Evaluate and test your safeguard schemes

It is important to understand that at every moment in time, supply and demand on the

power system must be balanced, or blackouts can occur. If there is a significant

imbalance in portions of the system, both the frequency and the voltage are impacted. If

there is more consumption than supply in an area, then, the frequency and voltage drop. If

there is more supply than demand in an area, then frequency climbs. Different parts of the

system can experience these same events simultaneously and can “swing” against each




other, with the transmission system acting as sort of a spring, and can cause a cascading

blackout.

Safeguards have been put in place to help prevent this cascading. These safeguards

typically include:

• Under-frequency Load Shedding – This is a scheme designed to open distribution

circuits when the frequency is too low to reduce demand and help restore the balance

between supply and demand.

• Generator Over-speed Protection – This is a scheme designed to both protect the

generators from spinning too fast and causing permanent damage to the turbines, and to

reduce supply to help restore the balance between supply and demand when the

frequency is too high.

The above two schemes are universally applied. The two schemes below are applied on a

discretionary basis:

• Out-of-Step Tripping and Islanding Schemes – These are schemes that

are designed to separate systems from each other when one system is out of control.

•

Under-voltage Load Shedding – It appears that Cleveland went black mostlydue to a phenomenon called voltage collapse. If demand had been reduced in Cleveland

as a result of low voltage, it may have prevented a total outage of Cleveland and the

ensuing cascading Blackout.

These automatic safeguard schemes were often designed and installed years ago and can

be out of date. Some actions to consider:

• Consider implementing out-of-step tripping and islanding schemes, and under

voltage load shedding schemes, if not already applied

• Perform transient, dynamic and voltage stability studies to optimize these

safeguard schemes, and evaluate how well they coordinate with each other

• Update relays to microprocessor controlled relays

• Test the relays and systems periodically







Diodes

Diodes are components that allow current to flow in only one direction. They have a positive side (leg) and a negative side. When the voltage on the positive leg is higher than

on the negative leg then current flows through the diode (the resistance is very low).

When the voltage is lower on the positive leg than on the negative leg then the current

does not flow (the resistance is very high). The negative leg of a diode is the one with the

line closest to it. It is called the cathode. The postive end is called the anode.

LED

The LED

Light Emitting Diodes are great for projects because they provide visual entertainment.

LEDs use a special material which emits light when current flows through it. Unlike light

bulbs, LEDs never burn out unless their current limit is passed. A current of 0.02 Amps(20 mA) to 0.04 Amps (40 mA) is a good range for LEDs. They have a positive leg and a

negative leg just like regular diodes. To find the positive side of an LED, look for a line

in the metal inside the LED. It may be difficult to see the line. This line is closest to the

positive side of the LED. Another way of finding the positive side is to find a flat spot on

the edge of the LED. This flat spot is on the negative side.

When current is flowing through an LED the voltage on the positive leg is about 1.4 volts

higher than the voltage on the negative side. Remember that there is no resistance to limit

the current so a resistor must be used in series with the LED to avoid destroying it.

Resistors

Resistors are components that have a predetermined resistance. Resistance determines

how much current will flow through a component. Resistors are used to control voltages




and currents. A very high resistance allows very little current to flow. Air has very high

resistance. Current almost never flows through air. (Sparks and lightning are brief

displays of current flow through air. The light is created as the current burns parts of the

air.) A low resistance allows a large amount of current to flow. Metals have very low

resistance. That is why wires are made of metal. They allow current to flow from one

point to another point without any resistance. Wires are usually covered with rubber or

plastic. This keeps the wires from coming in contact with other wires and creating short

circuits. High voltage power lines are covered with thick layers of plastic to make them

safe, but they become very dangerous when the line breaks and the wire is exposed and is

no longer separated from other things by insulation.

Resistance is given in units of ohms. (Ohms are named after Mho Ohms who played with

electricity as a young boy in Germany.) Common resistor values are from 100 ohms to

100,000 ohms. Each resistor is marked with colored stripes to indicate it’s resistance. To

learn how to calculate the value of a resistor by looking at the stripes on the resistor, go to

Resistor Values which includes more information about resistors.

Variable Resistors

Variable resistors are also common components. They have a dial or a knob that allows

you to change the resistance. This is very useful for many situations. Volume controls are

variable resistors. When you change the volume you are changing the resistance which

changes the current. Making the resistance higher will let less current flow so the volume

goes down. Making the resistance lower will let more current flow so the volume goes

up. The value of a variable resistor is given as it’s highest resistance value. For example,

a 500 ohm variable resistor can have a resistance of anywhere between 0 ohms and 500

ohms. A variable resistor may also be called a potentiometer (pot for short).

Switches

Switches are devices that create a short circuit or an open circuit depending on the

position of the switch. For a light switch, ON means short circuit (current flows through

the switch, lights light up and people dance.) When the switch is OFF, that means there is

http://www.iguanalabs.com/resistors.htm






an open circuit (no current flows, lights go out and people settle down. This effect on

people is used by some teachers to gain control of loud classes.)

When the switch is ON it looks and acts like a wire. When the switch is OFF there is no

connection.

This is a small switch inside the controller connected to the full on power and full off

brake. Gives positive contact, and eliminates the resistor from the circuit. A very efficient

way of handling power, even in the newer electronic controllers.

A micro switch is a generic term used to refer to an electric switch that is designed to be

actuated by the physical motion of mechanical devices and is generally packaged in a

small form factor to allow placement in small spaces. They are very common due to their

low cost and extreme durability, typically greater than 1 million cycles and up to 10

million cycles for heavy duty models. This durability is a natural consequence of the

design.

Transistor

Transistors are basic components in all of today's electronics. They are just simple

switches that we can use to turn things on and off. Even though they are simple, they arethe most important electrical component. For example, transistors are almost the only

components used to build a Pentium processor. A single Pentium chip has about 3.5

million transistors. The ones in the Pentium are smaller than the ones we will use but they

work the same way.

Transistors that we will use in projects look like this:




The transistor has three legs, the Collector (C), Base (B), and Emitter (E). Sometimes

they are labeled on the flat side of the transistor. Transistors always have one round side

and one flat side. If the round side is facing you, the Collector leg is on the left, the Base

leg is in the middle, and the Emitter leg is on the right.

Capacitor

If you already understand capacitors you can skip this part.

The picture above on the left shows two typical capacitors. Capacitors usually have two

legs. One leg is the positive leg and the other is the negative leg. The positive leg is the

one that is longer. The picture on the right is the symbol used for capacitors in circuit

drawings (schematics). When you put one in a circuit, you must make sure the positive

leg and the negative leg go in the right place. Capacitors do not always have a positive

leg and a negative leg. The smallest capacitors in this kit do not. It does not matter which

way you put them in a circuit.

A capacitor is similar to a rechargable battery in the way it works. The difference is that a

capacitor can only hold a small fraction of the energy that a battery can. (Except for

really big capacitors like the ones found in old TVs. These can hold a lot of charge. Even




if a TV has been disconnected from the wall for a long time, these capacitors can still

make lots of sparks and hurt people.) As with a rechargable battery, it takes a while for

the capacitor to charge. So if we have a 12 volt supply and start charging the capacitor, it

will start with 0 volts and go from 0 volts to 12 volts. Below is a graph of the voltage in

the capacitor while it is charging.

The same idea is true when the capacitor is discharging. If the capacitor has been charged

to 12 volts and then we connect both legs to ground, the capacitor will start discharging but it will take some time for the voltage to go to 0 volts. Below is a graph of what the

voltage is in the capacitor while it is discharging.

We can control the speed of the capacitor's charging and discharging using resistors.

Capacitors are given values based on how much electricity they can store. Larger

capacitors can store more energy and take more time to charge and discharge. The values

are given in Farads but a Farad is a really large unit of measure for common capacitors.

In this kit we have 2 33pf capacitors, 2 10uf capacitors and 2 220uF capacitors. Pf means

picofarad and uf means microfarad. A picofarad is 0.000000000001 Farads. So the 33pf

capacitor has a value of 33 picofarads or 0.000000000033 Farads. A microfarad is

0.000001 Farads. So the 10uf capacitor is 0.00001 Farads and the 220uF capacitor is

0.000220 Farads. If you do any calculations using the value of the capacitor you have to

use the Farad value rather than the picofarad or microfarad value.




Capacitors are also rated by the maximum voltage they can take. This value is always

written on the larger can shaped capacitors. For example, the 220uF capacitors in this kit

have a maximum voltage rating of 25 volts. If you apply more than 25 volts to them they

will die. We don’t have to worry about that with this kit because our power supply can

only put out 12 volts.

Voltage regulator

Most digital logic circuits and processors need a 5 volt power supply. To use these parts

we need to build a regulated 5 volt source. Usually you start with an unregulated power

supply ranging from 9 volts to 24 volts DC. To make a 5 volt power supply, we use a

LM7805 voltage regulator IC (Integrated Circuit). The IC is shown below.

The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the positive lead of your unregulated

DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the Input pin, connect the

negative lead to the Ground pin and then when you turn on the power, you get a 5 volt

supply from the Output pin. This 5 volt output will be used as Vcc in the following

projects.

Connect the red wire from the power supply adapter to the input of the 7805. Connect the

black wire from the power supply adapter to the ground row (with the blue line beside it).

Run a black jumper wire from the ground row to the ground of the 7805. Then use a

yellow jumper to connect the 5 volt output to the row of holes with the red stripe beside

it. The breadboarded circuit is shown below.




Sometimes the input supply line (the 12VDC above) may be noisy. To help smooth out

this noise and get a better 5 volt output, a capacitor is usually added to the circuit, going

between the input and ground (GND). Find the 220 uF capacitor and put the long leg

(positive leg) in the row of holes with the 12VDC line and put the short leg (negative leg)

in ground (the row of holes next to the blue line).

Relay

The basis for relays, is the simple electromagnet Connect this to a power

source, and it will now grab and hold small pieces of metal. So, herein lies

the concept. If we take an electromagnet, it will interact with metals in its

vicinity. now lets take this one step further... If we were to place a piece of

metal, near the electromagnet, and connect some contacts, so that

The simplest relay, is the Single Pole, Single Throw (spst) relay. It is

nothing more than an electrically controlled on-off switch. It's biggest

property, is the ability to use a very small current, to control a much larger

current. this is desireable because we can now use smaller diameter wires, to

control the current flow through a much larger wire, and also to limit the

wear and tear on the control switch.




Bread board

To build our projects, we will use a breadboard like the one shown below.

The bread board has many strips of metal (copper usually) which run underneath the

board. The metal strips are laid out as shown below.

These strips connect the holes on the top of the board. This makes it easy to connect

components together to build circuits. To use the bread board, the legs of components are

placed in the holes. The holes are made so that they will hold the component in place.

Each hole is connected to one of the metal strips running underneath the hole.

Each strip forms a node. A node is a point in a circuit where two components are

connected. Connections between different components are formed by putting their legs in

a common node. On the bread board, a node is the row of holes that are connected by the

strip of metal underneath.

The long top and bottom row of holes are usually used for power supply connections. The

row with the blue strip beside it is used for the negative voltage (usually ground) and the

row with the red strip beside it is used for the positive voltage.

The circuit is built by placing components and connecting them together with jumper

wires. Then when a path is formed from the positive supply node to the negative supply









Block diagram:

LOAD CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM

Power Grid

Cutout

Frequency FastResponseMicrocontroller

Load LineTripper Relay

Display

Frequency

LOAD

Grid Line

Input

Microcontroller

Power Supply

Clock, Reset

LCD Display

RelayDriver IC

Relay,Buzzer

FrequencyUP Button

FrequencyDown button
















Power Supply

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high

voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic

circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series

of blocks, each of which performs a particular function.

For example a 5V regulated supply:

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

− Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

− Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.

− Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.

− Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit

diagram and a graph of their output:

− Transformer only

− Transformer + Rectifier

− Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

− Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#transformer

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#rectifier

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#smoothing

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#regulator

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#tonly

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#tr

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#trs

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#trsr

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#transformer

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#rectifier

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#smoothing

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#regulator

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#tonly

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#tr

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#trs

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/powersup.htm#trsr




• Transformer only

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC

motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a

rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

• Transformer + Rectifier




The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard

motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a

smoothing capacitor.

• Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most

electronic circuits.

• Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic circuits.




The fig. above shows the circuit diagram of the power supply unit. This

block mainly consists of a two regulating IC 7805 and a bridge rectified

and it provides a regulated supply approximately 5V.

The transformer used in this circuit has secondary rating of 7.5V. The

main function of the transformer is to step down the AC voltage available

from the main. The main connections are given to its primary winding

through a switch connected to a phase line. The transformer provides a

7.5V AC output at its secondary terminals and the maximum current that

can be drawn form the transformer is 1 Amp which is well above therequired level for the circuit.

The bridge rectified the AC voltage available from the secondary of the

transformer, i.e. the bridge rectifier convert the AC power available into

DC power but this DC voltage available is not constant. It is a

unidirectional voltage with varying amplitude.

To regulate the voltage from the bridge rectifier, capacitors are

connected. Capacitors C1 filter the output voltage of the rectifier but their

output is not regulated and hence 7805 is connected which is specially

designed for this purpose.

Although voltage regulators can be designed using op-amps, it is quicker

and easier to use IC voltage regulator. Further more, IC voltage

regulators are available with features such as programmable output

current/ voltage boosting, internal short circuit current limiting, thermal

shut down and floating operation for high voltage applications.




The 78 XX series consists of three terminals viz, input, output & ground.

This is a group of fixed positive voltage regulator to give and output

voltage ranging form 5V to 24V. These IC’s are designed as fixed

voltage regulators and with adequate heat sinking, can delivery output

current in excess of 1 Amp although these devices do not require external

components and such components can be used to obtain adjustable

voltage and current limiting. In addition, the difference between the input

and output voltages (V in Vo) called the dropout voltage must be

typically 2V even from a power supply filter. Capacitors C2, C3, C4, and

C5 are small filters which are used for extra filtering.LED1& LED2 areused for Power ON indicator for IC1 and IC2, current-limiting resistors

R2&R4, which prevents the LED’s from getting heated and thus

damaged.







Working Of Circuit

1)Conversion Of Power

[1]Power is taken from main’s using main scord.It is step down using step down

Transformer of 230V

AC to 12V AC,1amp for working of circuit.The actual circuit which consist of

Microcontroller uses +5V.

The step down 12V AC is converted to DC using bridge rectifier 4 diode (4007) is used

for higher accuracy.

[2]This DC power consist of very much variation so filter circuit is used to act pure DC

for this 1000µf (16V) capacitor is used.

[3]This voltage is then regulated for better operation using IC7805 (+5V) with 10µf

capacitor to filter the circuit.

[4]The circuit working is showed by LED.This is current limiting LED(3.3V) with

current limiting resistor (1KΩ) in series with LED.This is actually parallel with 0.1µf

capacitor.This type of capacitor are used across every electronics parts for pure DC

2)Microcontroller working/action

1]Microcontroller (89S51) has 40 pins,which are divided into

power(Vcc),Ground,Reset,2 pin for clock frequency and other pins are divided into

port0,port1,port2,port3.

2]LCD is used for displaying frequency of supply.It is connected in port0 of which 1pin

is Vcc,2nd pin is ground,6 pin for control & 4 pin for data in which data of 4bit is sent

twice serially.Therefore LCD is (16X2) 16 pin IC which brightness can be controlled by

preset.

3]Pull up resistor is connected in series whose value is (10kΩ) is used to match frequency

of LCD to the frequency of Microcontroller.

4]Push button are connected in port1 where up button is connected to Vcc and down

button is connected to ground. So there is input signal for changing frequency of

Microcontroller.




5]Relay are used for connecting the load to supply.Relay works on +12V supply,so it is

directly connected from output of filter.The relay is connected across 3.3V LED with

series 1kΩ resistor to indicate working of relay.

(6) Relay is triggered using Transistor. Transistor base is connected to microcontroller.

This transistor are packed in single IC ULN2803 for reducing size of PCB.

(7) Reset is connected with pin9 with parallel in 10 uf. Capacitor & 10 Kohm resistance

in parallel. It keeps ckt on when ever it is started again.

(8) Oscillator provides clock frequency which has 11.0592 MHZ frequency. This value is

choosed because it is between working frequency (4 MHZ-18MHZ) of microcontroller.

This is connected with 22 PF capacitor to pin 18 & 19 in parallel at port3. This oscillator

is very essential for proper working of ckt.

(9) Load is connected to baby bulb holder where input is directly from main’s cord

(230v). The total 4 load are connected in parallel where relay are used as a switch for

controlling load







SOFTWARE PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Deliverables

The following are the deliverables of the Project:

1. GUIs made using Microsoft Visual Studio

2. Database using Microsoft Access

3. Executable Files.

4. DLL Files.

5. Help Files.

.

2 PROJECT ORGANIZATION

2.1 Software Process Model

The model used is Classic Life Cycle Model

• The Project team is meeting once a week to discuss the progress made by each

member and to share the relevant information and be documents that have been prepared.

The number of meetings may increase during the final semester as the team members will

have more time.

• There are reviews being conducted once a week during the team meetings. A

complete technical review will be conducted at the end of the Design Phase. There will

be reviews conducted at the completion of every testing phase.

• The major milestones to be achieved are as follows:

1. Results of research of existing system and discussions with the Project

leader.




2. Results of interview with experts and team meetings to finalize the

requirements of the software.

3. Results of the Design Phase, which include a number of modeling

diagrams, like the use cases, class diagrams, etc.

4. Results of the first coding phase will be an initial code that will be then

tested.

5. Based on the results of the testing, they code will be reviewed in the

second coding phase.

2.2 Tools and Techniques

We will require the following tools:

1. Microsoft Visual Studio 2005.

2. Microsoft Office 2003.

3 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN

3.1 TasksThe following tasks are to be executed:-

1. Requirement Analysis Phase 1

2. Requirement Analysis Phase 2

3. Design of System

4. Coding Phase 1

5. Coding Phase 2

6. Testing Phase 1

Requirement analysis:

1. Requirement Analysis Phase 1 : This will include the research of existing

software and a discussion with the Project guide.




Requirement Analysis Phase 2: Based on the above results, the project team will discuss

and finalize the requirements that are to be provided. We shall consult a number of

experts during this phase. The SPMP shall also be prepared during this phase.

Design Phase: The design phase will involve the design of the static view, dynamic view,

and the functional view of the software. A number of diagrams including the Use case,

class diagram, activity diagram, and data flow diagrams will be used to model the

software. Also, the GUIs will be designed during this phase

Coding Phase 1: The prerequisite to this phase is the study of Microsoft Visual basic6.

After this study, an initial code of the entire project will be written. Also, the database

will be created during this phase. Finally, we shall conduct unit tests.

Coding Phase 2: This phase will include a review of the code created in Phase 1. After

the review, the necessary code and database will be modified to include the results of

review.

Testing Phase: We shall be following a testing program that will involve unit testing,

integration testing, and validation testing. More information will be known after further discussion.







Component List

SR.No Description Qty. Price

(Per

piece)1 Transformer 12-0-12V,750mA 1 60

2 Diode 1N4007 4 2

3 Capacitor1000uF,25V 1 5

4 Voltage regulator IC 7805 1 10

5 Capacitor 1uF 1 1

6 LED 1 1

7 Resistors 15 18 Disc capacitors 5 2

9 IC Base 5 3

10 PCB 1 250

11 Wires 2 15

12 Solder wire 1 25

13 Cabinet 1 150

14 Mains cord 1 10

15 Transistor BC548 5 316 IC 74244 1 25

17 Connector DB25 female 1 25

18 Connecting cord parallel port 1 50

19 Microcontroller 89S51 1 45

20 LCD (16x2) 1 180

21 Relay Contactor 4 35

22 Wood Ply 1 200

23 Transmission tower 2 2000

24 Lamp (100Watts) 4 30

25 MISC --------- 300







P.C.B. MAKING

P.C.B. is printed circuit board which is of insulating base with layer of thin copper-

foil.

The circuit diagram is then drawn on the P. C. B. with permanent marker and then it is

dipped in the solution of ferric chloride so that unwanted copper is removed from the

P.C.B., thus leaving components interconnection on the board.

The specification of the base material is not important to know in most of the application,

but it is important to know something about copper foil which is drawn through a thin

slip.

The resistance of copper foil will have an affect on the circuit operation.

Base material is made of lamination layer of suitable insulating material such as treated

paper, fabric; or glass fibers and binding them with resin. Most commonly used base

materials are formed paper bonded with epoxy resin.

It is possible to obtain a range of thickness between 0.5 mm to 3 mm.

Thickness is the important factor in determining mechanical strength particularly

when the commonly used base material is “Formea” from paper assembly.

Physical properties should be self supporting these are surface resistivity, heat

dissipation, dielectric, constant, dielectric strength.

Another important factor is the ability to wishstand high temperature.

DESIGNING THE LAYOUT :

While designing a layout, it must be noted that size of the board should be as small as

possible.Before starting, all components should be placed properly so that an accurate

measurement of space can be made.

The component should not be mounted very close to each other or far away from

one another and neither one should ignore the fact that some component reed ventilation,




which considerely the dimension of the relay and transformer in view of arrangement, the

bolting arrangement is also considered.

The layout is first drawn on paper then traced on copper plate which is finalized with the

pen or permanent marker which is efficient and clean with etching.

The resistivity also depends on the purity of copper, which is highest for low purity of

copper. The high resistance path are always undesired for soldered connections.

The most difficult part of making an original printed circuit is the conversion from,

theretical circuit diagram into wiring layout. without introducing cross over and

undesirable effect.

Although it is difficult operation, it provides greatent amount of satisfaction because it is

carried out with more care and skill.

The board used for project has copper foil thickness in the range of 25 40 75 microns.

The soldering quality requires 99.99% efficiency.

It is necessary to design copper path extra large. There are two main reasons for this,

(1) The copper may be required to carry an extra large overall current

(2) It acts like a kind of screen or ground plane to minimize the effect of

interaction.

The first function is to connect the components together in their right sequence with

minimum need for interlinking i.e. the jumpers with wire connections.It must be noted, that when layout is done, on the next day it should be dipped in the

solution and board is move continuously right and left after etching perfectly the board is

cleaned with water and is drilled.

After that holes are drilled with 1 mm or 0.8 mm drill. Now the marker on the P. C. B. is

removed.

The Printed Circuit Board is now ready for mounting the components on it.




SOLDERING :

For soldering of any joints first the terminal to be soldered are cleaned to remove oxide

film or dirt on it. If required flux is applied on the points to be soldered.

Now the joint to be soldered is heated with the help of soldering iron. Heat applied

should be such that when solder wire is touched to joint, it must melt quickly.

The joint and the soldering iron is held such that molten solder should flow smoothly

over the joint.

When joint is completely covered with molten solder, the soldering iron is removed.

The joint is allowed to cool, without any movement.

The bright shining solder indicates good soldering.

In case of dry solder joint, a air gap remains in between the solder matenal and the joint.

It means that soldering is improper. This is removed and again soldering is done.

Thus is this way all the components are soldered on P. C. B.







Advantages

(1) It will never let the grid to fail

(2) It is reliable

(3) It gives fast response because of use of microcontroller

(4) It will prevent huge loss in the grid

(5) system alerts us from change in load variation & frequency variation







Application

(1) It is used in grid

(2) It is used for controlling during peak load period

(3) It can also be used for industrial purpose

(4) It can be used in a system which require high accuracy







Schedule

Days Work To Do

2 Project Name selection

2 Literature Survey

1 Problem Definition

1 Block diagram

2 Details of individual block

1 Rough circuit diagram

1 Availability of parts in market

1 Purchasing parts

2 Testing individual Parts

1 Finalizing circuit diagram

1 PCB designing

1 Soldering of parts

3 Testing & troubleshooting each block

1 Complete testing of final circuit

1 Algorithm development

1 Flow chart preparation

2 Writing individual part of software

1 Testing each part individually

1 Final testing of software

1 Final testing of hardware & software

1 Mounting of circuit in cabinet

2 Model development

1 Finishing final project

4 Report preparation

35 Project delivery




DEVELOPMENT STAGES & PROCESS

The complete development of this system can be divided into the followingstages:

• Problem definition stage;

• Designing block diagram;

• Implementing circuits and components;

• Developing algorithm for software;

• Writing actual code for Microcontroller;

• Compiling the code;

• Burning the hex file into microcontroller with programmer;

• Testing and Running.

• Problem definition stage

This is the very first stage to develop any project. It actually defines the

aim and the concept of the project. The aim of “Microcontroller Based

Data Acquisition and Controlling System with PC interface” is to

design a DAS which can be connected to any type of computer serial port

giving the user flexibility of selection of desired number of channels for

data acquisition with least complexity and cost.

• Designing block diagram

At this stage we have categorized the whole system into different

individual modules. These modules (block diagrams) will be helpful in




understanding the concept and working of the integrated system. It also

simplifies the entire debugging and testing process.

• Implementing circuits and components

This is the actual implementation of circuit of each block. At this stage

we have actually designed each block separately and finally integrated

them into the complete working system.

• Developing algorithm for software

To get the logical flow of the software, the development of algorithm is

having a prominent role. So that we have analyzed the complete system

and organized the algorithm in such a manner that one can understand the

complete working of the software.

• writing actual code for Microcontroller

After the development of the algorithm and flowchart we have actuallytranslated them in C language for Atmel 89C51 Microcontroller so that it

can understand the instructions and run as per our requirement. The

instructions are in ANSII C Language.

• Compiling the code

The code is implemented on the computer for which we have used Keil

pre-installed on PC. The Keil is a Computer Aided Program to simulate

the working of Microcontroller in real time without burning the software

into actual IC. We simulated and compiled our program for error




checking. After removing of several compiling errors the program was

converted into machine language i.e. Intel hex format.

• Burning the hex file into microcontroller with Programmer

In this stage the compiled hex format file was downloaded or burned into

Atmel AT89C51 flash Microcontroller. This was done with the help of

FP-8903 Programmer for Atmel microcontrollers designed by Oriole

Electronics Pvt. Ltd.

• Testing and Running

This time we tested our project for actual working, after loading the

software into the microcontroller. Any errors found were removed

successfully. This is the last and final stage of development of our

project.







Testing & Troubleshooting

Before you apply power, read the instructions carefully to check you haven't missed

anything, and whether there are any specific instructions for switching on and testing.

Check again that you have all polarity sensitive components the right way around, and

that all components are in the correct places. Check off - board components are

connected correctly. Check the underside of the board carefully for short circuits between

tracks - a common reason for circuits failing to work.

When you are sure everything is correct, apply power and see if the circuit behaves as

expected, again following the kit manufacturer’s instructions.

If it works, WELL DONE! You have your first working circuit - be proud of it! Skip the

rest of this page and click the right arrow at the bottom, or here.

If it doesn't quite work as expected, or doesn't work at all, don't despair. The chances are

the fault is quite simple. However, disconnect the power before reading on.

Check the basic's first - is the battery flat? Are you sure the 'On' switch really is on?

(Don't laugh, it's easily done) If the project has other switches and controls check these

are set correctly.

Next - check again all the components are in the correct place - refer to the diagram in the

instructions. Look again at the underside of the board - are there any short circuits? These

can be caused by almost invisible 'whiskers' of solder, so check for these with a

magnifying glass in good light. Brushing the bottom of the board vigorously with a stiff

brush can sometimes remove these.

Pull the components gently to see if they are all fixed into the board properly. Check the

soldered joints - poor soldering is the most common cause of circuits failing to work. The

joints should by shiny, and those on the circuit board should be volcano shaped with the

http://electronics2000.co.uk/gstart/whatnext.php

http://electronics2000.co.uk/gstart/whatnext.php




component wire end sticking out of the top. If any look suspect then redo them. Remove

the solder with a solder sucker or braid and try again.

Check for solder splashes shorting across adjacent tracks on the circuit board, especially

where connections are very close such as on integrated circuits ('chips'). Solder splashes

are most likely on stripboard. You can check for shorts using a multimeter set it to it's

continuity range, or low resistance range. Be aware if you do this though, that there will

be a resistance between some tracks due to the components. Any resistance below 1 ohm

between tracks is likely to be a solder splash. Run the soldering iron between tracks on

stripboard to remove any solder bridges.

If the circuit still fails to work you will need to refer to the circuit diagram and take

voltage readings from the circuit to find out what's wrong. You will need a multimeter to

do this (see tools). Remember that if you find one fault such as a reversed component and

correct it, it might have caused damage to other components.

Beginners Guide - More Tools & Test Equipment

To design your own circuits, or build more complex kits, you will probably need more in

the way of tools and test equipment. If you did not buy a multimeter before then this isessential now, a basic power supply is also very useful. More expensive items such as an

oscilloscope can be useful, but think carefully about whether you really need them - after

all, you can build a lot of projects for the price of an oscilloscope. PC-based virtual

instruments could perhaps be more suitable. Other tools can be useful too.

Here is a list of other useful items, although this by no means covers all the tools and

equipment available. Maplin codes are included, however similar items are available

from most suppliers.

http://electronics2000.co.uk/gstart/tools.php

http://electronics2000.co.uk/gstart/tools.php




Test Equipment:

Multimeter - almost essential for all but the absolute beginner. See the tools section for

more information.

Power Supply - Also very useful for powering circuits that you are testing. One with a

variable voltage up to at least 12V is best. The current rating doesn't need to be that high,

1A maximum is fine for most jobs. If you can afford it then one with an adjustable

current limit is useful - set right it can prevent damage to an incorrect circuit, rather than

frying it instantly!







Bibiliography

1. Basic Electronics – B.Ram

2. Digital Electronics – R.P.Jain

3. www.redcircuits.com

4 www.alldatasheet.com.

5.www.elctronicsforu.com






















Documents

project report on Islanding System