PSYA4 Study Guide

7/21/2019 PSYA4 Study Guide

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Sam Shenton | Rodillian Academy | PSYA4 Study Guide

Sam W Shenton

Study Guide for PSYA4 Exam,

for AQA A Psychology.

PSYA4

Study

GuidePSYA4 A2

Psychology


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What is Schizophrenia?

Schizohre!ia is a disorder characterised "y distorted thi!#i!g, imaired emotio!al

reso!ses, oor i!tererso!al s#ills, a!d a distortio! of reality. $he actual term mea!s

slit mi!d.

Aroximately %& of the oulatio! de'elos the disorder duri!g their lifetime, a!d

although it a(ects "oth me! a!d )ome! )ith e*ual fre*ue!cy, it aears earlier i!

me!. +t usually aears i! the late tee!s of males a!d the late t)e!ties a!d early

thirties of females.

$he disorder is of a! eisodic !ature )here eriods of distur"a!ce are i!tert)i!ed )ith

eriods of calm !ormality. $here is also a lac# of co!se!sus "et)ee! rofessio!als

a"out the co!se*ue!ces of ha'i!g the disorder. Early cli!icia!s "elie'ed reco'ery )as

imossi"le, "ut further moder! research suggests t)o thirds of eole )ith the

disorder ma#e sizea"le reco'eries.

Clinical Characteristics of Schizophrenia

$here are t)o mai! classicatio! tools for )hat schizohre!ia is-

o $he +!ter!al lassicatio! system for /isease

o $he /iag!osis a!d Statistical 0a!ual of 0e!tal /isorders

$he mai! di(ere!ce is that the /S0 orga!ises each diag!osis i!to six axes1 le'els.

$his leads to "ei!g a"le to ma#e a thorough diag!osis as they co!sider the erso!s

symtoms i! relatio! to ma!y di(ere!t le'els.

$here are t)o diag!osis methods from the +/. $hese are less se'ere, a!d more

se'ere, a!d are slit do)! i! this )ay-

At least one symptom is needed to

e present for at least one month!

At least t"o symptoms are needed to

e present for at least one month!a. $hought echo, )ithdra)al, or

"roadcast.". /elusio!s of co!trol or delusio!al

ercetio!s.c. 2alluci!atory 'oices- ru!!i!g

comme!tary3 or 'oices comi!g from

a!other art of the "ody5.d. Persiste!t delusio!s that are

culturally i!aroriate or

a. Persiste!t halluci!atio!s a!d half6

formed delusio!s or ideas.". 7eologisms 8!e) )ords9 resulti!g i!

i!cohere!t or irrele'a!t seech.c. atato!ic "eha'iour 8"eha'iour that

is slo) or !early immo"ile9.

d. :ac# of emotio!, moti'atio!, or

sea#i!g 'ery little.

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imossi"le.$here are also t)o tyes of symtoms-

o Positi'e ; a! additio! to the erso!s erso!ality, such as halluci!atio!s

Symptom Sho"s as #or $%ample/elusio!s Stra!ge, u!latte!ed a(ect ?educed ra!ge a!d i!te!sity of

emotio!

:ess eye co!tact, immo"ile facial

exressio!s?educed 0otor

Acti'ity

:ac# of so!ta!eous mo'eme!t ?emai!i!g still for hours

8catato!ia9?educed Seech

@ue!cy

?aid shifts i! toic ?eeat sou!ds a!d i!'e!t !e)

)ords 87eologisms9Alogia ?educed @ue!cy of seech :ess @ue!t seech

A'olitio! /iculty i!itiati!g thi!gs Stayi!g at home )ith !o

moti'atio! to eat or dress&ssues Surrounding Classi'cation and (iagnosis

Ad'a!tages

o Communication Shorthand; a atie!t usually has more tha! o!e symtom,

so it is much easier to sort these symtoms i!to a si!gle diag!osis. $his ma#es

commu!icatio! "et)ee! diag!osi!g rofessio!als much easier.o Aetiology; there is !o o"'ious si!gle cause of schizohre!ia, "ut #!o)i!g the

diag!osis ca! cause research to "egi! i!to the u!derlyi!g cause.

/isad'a!tages

o )isdiagnosis; a! o"'ious ro"lem that leads to i!aroriate treatme!ts a!d

sometimes u!!ecessary i!stitutio!alisatio!.o *aelling; diag!osis leads to la"elli!g, creati!g stigma a!d ossi"ly e'e! a

sef6 fullli!g rohecy.

o $here is also the assumtio! that there are t)o disti!ct categories3 !ormal 's.a"!ormal. $his does!t allo) for a grey area of other ill!esses of a less se'ere

!ature.

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ultural +ssues

lassicatio!s are usually de'eloed "y )ester! 8usually America! a!d British9

ractitio!ers a!d therefore classicatio!s are o!ly rele'a!t to the 'alues of )ester!

eole. $his suggests a! issue of cultural relati'ism, mea!i!g that it is !ot ossi"le to

ma#e assertio!s of )hat is !ormal5 or a"!ormal5 huma! "eha'iour due to cultural

di'ides. A"!ormality is "ased o! culturally secic criteria.

?elia"ility

+! hysical medici!e, a diag!osis is suorted "y la" exerime!t, or cli!ical trials, ect.

2o)e'er, there is !o o"


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Gottesma! 8%DD%9 suggests that schizohre!ia is i!herited through ge!es. 2e studied

4 t)i!s, a!d fou!d that co!corda!ce rate for 0o!ozygotic 80F9 t)i!s )as 4&, a!d

o!ly %H& for /izygotic 8/F9 t)i!s. ordi!e 8II9 co!ducted a similar study a!d

sho)ed a co!corda!ce rate IJ.K& for 0F t)i!s, a!d & for /F t)i!s.

E'aluatio!-

o $he fact that the co!corda!ce rate is !e'er %& clearly sho)s that other

factors are imorta!t as )ello $he small samle of such t)i! studies could lead to u!relia"le results. $hey also

do !ot al)ays use the same diag!ostic criteria, so di(ere!t studies )ill roduce

!aturally di(ere!t co!corda!ce rates.o o!corda!ce rates are also calculated di(ere!tly dee!di!g o! the methods

used, )hich *uestio!s relia"ility of studies.

Adotio! Studies

$ie!ari studied %KK adoted childre! )hos "iological mothers had schizohre!ia.

$hey had a co!corda!ce rate of %& comared to %& i! adoted childre! )ithout

schizohre!ic are!ts. $his is 'ery stro!g e'ide!ce that ge!etics are a ris# factor i!

de'eloi!g schizohre!ia.

>amily Studies

Gottesma! also studied families. 2e co!cluded that there )as a 4J& cha!ce of

de'eloi!g schizohre!ia if "oth of your are!ts are a(ected, as oosed to the usual

%&. $he more ge!etically similar the relati'es, the higher the co!corda!ce rate

"et)ee! them.

E'aluatio!-

o Although this e'ide!ce stro!gly sho)cases ge!etics as a factor, ho)e'er it

could also highlight e!'iro!me!tal a!d social e(ects as the closer relati'es

se!d more time together !aturally.

+iochemical #actors

$he /oami!e 2yothesis

$his theory asserts that excessi'e amou!ts of doami!e or o'erse!siti'ity to the

chemical i! the "rai! to doami!e are the cause of schizohre!ia.

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Stre!gths-

o /rugs )hich "loc# doami!e 8he!othiazi!e9 seem to reduce the symtoms of

schizohre!ia.o :6/oa, a drug for Par#i!so!s disease actually i!creases doami!e a!d aears

to roduce schizohre!ic symtoms6 e'ide!ce that i!creased doami!e creates

schizohre!iaLo Post6mortems of schizohre!ics ha'e sho)! i!creased doami!e arts i! the

"rai!.

:imitatio!s-

o Phe!othiazi!e does !ot )or# o! all atie!ts a!d thus it is !ot "iological factors

of doami!e that cause schizohre!ia i! e'eryo!e.o $heres !o cause a!d e(ect )ith the research that ca! "e esta"lished6 all

correlatio!al.o $his theory is 'ery simlistic a!d has "ee! criticised for exhi"iti!g a!

aetiological fallacy6 it is assumed that "ecause the additio! of the he!othiazi!e

sol'es the issue that it is the lac# of that that causes schizohre!ia6 it is !ot, it is

doami!e.

.euroanatomy ,+rain Structure-

$here is some a!d gro)i!g e'ide!ce that the hysical structure of the "rai! could "e

a cause of schizohre!ia. Szes#s et. al. fou!d that asymmetry is fou!d i! !ormal

"rai!s, mea!i!g that the t)o sides of the "rai!s are di(ere!t, )hile those )ith

schizohre!ia seem to "e di(ere!t, )ith the refro!tal cortex a"se!t.

Peole )ith the disorder also ha'e u!usually large 'e!tricles i! the "rai!, ma#i!g

schizohre!ic "rai!s lighter tha! !ormal o!es. A!dreaso! et. al. co!ducted a 'ery

)ell co!trolled $ sca! study a!d fou!d that there )as sig!ica!t e!largeme!t of the

'e!tricles i! schizohre!ic "rai!s. 2o)e'er, this )as o!ly the case for me! a!d !ot

)ome! a!d, as such, is lo) i! oulatio! 'alidity.

E'aluatio!-

o ?esearch is dicult to i!terret a!d there ha'e "ee! ma!y co!tradictory

!di!gs.o +t is dicult to esta"lish cause a!d e(ect due to the fact that ma!y of the

articia!ts had had schizohre!ia for a lo!g time a!d "ee! u!dergoi!g

treatme!t, so it is a ossi"le that either o!e of those t)o factors may ha'e

altered the 'e!tricles or the asymmetry.5


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Psychological )odels ,$%planations-

Psychological models ha'e three sectio!s to exlai!i!g schizohre!ia. $hese are-

Social >actors3 Beha'iourism a!d :ear!i!g3 a!d Psychody!amics.

+eha/ioural0 *earning )odel

$his aroach exlai!s schizohre!ia as "ei!g caused mai!ly through oera!t

co!ditio!i!g-

o Early exerie!ce of u!ishme!t for "ei!g odd may se!d a child i!to

)ithdra)al. $his leads to la"elli!g them as odd.o $he "izarre "eha'iour they the! exhi"it may "e re)arded )ith atte!tio! a!d

symathy, a!d thus the i!di'idual co!forms to the "eha'iour a!d to the

stereotye1 la"el.o Beha'iour the! "ecomes more a!d more exaggerated u!til it is e'e!tually

la"elled as schizohre!ic.

$his theory relates to the ideas of 'icarious rei!forceme!t.

E'aluatio!-

o $he fact that schizohre!ics do sho) reso!ses to rei!forceme!t i! theray

sessio!s does gi'e some suort to this idea.o +t ca! "e said to "e reductio!ist a!d mecha!istic, as it simly says that re)ards

a!d u!ishme!ts a!d rei!forceme!ts are reso!si"le for all huma! "eha'iour.o $he theory is ro"a"ly more rele'a!t to the mai!te!a!ce a!d !ot the i!itiatio!

of the disorder.

Social #actors #amily )odels

Early social theorists regarded families as crucial )he! exlai!i!g schizohre!ia.

$he Schizohre!ic 0other is the term gi'e! to a cold mother )ho is domi!a!t a!d

ma!iulati'e, "y "ei!g "oth o'er6rotecti'e a!d re


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o 2o)e'er, families of schizohre!ics do di(er from others of !o!6 schizohre!ics

a!d this theory ha'e therefore ge!erated i!terest i! the e(ects that the family

has o! the =M?SE of schizohre!ia, as oosed to the AMSE.

$%pressed $motion ,$$-

?ece!t research has co!ce!trated arou!d the theory of exressed emotio! 8EE9. $his

is the theory of o'er6 layi!g emotio!s, such as "ei!g o'er critical or o'er co!cer!ed

a"out someo!e )ith schizohre!ia.

Exressed Emotio! 8EE9 is assessed "y tai!g a! i!ter'ie) )ith a relati'e of someo!e

)ith schizohre!ia a!d rati!g-

o $he !um"er of critical comme!ts

o $he !um"er of stateme!ts of disli#e1 dissatisfactio!1 rese!tful!esso $he !um"er of stateme!ts sho)i!g o'er i!de'elome!t )ith the atie!t.

Bro)! 8%DHI9 highlighted that schizohre!ic atie!ts )ere more li#ely to relase )he!

restored to homes that dislayed high exressed emotio!. $arrier et. al. also sho)s

that there is a stro!g correlatio! "et)ee! relase i! schizohre!ia a!d exressed

emotio!.

E'aluatio!-

o +t is @a)ed "y the fact that most research is correlatio!al a!d thus ca!!ot sho)

the cause a!d e(ect of exressed emotio!.o Exressed Emotio! 8EE9 has also "ee! fou!d i! families )ith eati!g disorders

a!d deressio! so there is !ot o!e direct li!# to schizohre!ia.o $here are co!cer!s a"out ho) exressed emotio! 8EE9 is measured as it is do!e

)ith reud argued that co!@icts a!d traumas are imorta!t )he! it comes to exlai!i!g

schizohre!ia. 2e claims that schizohre!ics ha'e retur!ed to the oral stage of the

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sychosexual stages u!der the sychody!amic model. $his is the stage that rimary

!arcissism 8hea'y self6 i!terest i! yourself9 occurs

+! the oral stage, the ego has !ot yet searated from the id. Si!ce the ego "elo!gs to

the reality ri!cile, the model asserts that schizohre!ics ha'e lost touch )ith reality

as their ego is !ot fu!ctio!i!g roerly.

E'aluatio!-

o $he theory is seculati'e a!d has !o o"


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"et)ee! three a!d ftee! sessio!s. $he treatme!t used to "e used exte!si'ely "ut

has si!ce "ee! deemed i!e(ecti'e a!d a"a!do!ed "y most.

Stre!gths-

o $hyra! a!d Adams co!ducted re'ie) of IJ studies to assess )hether E$ had

a!y e(ect. $hey fou!d that, )he! comared )ith simulated E$, more atie!ts

imro'ed )ith real E$, a!d fou!d that there )as some e'ide!ce that E$

com"i!ed )ith a!ti6sychotic drugs had a "etter e(ect tha! drugs alo!e.

Oea#!esses-

o Gree!halgh et. al.s meta6 a!alysis co!cluded that E$ )as !ot a!y more

e(ecti'e tha! a!ti6sychotic drugs i! the lo!g ru!.o Sarita et. al. co!ducted a study i! +!dia a!d fou!d that there )as !o di(ere!ce

or reductio! i! symtoms of NJ schizohre!ics )ho either E$ or simulated E$.

[It is advisable in an exam question to only do ECT as a last resort. There is not

enough modern material on the treatment to gain enough marks- stick to drugs,

kids!

(rug 1herapy0 Chemotherapy

0a!y argue that the i!troductio! of drug theray has re'olutio!ised the treatme!ts ofschizohre!ia.

hlorromazi!e

hlorromazi!e )as used to tra!*uilise atie!ts )ithout sedati!g them. $hese lead

sychiatrists to disco'eri!g its theraeutic roerties for schizohre!ics, )hich

remo'ed the symtoms of delusio!s a!d halluci!atio!s. $he drug )or#s "y attachi!g

itself to the doami!e recetors i! the "rai!, a!d thus re'e!ti!g the doami!e fromdoi!g so i!stead. $his allo)s for imro'ed cog!iti'e a!d "eha'ioural a"ilities, as )ell

as the ositi'e symtoms of schizohre!ia "ei!g co!tai!ed. hlorromazi!e is the

most e(ecti'e drug for treati!g schizohre!ia.

7euroletics

7euroletics are e(ecti'e i! co!trolli!g ositi'e symtoms a!d ha'e allo)ed

schizohre!ics to li'e outside of i!stitutio!s 8accordi!g to ulie!9. $he drugs ha'eallo)ed life i! the commu!ity for schizohre!ics, as oosed to i!stitutio!s, )hile

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co!ti!ued use of the drug hels re'e!t relase. 2o)e'er, the )o!der drugs hye

that rst surrou!ded it has !ot li'ed u to its exectatio!s.

Stre!gths-

o Both drugs reduce symtoms )ithi! J mo!ths of ta#i!g them, "ut the

symtoms ofte! retur! a!d the atie!ts relase 8saccordi!g to ?ze)us#a9.o $hese co!'e!tio!al drugs are good at reduci!g ositi'e symtoms.

o $hey are *uic# a!d easy to ta#e a!d as such mea! that the atie!t ca! ma#e a

fast reco'ery )ith little e(ort

Oea#!esses-

o $hese drugs do !ot seem to "e e(ecti'e agai!st the !egati'e symtoms.o /rugs aear to treat the symtoms "ut !ot get to the root cause of the

disorder.o $here is a! aetiological fallacy surrou!di!g drug treatme!t6


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the trust of the atie!t a!d "uild a relatio!shi )ith them. $his trust )ill allo) more

i!formatio! to "e "rought out. $hey )ill achie'e this relatio!shi "y relaci!g the

atie!ts u!ishi!g co!scie!ce5 )ith a less destructi'e5 o!e. +! the rst i!sta!ces,

the theraist )ill !ot e'e! ma#e eye co!tact )ith the atie!t a!d i!stead


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'oices$arrier fou!d that HN& of his atie!ts had imro'ed after u!dergoi!g full og!iti'e

Beha'ioural $heray, a!d that it is a! e(ecti'e )ay of ma!agi!g their schizohre!ic

symtoms. Oith this, $arrier de'eloed the coi!g strategy e!ha!ceme!t )hich

teaches atie!ts ho) to de'elo a!d aly 'arious coi!g strategies.

Stre!gths-

o +t does ha'e a sig!ica!t e(ect o! atie!ts symtoms )he! alied roerly,

accordi!g to Goulds meta6 a!alysis.o B$ does ha'e a lo!g lasti!g legacy, u!li#e drugs )hich ca! lead to immediate

relase after the atie!t stos ta#i!g them.o +t is a more ethical )ay of deali!g )ith the disorder as it gi'es atie!ts more

free )ill o'er their o)! treatme!t tha! the chemical straight


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What is Addiction?

Addictio! is the state of chro!ic or eriodic i!toxicatio! roduced "y reeated

co!sumtio! of a !atural or sy!thetic drug. +t ca! also i!clude other "eha'iours,

i!cludi!g gam"li!g a!d sex. +t i!creases the ris# of disease a!d social1 eco!omic

ro"lems.

)odels of Addiction

+iological )odel

Assumtio!s

o Addictio! is a secic diag!osis6 you are either a! addict or you are !ot a!

addicto Addictio! is li#e all other ill!esseso $he issue lies )ithi! the i!di'idualo $he addictio! is irre'ersi"le

o $here is a! emhasis o! treatme!ts, as the addictio! ca!!ot "e cured.

Some "iologists also say that eole )ho sho) addicti'e "eha'iour ha'e a"!ormal

hysiology. >or examle, Alcoholics A!o!ymous "elie'es that alcoholism is a! allergic

reactio!.

Ge!etics

:erma! et. al. fou!d a li!# "et)ee! smo#i!g a!d ge!es i!'ol'i!g doami!e

regulatio!. $his is, ho)e'er, correlatio! research, mea!i!g that cause a!d e(ect

ca!!ot "e esta"lished. 0ea!)hile, omi!gs et. al. researched ca!!a"is, cocai!e, a!d

heroi! addictio!. 2e fou!d a li!# to ge!es i! a di(ere!t5 "rai! system. Agai!, this is

amily studies ha'e sho)! high rates of co!corda!ce, esecially i! alcoholism.

0eri#a!gas et. al. fou!d that NJ& of "lood relati'es to alcoholics )ere also later

diag!osed as such. 2o)e'er, e!'iro!me!tal factors could "e a cause6 through the

Social :ear!i!g $heory. Adotio! studies are a!other source of #!o)ledge i! relatio!

to ge!es. 2eath fou!d that some eole )ho )ere "rought u )ithout the "iological

are!ts arou!d "ecame alcoholics, )he! their "iological are!ts )ere also alcoholics.

$his is good ge!etic e'ide!ce as it mea!s that e!'iro!me!tal factors ca! "e ousted as

re'ale!t.

$he Physical /ee!de!cy $heory

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$he Physical /ee!de!cy $heory 8P/$9 states that eole "ecome addicted "ecause

they do !ot )a!t1 ca!!ot go )ithout )hat they are addicted to. A! imorta!t asect

of this is tolera!ce to a! addicti'e su"sta!ce. As a erso! co!ti!ues to smo#e, for

examle, he or she "ecomes more tolera!t a!d !eeds to mai!tai! their addictio!

more a!d more i! order to exerie!ce leasure. As )ell as this, stoi!g may cause

u!leasa!t side6 e(ects from )ithdra)al.

Biochemicals

7eurotra!smitters are the most imorta!t6 these are "iochemicals that mo'e "et)ee!

sy!ases 8the gas i! !er'e cells9 to tra!smit messages throughout the !er'ous

system. +f these are altered )ith, the! there is a! e(ect o! mood, cog!itio!, a!d

"eha'iour. $he most imorta!t is doami!e. /oami!e seems to ha'e a role i! mood

a!d emotio!, a!d the "iological re)ards rocess. $here are se'eral doami!e systemsi! the "rai!, "ut the mesolim"ic doami!e system seems to "e the most imorta!t.

ells i! this ath)ay are so!ta!eously acti'e, releasi!g small amou!ts of doami!e

i!to the sy!ases. $his leads to sta"le mood. Altmam et. al. suggests alcohol a!d

!icoti!e e(ects the !er'ous system "y i!creasi!g doami!e le'els. :ie"ma! a!d

ooer also @oated the idea that eole )ho are ro!e to addictio! may ha'e more

se!siti'e mesolim"ic doami!e systems.

='erall E'aluatio!

$here is a de"ate as to )hether eole ca! co!trol their addicti'e "eha'iour. $his ca!

"e summed u i! the >ree Oill 's. /etermi!ism de"ate. Biological model is highly

determi!istic, as it assumes that eole ha'e !o co!trol o'er their addictio!, it ca!!ot

"e treated, a!d the diag!osis is i!credi"ly closed a!d limited i! scoe. :ear!i!g a!d

og!iti'e 0odels "oth allo) for greater >ree Oill o'er addictio!.

$he lo!g6 ru!!i!g de"ate of 7ature 's. 7urture is also re'ale!t i! the Biological

0odel, as it assumes that !urture through lear!i!g a!d cog!itio! is !ear6 irrele'a!t.

$)i! studies also form some "asis of the Biological aroach. 7o t)i! study has e'er

sho)! %& herita"ility, so therefore, !atural Biology ca!!ot "e all to "lame for

addictio!, almost discrediti!g the 7ature side of the Biological model.

?eductio!ism is also re'ale!t throughout the Biological 0odel. $his is "ecause it

simlies the comlexities of addicti'e "eha'iour do)! simly to ge!es, a!d ig!ores

"oth cultural a!d social factors that may also ha'e a "ig imact.

Cogniti/e )odel

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Assumtio!s

o og!itio! is thi!#i!g, so eole are addicted simly "ecause of the )ay they

thi!#o Bec# et. al.s 'iscous cycle clearly sho)s that it is thi!#i!g that causes

addictio!.

oi!g

A #ey idea i! the cog!iti'e model is that eole e!gage i! addicti'e "eha'iour to hel

them coe )ith the stresses of life. Addictio! is thought to full three fu!ctio!s-

o 0ood regulatio!- i!creasi!g ositi'e moodo Performa!ce E!ha!ceme!t- a! addictio! may ma#e someo!e co!ce!trate "etter

or comlete a tas# more ecie!tly

o /istractio!- addictio! may ser'e as a distractio! to less leasa!t life

exerie!ces

2o) these fu!ctio!s are fullled dee!ds o! the addicti'e "eha'iour.

Execta!cy

=ur exectatio!s do !ot ha'e to "e correct to i!@ue!ce our "eha'iour. +f )e feel a!

addictio! may harm us, )e )ill !ot do it. 2o)e'er, if )e feel that it )ill !ot, )e may

)ell do it. 2a!se! et. al. fou!d that those )ho a"use alcohol are more li#ely to "e

those )ho do !ot see as ma!y !egati'e co!se*ue!ces of hea'y dri!#i!g. 0ea!)hile,

he also fou!d that those )ho ercei'e !egati'e e(ects )ill !ot a"use alcohol. $his

sho)s that )hat )e exect to hae! is more i!@ue!tial tha! )hat actually hae!s.

Self6 Ecacy

Self6 Ecacy refers to our erso!al "eliefs i! us. +f )e "elie'e )e ca! deal )ith a!y

!egati'e e(ects of a! additio!, therefore, )e are more li#ely to "ecome addicts.

2o)e'er, esta"lished addicts )ho feel u!a"le to deal )ith )ithdra)al symtoms, or

)ho ercei'e themsel'es !egati'ely may feel that they are u!a"le to *uit a!d sto,

due to their i!a"ility to coe.

='erall E'aluatio!

$he >ree Oill 's /etermi!ism de"ate is rerese!ted o! the >ree Oill side )ith the

og!iti'e model, as it states that addicti'e "eha'iour occurs due to faulty thi!#i!g,

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)hich ca! "e corrected, allo)i!g eole to "e a"le to cha!ge their addicti'e

"eha'iour a!d imro'e, comared to the determi!istic Biological 0odel.

2o)e'er, irratio!al "eliefs are a 'ery erratic )ay to diag!ose such a comlex

"eha'iour, as addictio! is. $houghts ca! cha!ge i! a slit6 seco!d, so there is !o

co!siste!cy i! the models diag!osis of addictio!.

+t could also "e asserted that the cog!iti'e model focuses more so o! sychological

addictio!s tha! it does hysiological o!es. $his mea!s it "ecomes limited i!

exlai!i!g addictio!s such as gam"li!g.

+eha/ioural0 *earning )odel

Assumtio!s

o 7ot all or !othi!g5 categories li#e Biological 0odelo Beha'iour is lear!ed 'ia Social :ear!i!g $heory

o Addictio! is !o di(ere!t to a!y other "eha'iour3 it ca! "e lear!ed a!d u!lear!ed

lassical o!ditio!i!g

lassical o!ditio!i!g i!dicates that )e lear! through associati!g o!e thi!g )ith

a!other. >or examle, )ith smo#i!g-

o M!co!ditio!ed Stimulus ; Sitti!g )ith frie!dso M!co!ditio!ed ?e@ex ; ?elaxed

o 7eutral Stimulus ; Smo#i!g

Smo#i!g the! "ecomes the co!ditio!ed stimulus, )ith relaxatio! the co!ditio!ed

re@ex, as eole associate the relaxatio! )ith the smo#i!g.

Oil#er )as the rst to esta"lish a li!# "et)ee! lassical o!ditio!i!g a!d Addictio!.

2e !oticed that eole )ho )ere treated for drug addictio! e!ded u su(eri!g se'ere

)ithdra)al symtoms )he! they retur!ed to the laces they used i!.

=era!t o!ditio!i!g

=era!t o!ditio!i!g dictates that )e lear! through ositi'e a!d !egati'e

rei!forceme!ts. Positi'e rei!forceme!ts create a leasura"le co!se*ue!ce a!d

!egati'e rei!forceme!ts a !egati'e o!e. +! terms of addictio!, these rei!forceme!tsmay 'ary )ith the erso! a!d the su"sta!ce that they are addicted to.

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Social :ear!i!g $heory

Accordi!g to the S:$, )e do !ot !eed to exerie!ce the co!se*ue!ces of a "eha'iour

oursel'es to "ecome addicted. +!stead, )e simly ha'e to o"ser'e others. >or

examle, )atchi!g our are!ts smo#e may ma#e us more i!cli!ed to smo#e. $his also

exlai!s the role of the media.

=utcome Execta!cy 0odel

Someo!e )ith a! addicti'e "eha'iour has articular exectatio!s to )hat is a"out to

hae! )ith their addictio!. $his ca! create a cue to exerie!ce a! addicti'e

su"sta!ce.

='erall E'aluatio!

$he Beha'ioural model is reductio!ist as it reduces a comlex "eha'iour do)! to

simle re)ards a!d u!ishme!ts. +t is also mecha!istic, as it assumes that "eha'iour

is a xed, rigid structure, a!d the same i! e'ery erso!.

$he Beha'ioural model ta#es the !atural side of the 7ature 's. 7urture de"ate, to the

oi!t that it retty much ig!ores a!y "iological a!d !atural factors.

Social :ear!i!g $heory is a"le to ac#!o)ledge the cog!iti'e model i! its !di!gs,

mea!i!g that it is a holistic model. +t is also a"le to exlai! the role of the media i!

addicti'e "eha'iours. =utcome Execta!cy 0odel, ho)e'er, is 'ery simlistic.

Smoing Addiction

&nitiation

Biological 0odel

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$he Biological 0odel exlai!s the i!itiatio! of addictio! through ge!etics. :erma! et.

al. said that the ge!e S:JAN6D ca! ma#e a erso! less ro!e to smo#i!g1 !icoti!e

addictio!. $his ge!e is said to )or# i! the doami!e systems.

og!iti'e 0odel

$he og!iti'e 0odel exlai!s the imitatio! of smo#i!g through the exectatio!s of it.$his might "e erforma!ce imro'eme!t or stress relate. 2erisham suggests that

smo#i!g e!ha!ces co!ce!tratio!, so eole may start smo#i!g "ecause of ho) they

exect it to "e, Self6 Ecacy also lays a art, as eole may thi!# that they ca!

ha!dle a!y ad'erse side6 e(ects that they ercei'e.

Beha'ioural1 :ear!i!g 0odel

Social :ear!i!g $heory dictates that )e may lear! to smo#e "ecause it is all arou!dus. =era!t o!ditio!i!g also lays a art, as eole may "egi! to smo#e "ecause

they are ositi'ely rei!forced )ith the good e(ects.

)aintenance

Biological 0odel

$he Biological 0odel dictates that smo#i!g addictio! i!creases doami!e le'els, )hich

i! tur!, i!creases leasure feeli!gs. 7icoti!e is also 'ery addicti'e6 Schacter asserts

that hysical dee!de!cy occurs to sha#e o( u!leasa!t )ithdra)al symtoms.

og!iti'e 0odel

Bec#s 'icious cycle asserts that eole get i!to a cycle that they ca!t "rea#, of lo)

mood a!d usi!g their addictio!. :o) self6 ecacy also sho)s that eole may "e

u!a"le to coe )ith )ithdra)al symtoms, )hile smo#i!g ca! hel eole coe )ith

stress so they stay doi!g it.


Social :ear!i!g $heory sho)s that )e !d it hard to *uit smo#i!g "ecause it is simly

all arou!d us i! society. Also, lassical o!ditio!i!g also states that "ecause smo#i!g"ecomes routi!e, )e !d it hard to sto. =era!t co!ditio!i!g i! the co!text of eer

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ressure also sho)s that eole may co!ti!ue smo#i!g, as they gai! eer aro'al

for doi!g so3 the oosite of re


21/54

Social :ear!i!g $heory exlai!s gam"li!g as it is re'ale!t i! our culture a!d society

a!d glamorised i! the media. lassical o!ditio!i!g also mea!s that eole lear! to

associate gam"li!g )ith exciteme!t a!d )i!!i!g, )hile =era!t o!ditio!s ro'ides a

ositi'e e!forceme!t of )i!!i!g to i!itiate gam"li!g.

)aintenance

Biological 0odel

$he decisio! arts of our "rai!s are co!trolled "y Gam"li!g "eha'iour6 )e mai!tai!

"ecause )e are simly u!a"le to ma#e the decisio! to *uit.

og!iti'e 0odel

Bec# et. al. says that gam"li!g imro'es mood, "ut losi!g i!'ol'es !egati'e social

a!d !a!cial situatio!s. $his leads to usi!g agai! to create a higher mood a!d may"e

alle'iati!g some of the issues.


=eratio! o!ditio!i!g dictates that re)ards e!courage gam"li!g to co!ti!ue, such

as )ith the good "eha'iour. $he schedule of rei!forceme!t creates i!fre*ue!t )i!s

)hich mea!s you ha'e a stro!g urge to co!ti!ue as you ha'e !o idea )he! the !ext

)i! )ill occur. Social :ear!i!g $heory also exlai!s that you are i!@ue!ced "y the

fello) gam"lers arou!d you, )hich may "ecome your frie!ds, a!d as such, co!ti!ue to

gam"le a lot.

3elapse

Biological 0odel

Oithdra)al symtoms cause you to cra'e adre!ali!e rushes, so you relase to gai!

these.

og!iti'e 0odel

Self6 Ecacy dictates that "ecause you ha'e *uit o!ce, you ca! *uit a!y time. $he

ossi"ility of )i!!i!g )ill also )orm some eole "ac#.


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22/54

Social :ear!i!g $heory says that society i!@ue!ces you to retur! to gam"li!g.

ulneraility

3is #actors

Age

?esearch has sho)! that there is a ositi'e correlatio! "et)ee! early i!itiatio! a!d

rolo!ged usage a!d relase. %H.N& of adolesce!ts i! %NI cou!tries )ere classes as

smo#ers6 you!g age smo#i!g is a large issueR

Shram 8I9 co!ducted a la"oratory study o! mice to !d the di(ere!ce "et)ee!

the adolesce!t a!d adult "rai! )he! deali!g )ith !icoti!e. $he rats self6 admi!istered

!icoti!e. 7icoti!e )as fou!d to more se'erely a(ect the adult rats. 0ea!)hile, the

adolesce!t rats did !ot feel as ma!y !egati'e e(ects, a!d i!stead felt more ositi'e

re)ards from !icoti!e. ould it "e that adolesce!t "rai!s are di(ere!t )he! it comes

to addicti'e su"sta!ces, li#e !icoti!eL

Perso!ality

Eyse!c# "elie'ed that there is such a thi!g as a! addicti'e erso!ality, mea!i!g that

some eole are !aturally more ro!e to addictio! tha! others. $here are three

dime!sio!s to this that Eyse!c# roosed-

o Psychoticism ; aggressi'e, imulsi'e, egoce!tric.

o .euroticism ; moody, irrita"le, a!xiouso $xtra'ersio! ; socia"le, li'ely, otimistic.

Eyse!c# has little e'ide!ce to suort his idea of a! addicti'e erso!ality. 2o)e'er,

>ra!cis 8%DDJ9 fou!d a li!# "et)ee! high 7 a!d P scores a!d !icoti!e addictio!.

Peers

Sussma! a!d Ames 8I%9 fou!d that eer usage of drugs is a good redictor of

i!itiatio! amo!g you!g eole. $his mea!s that you!g eole )ith frie!ds )ho smo#e

are more li#ely themsel'es to ta#e u smo#i!g. 2o)e'er, the same eole also fou!d

that family co!@ict, oor suer'isio!, a!d drug6use tolera!ce "y the are!ts, a!d

de'ia!t eer grou "eha'iour all i!@ue!ce i!itiatio!s of addictio!s. $his may suggest

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that eers are


24/54

smo#i!g- adolesce!ts )ho )atched lmes rated PG or ? 8MSA9 )ere JJ& more li#ely

to smo#e tha! those )ho )atch lms of lo)er rati!gs.

or! et. al. 8I9 used i!ter'ie)s a!d *uestio!!aires to re'eal that articia!ts

could-

o Al)ays recall at least o!e gam"li!g mar#eti!g camaig!o ?egarded gam"li!g camaig!s as i!@ue!tial

o >elt the ad'ertiseme!ts )ere fu!!yo >elt the ad'ertiseme!ts as sho)i!g cool eole

o +!dicated the ossi"ility of !a!cial gai!

All these thi!gs are li#ely to attract you!g eole i! ma!y )ays. =ther research,

ho)e'er, suggests that it is the !ature of gam"li!g ad'ertiseme!ts. >or examle,

2yu!g6Soe# et. al. 8IH9 suggested that the !ature of gam"li!g caused the issues,

a!d that the ositi'e e!'iro!me!t of ga"li!g forces eole i!to gam"li!g addictio!.

Positi'e E(ects

>ried a!d :e'y 8II9 re'ie)ed the imact of camaig!s i! the MS. $hey sho)ed that

)ell6fu!ded a!d imleme!ted mass6media camaig!s targeted at the ge!eral

oulatio!, com"i!ed )ith comrehe!si'e to"acco co!trol rogrammes, are

associated )ith reduced smo#i!g rates amo!g the ge!eral oulatio!.

lei! et. al. 8IK9 asserts that, i! adolesce!ts, a!ti6 smo#i!g camaig!s com"i!ed

)ith teleho!e hel ser'ices ca! i!form eole a!d hel cha!ge "eha'iour.

2yu!g6Soe# et. al. 8IH9 also sho)ed that if media rerese!tatio! of gam"li!g )as

!egati'e, the! the e(ect )as to i!@ue!ce attitudes a!d "eha'iour accordi!gly, )ith

'ie)ers "egi!!i!g to see gam"li!g more !egati'ely.

Attriutions 1heory

Attri"utio!s $heory is all a"out )ho you attri"ute as the cause of your addicti'e

stages. +t ca! either "e i!ter!al, or exter!al. Peole )ith exter!al Attri"utio!s i! the

"lame o! exter!al factors, such as ressure, stress, a!d society. $hose )ith i!ter!al

attri"utio!s may "lame their addictio! o! their o)! )ea#!esses, lo) self6 ecacy a!dself6 esteem, a!d "ra'ery or hoeless!ess.

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Social Conte%t of Addiction

/ri!#i!g a!d smo#i!g are socially acceta"le i! the )est6 "ut i! the +slamic )orld,

they ca! "e fro)!ed uo!. 2o)e'er, these addictio!s still occur i! these laces.

$herefore, addictio! models ca! "e accused of "ei!g culture "iased.

Sociocultural "ac#grou!d has also "ee! a domi!a!t factor )ith addictio!. Peole fromlo)er class "ac#grou!ds are more li#ely to ta#e u addictio!s. +f you gro) u )ith

high crime e!'iro!me!ts arou!d you, you are also more li#ely to ta#e u a! addicti'e

"eha'iour. Poor schooli!g is also a ris# factor i! addictio!.

3educing Addicti/e +eha/iour

1heory of Planned +eha/iour ,1P+-

0ai! Assumtio!s

A! i!di'iduals decisio! to e!gage i! a articular "eha'iour ca! "e directly redicted

"y their i!te!tio! to e!gage i! that "eha'iour. $he $heory of Pla!!ed Beha'iour 8$PB9

tried to exlai! this.

$PB i!'ol'es-

i. Attitude ; the i!di'iduals attitude to)ards the "eha'iour i! *uestio!ii. Su"


26/54

)ethodological issueslague $PB6 Self6 ?eort *uestio!!aires, )hich are used to

measure attitudes a!d other arts of $PB, may "e i!accurate a!d o!ly roduce

correlatio!al data. $hey also may co!tai! self6 rese!tatio!al "ias, a!d as such, are

"ad redictors of actual "eha'iour.

$PB as a model for addictio! re'e!tio!

$he $PB ca! "e used to reduce addicti'e "eha'iour. $his ca! i!'ol'e-

o Changing +eha/ioural Attitude; for examle, the MS =ce of 7atio!al /rug

o!trol Policy lau!ched a camaig! to lo)er tee!age mari


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Positi'es-

o hea a!d a'aila"le o! the 7atio!al 2ealth Ser'ice i! the M6 they are

accessi"leo $hey are *uic# a!d e(ecti'e, u!li#e sychological treatme!ts

7egati'e-

o $hey o!ly accou!t for !atural i!@ue!ces, a!d !eglects the !urture side of the

de"ate.o $hey ig!ore u!derlyi!g causes a!d sychological thoughtso $here ca! "e ad'erse side e(ectso $hey could lead to a! aetiological fallacyo /rugs co!trol "eha'iour a!d do!t deal )ith the actual cause of the addicti'e

"eha'iour

Biological $reatme!ts a!d the Aetiological >allacy

$here is the issue of the treatme!t aetiological fallacy. $his mea!s that,


28/54

o Ohe! smo#ers )ere gi'e! o!e follo) u i!ter'ie) %I mo!ths after the rst, the

successful *uitti!g rate )as .N&o Ohe! smo#ers )ere also gi'e! a *uestio!!aire, the successful *uit rate )as

%.J&o Ohe! smo#ers )ere also ad'ised to *uit, N.N& had *uit.o Ohe! A=$A )as used a!d a lea@et )ith to tis to *uit )as gi'e! to the

smo#ers, K.N& had *uit a!d lasted.

Although this might seem li#e small !um"ers, if all GPs co!ducted this the same )ay

)ith all i!formatio! a'aila"le, half a millio! eole )ould *uit smo#i!g e'ery year

8=gde! IH9.

?oom et. al. also co!ducted a study surrou!di!g alcoholism. $hey fou!d that those

)ith alcoholism i! its i!fa!cy, or )ith mild alcoholic te!de!cies, )ere more li#ely to

*uit )he! lectured a"out safe amou!ts to dri!#, "ala!ced diet a!d dri!#i!g, a!d

doctors tal#s. $hese methods )ere i!e(ecti'e )ith more ro"lem dri!#i!g.

Psychological &nter/ention

A'ersio! $heray

A'ersio! $heray is "ased o! u!ishme!t, as oosed to re)ard. Oith smo#i!g, a!

i!di'idual )ill sit alo!e a!d ta#e a u( of o!e cigarette e'ery J seco!ds. $he

i!di'idual )ill "egi! to feel sic#, a!d, through lassical o!ditio!i!g, associates this

feeli!g )ith smo#i!g. $his de'elos a! a'ersio! to smo#i!g

E'aluatio! ; there is e'ide!ce that A'ersio! $heray )or#s, esecially i! multi6

como!e!t rogrammes. 2o)e'er, results lac# co!siste!cy, a!d thus results from the

method lac# relia"ility. +t also focuses o! smo#i!g, a!d !ot the cause of the addictio!,

a!d is!t e(ecti'e i! other addictio!s, li#e dri!#i!g, i! the lo!g term.

ue Exosure

$his i!'ol'es the remise that addicti'e "eha'iours are triggered )he! the cues for

them are existe!t. $his theray therefore hels i!di'iduals "ecome co!scious a"out

cues a!d co!trol their reactio! to them.

E'aluatio! ; it is a 'ery short term method of deali!g )ith addictio!. Agai!, it o!ly

deals )ith the "eha'iour a!d !ot the cause3 though co!trolli!g the cue is more

e(ecti'e that


29/54

$he goal of og!iti'e Beha'ioural $heray 8B$9 is that the clie!t is heled to thi!#

di(ere!tly a"out the addictio!1 "eha'iour that cause them diculty. +! smo#i!g, for

examle, it may "e that the clie!t cha!ges their thoughts a!d "eliefs a"out )hat

smo#i!g ca! do for them, )ith the aim that they )ill stay a)ay from !icoti!e i! the

future.

E'aluatio! ; it is a 'ery e(ecti'e rocess, "ut is more e(ecti'e )he! com"i!ed i! a

holistic aroach )ith medicatio!. +t also ig!ores the root cause, a!d i!stead focusses

o! the "eha'iour itself, a!d ca! lead to the esta"lishme!t of a! aetiological fallacy.

:adouceur et. al. ra!domly allocated JJ athological gam"lers to either cog!iti'e

theray or to a co!trol )aiti!g list. After)ards, J& of the treatme!t grou )ere !o

lo!ger classied athological gam"lers a!d had i!creased i! their Self6 Ecacy.

A!ta"use

A!ta"use drugs ha'e "ee! used successfully to treat addictio!s. $hese drugs create a

!egati'e reactio! )he! com"i!ed )ith addicti'e su"sta!ces, such as alcohol. $his

relaces the ositi'e attri"ute of the drug )ith the !egati'e co!se*ue!ces of the

A!ta"use.

In many cases, these can be listed as $biological interventions%. &'& exam board $&%

believes that they are behavioural as they use the principals o# conditioningT.

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&s Psychology a Science?

What is Science?

$he )ord scie!ce comes from the :ati! scie!ta, mea!i!g #!o)ledge. 2o)e'er,

!ot all #!o)ledge is scie!tic. Scie!ce is co!cer!ed )ith )hat )e #!o) to "e true, as

oosed to )hat )e "elie'e to "e true. $he term scie!ce is also used to descri"e a

system of o"tai!i!g #!o)ledge.

7ey #eatures of Science

$here is !o a"solute agreeme!t as to )hat co!stitutes scie!ce, "ut the follo)i!g

characteristics are ge!erally agreed to "e the #ey characteristics-

="


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Science /s8 non9 Science

$here are ma!y )ays i! )hich )e ca! disti!guish scie!ce from !o!6 scie!ce, mai!ly

usi!g the #ey characteristics of scie!ce.

S+E7E 7=76 S+E7EScie!ce uses emirical6"ased measures.

="ser'a"le measures e*uate to e'ide!ce.7o!6 scie!ce is mai!ly i!tuiti'e.

$he rocess of gatheri!g scie!tic

i!formatio! is co!trolled a!d systematic.

7o!6scie!tic i!formatio! is gathered i! a

more ra!domised a!d u!co!trolled

fashio! )ith !o systems or 'aria"le

co!trol.Scie!tic i!formatio! te!ds to "e

u!"iased a!d o"


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$he use of Emirical 0ethods

Emirical 0ethods are- )ethods that rely on direct sensory experience, and can be

measured. A fu!dame!tal characteristic of scie!ce is its relia!ce o! these tyes of

methods3 most !ota"ly- o"ser'atio! a!d measureme!t. +t is argued that true

kno"ledgeca! o!ly "e o"tai!ed through o"ser'atio!, exerie!ce, a!d measureme!t3

a!d !ot through i!tuitio!, erso!al oi!io!, or "eliefs. $his led to the 'ie) that all

scie!tic e'ide!ce should "e "ased o! Emirical 0ethods.

So, for examle, )ith the s)a!s, you )ould ha'e to sit at a o!d a!d cou!t the

!um"er of )hite a!d other coloured s)a!s that s)am ast you. $his o"ser'atio! is a!

Emirical 0ethod.

$he Ge!eratio! of :a)s a!d Pri!cials

Scie!tists aim to ge!erate #!o)ledge that ca! "e ge!eralised to the oulatio!- ie.

The results can be applied to other individuals "ho "ere not tested, to locations other

than the ones tested, and to di*erent times. +f, a!d o!ly if, a study has "ee!

relicated a!d the samle of articia!ts that ha'e "ee! studied is truly

rerese!tati'e, researchers should "e a"le to de'elo ge!eral la)s a!d ri!cials6

ho)e'er, u!li#e other areas of scie!ce, sychology does !ot ge!erally tal# a"out la)s

a!d ri!cials.

So, )ith the )hite s)a!s, after ma!y ai!ful years of researchi!g, you may de'elo

the la) that there is !o such thi!g as a!ythi!g "ut a )hite s)a!.

Ohy is it that Psychological research does!t associate )ith la)s a!d ri!cialsL

+! the rese!t, Psychological e'ide!ce o!ly e'ery suorts a theory.

7o amou!t of research i!to )hat has hae!ed i! the ast ca! fully guara!tee that it

)ill co!ti!ue to "e true i! the future. $his mea!s that regardless of ho) much

e'ide!ce is gathered i! fa'our, o!e iece of e'ide!ce to the co!trary ca! disro'e the

e!tire theory. All that ca! "e claimed is that theories i! sychology remai! useful a!d

ca! redict outcomes. $his mea!s, all6i!6all, that !o theory ca! "e solid roof of

a!ythi!g.

alidating .e" 7no"ledge

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7o matter ho) good research is, it is !ot useful u!less other eole #!o) a"out it8R9.

Pu"licatio!s are e'eryo!es ultimate goal, artly "ecause it distri"utes !di!gs, "ut

also "ecause it allo)s the !e) #!o)ledge to "ecome 'alidated.

2o) is ?esearch CalidatedL

Ohe! )e read !e) research, ho) do )e #!o) it is 'alidL $he a!s)er- eer re'ie)R

Ohat is Peer ?e'ie)L

Ohe! Psychologists ha'e researched )hat they )a!t to u"lish, they reare a draft

docume!t a!d se!d it to a


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>or examle, Garcia a!d oelli!g sho)ed that rats could lear! to a'oid dri!#i!g )ater

if there )as a J hour ga "et)ee! dri!#i!g it a!d "ei!g sic#. All other )or# has sho)!

that a co!ditio!ed reso!se )as !ot ossi"le )ithout a ga of a fe) mi!utes at the

most. $his research )as reurthermore, o!ly "io6sychologists a!d "eha'iourists are a"le to co!!e

themsel'es to Emirical 0ethod3 others )ish to i!clude *ualitati'e data, such as

33


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feeli!gs a!d thoughts. 0iller 8%DN9 says sychologists )ho try to "e scie!tists are


36/54

:a"oratory exerime!ts use emirical methods )hich roduce !di!gs )ith high

relia"ility a!d thus high le'els if relica"ility.

2o)e'er, these la"oratory studies do lac# 'alidity as they are articial to real life a!d

as such do !ot rerese!t )hat sychologists !eed to #!o). +t is also a reaso!a"le

assumtio! that *ualitati'e methods should "e used at aroriate oi!ts i! order to

ro'ide data a"out !atural huma! "eha'iour. +t is therefore i!aroriate to ha'e

sychology usi!g a ure form of the scie!tic method a!d to this, sychology is !ot a

scie!ce a!d should !ot )a!t to "e.

A!ti6 ?eductio!ism

A!ti6 ?eductio!ist aroaches are scie!tic so lo!g as they aim to "e o"


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:oo#s o!ly at o"ser'a"le "eha'iour, so methods are emirical, a!d the methods a!d

theories are falsia"le. 2o)e'er, articia!t 'aria"les are more commo! lace.

og!iti'e Aroach

Emirical methods are used so !di!gs ca! "e relicated a!d theories are falsia"le,

"ut hard to isolate 'aria"les a!d cog!iti'e rocesses. Particia!t 'aria"les ca! a(ectresults more so tha! Biology or Beha'iourism.

Social

Some *ua!titati'e a!d emirical methods are used, "ut most data is *ualitati'e a!d

uses o"ser'atio!s. $his mea!s 'aria"les are dicult to co!trol.

Psychody!amic1 >reud

A"stract theories are used that are !ot falsia"le. 0ethods roduce *ualitati'e date

tha! ca!t "e reeated or ge!eralised.

(esigning Psychological &n/estigations

Samples and 1arget Population

+t is imorta!t that are !um"er of thi!gs are e'ide!t )ith samles, i!cludi!g-

o ?erese!tati'e to the )hole oulatio!

o 2a'e a 'ariety of eole )ith a 'ariety of characteristicso 7ot "ias grous so that the results ca! "e ge!eralised.

$here are ma!y di(ere!t tyes of samles-

o ?a!dom Samle

o E'eryo!e has a! e*ual cha!ce of "ei!g ic#ed3 fair3 good 'ariety of eole3 "ut

mea!s some may !ot "e rerese!ted.o Systematic Samleo +!'ol'es ta#i!g e'ery V from a samli!g frame3 !ot truly ra!dom or

rerese!tati'eo =ortu!ity Samle

o Studyi!g )hoe'er is a'aila"le3 easy a!d *uic# samle3 !ot rerese!tati'eo Self6 Selected Samle

o Peole 'olu!teer to ta#e art3 sa'e times time a!d roduces a large samle3

"ias to)ards certai! grous36


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o Stratied Samleo All su"grous are i!cluded i! roortio!ate !um"ers a!d ra!domly o"tai!ed3

lots of time a!d mo!ey to carry out.

;uestionnaires

Questio!!aires are a tye of self6 reort method, )hich i!'ol'e as#i!g set *uestio!s.

Ad'a!tages

o :arge amou!t of data collected *uic#ly

/isad'a!tages

o Bad *uestio!s ; leadi!g *uestio!s may suggest ho) the researcher )a!ts you to

a!s)er a!d u!clear *uestio!s may "e a! issue.o Poor a!d u!rerese!tati'e samle ; see a"o'e !otes o! samli!go Social /esira"ility ; eole simly say )hat is socially correct5o Ethics ; co!de!tiality is usually a! issue.

=ther self6 reort methods i!clude i!ter'ie)s a!d case studies. $hese ofte! create

*ualitati'e data.

Correlation 3esearch

orrelatio!s simly sho) that t)o 'aria"les aear to "e co!!ected, i! a ositi'e 8o!e

u, t)o u9, or !egati'e 8o!e u, t)o do)!9 fashio!.

Ad'a!tages

o ausal relatio!shis ca! "e ruled out if !o correlatio! existso a! mea! that relatio!shis "et)ee! 'aria"les ca! "e studied e'e! if it )ould

"e u!ethical to ma!iulate them.

/isad'a!tages

o orrelatio!s ca!!ot sho) cause a!d e(ect6 simly that the t)o 'aria"les ha'e a

stated relatio!shi.

*a $%periments

$he aim is to co!trol all 'aria"les so you ca! focus o! the +C a!d the /C. $hey are

co!ducted i! a! articial setti!g.

Ad'a!tages

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o Caria"les are co!trolled so you #!o) results are reeata"leo a! sho) causal relatio!shis "ecause o!ly t)o 'aria"les are acti'e6 +C a!d /C.

/isad'a!tages

o Ecological 'alidity is a! issue "ecause of the articial setti!g

o /ecetio! as ofte! used )hich "reaches the BPS code of Ethics

o /ema!d characteristics ca! "e a! issue as articia!ts #!o) they are "ei!g

studied.

#ield $%periments

>ield exerime!ts are those co!ducted i! a !atural setti!g "ut )here 'aria"les are still

co!trolled a!d altered accordi!g to the research

Ad'a!tages

o ausal relatio!shis ca! "e esta"lishedo Ecological 'alidity is more so tha! :a" exerime!ts as it mea!s that real life

factors are ta#e! i!to accou!to /ema!d characteristics "ecome less of a! issue.

/isad'a!tages

o 0ore li#ely that extra!eous 'aria"les are a! issueo ="ser'atio! must resect ri'acy6 !atural o"ser'atio!s may !ot allo) i!formed

co!se!t.

.atural $%periments

Caria"les are !ot co!trolled or ma!iulated "y the exerime!t. +!stead it is o"ser'ed

as a !atural accorda!ce.

Ad'a!tages

o +t is ossi"le to study 'aria"les that )ould "e u!ethical to ma!iulate

/isad'a!tages

o You ca!t ra!domly allocate articia!ts to a co!ditio!5 as it is !aturally

occurri!g. You also ha'e !o co!trol o'er a!ythi!g so it is dicult to say )hat

causes )hat to occur.o Some grous of i!terests are hard to !d i! e'ery6day life

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o /ecetio! is easy to use as it is easy to !ot gi'e i!formed co!se!t or

co!de!tiality.

3eliaility and Consistent 3esults

?elia"ility relates to ho) co!siste!t a!d dee!da"le a test is. A relia"le test carried

out i! the circumsta!ces, )ith the same articia!ts, should al)ays gi'e !ear e!ough

the same results. $here are di(ere!t tyes of relia"ility-

o +!ter!al relia"ility ; ?esults )ithi! the exerime!t should "e co!siste!t

throughout.o Exter!al relia"ility ; ?esults should "e reeata"le a!d co!siste!t regardless of

)he! the exerime!t is "ei!g carried out.o +!ter6rater relia"ility ; test should gi'e co!siste!t results regardless of the

researcher.

alidity and Accurate 3esults

Calidity measures ho) )ell a test measures )hat it claims to. $here are di(ere!t tyes

of 'alidity-

o +!ter!al Calidity ; $he exte!t to )hich the results are caused "y the +C a(ecti!g

the /C.

o Exter!al Calidity ; 2o) ge!eraliza"le the results are to the )ider oulatio!.o Ecological Calidity ; 2o) )ell the results re@ect real life.

Calidity ca! "e assessed i! di(ere!t )ays-

o >ace 'alidity6 does it loo# li#e its realLo omariso! ; does it comare )ell )ith existi!g data that is already acceted

as 'alidLo o!curre!cy ; do the results correlate to existi!g dataL +f yes, the! the data has

some 'alidity.

+oth can e impro/ed

$here are se'eral )ays "oth relia"ility a!d 'alidity ca! "e imro'ed-

o Pilot studies; trial ru!s of a! exerime!t that highlight if a!ythi!g !eeds

cha!gi!g. Calidity a!d relia"ility of the test is assessed i! ad'a!ced )hich gi'es

oortu!ity for imro'eme!t.

o


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o Standardising research; creati!g secic i!structio!s a!d rocedures to do

the test )ith. $his results i! co!siste!cy amo!g ho) the rocedure is carried

out. $his reduces the romi!e!ce of di(ere!t 'aria"les i!ltrati!g the

exerime!t. $his )ill therefore hel to imro'e internal /alidity, e%ternal

reliaility, a!d inter9rater reliaility.

$thics

&mportant &ssues=

Ethics are imorta!t i! sychology. Psychology should try to imro'e u!dersta!di!g,

a!d "e "e!ecial to eole i! imro'i!g their *uality of life. Oithi! this, sychologists

must "eha'e i! a! ethical ma!!er. Ethical guideli!es are i! lace "y the British

Psychological Society 8BPS9 i! the M. 2o)e'er, are these ade*uate a!d aroriatelyaliedL

1he $thical Guidelines ,+PS-

+!formed o!se!t

o BPS guideli!es state that e'eryo!e should "e gi'e! +o !o) aims a!d !ature of study "efore the "egi!!i!g

o Al)ays #!o) that they ha'e the right to )ithdra) at a!y time

BM$R

o M!der %Js ca!t gi'e co!se!t 8though a are!t ca!9o Pu"lic1 !aturalistic o"ser'atio! may !ot ha'e co!se!t6 "ut must o!ly ta#e lace

i! oe! au"lic areas )here eole )ould exect to o"ser'edo +ssues may still "e raised after co!se!t. 0e!ges 8%DHN9 re'ie)ed % MS

studies a!d fou!d DH of them had!t gi'e! all the i!formatio! i! their co!se!t

forms.

/ecetio!

o +f articia!ts ha'e "ee! decei'ed they ca!!ot gi'e + 8see a"o'e9

o 2o)e'er, some researchers aims must "e hidde! other)ise the exerime!t

)ould !ot "e 'alid

$he BPS guideli!es state that decetio! is o!ly )arra!ted if there is a


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as is ossi"le should "e gi'e!, e'e! if it is o!ly a small amou!t, so that articia!ts

are !ot comletely decei'ed3 the se'erity of decetio! di(ers, for examle, 0ilgrams

study 'ersus a! u!exected memory test6 t)o di(ere!t le'els of decetio!.

Protectio! from 2arm

?is# of harm should "e !o greater tha! that of e'eryday life. Some eole may faceris#s i! their li'e, "ut that does !ot )arra!t lea'i!g articia!ts i! this situatio!

'ul!era"le. $his is hard to determi!e as researchers do !ot al)ays #!o) )hat might

"e harmful.

/e"rie!g

o ?etur! articia!ts to re6 research stateo Esecially imorta!t if decetio! has "ee! used

?esearchers must fully exlai! )hat has hae!ed, a!d tell the articia!ts that they

may )ithdra) their data if they do !ot agree or )arra!t the cause.

o!de!tiality

o 7o articia!t should "e ide!tia"le

?esearchers ca!!ot use !ames i! reorts, a!d articia!ts must "e )ar!ed if their

data is !ot goi!g to "e comletely a!o!ymous. 2o)e'er, some grous may "e easily

ide!tia"le.

Se!siti'e Social +ssues

>i!di!gs from research may )ell highlight social issues. Socially se!siti'e research is

that )hich is de!ed as ha'i!g imlicatio!s for the i!di'iduals i! the research, or forsocial grous i! the )ider oulatio!. Examles i!clude ge!e research, or )here a

factor such as someo!es race or sexuality is used as the +C.

Proaility and Signi'cance

&nferential Statistics and Chance

You ca! !e'er "e %& certai! that results are !ot do)! to cha!ce3 so i!stead of

proving a hyothesis, you ha'e to "e co!te!t )ith !di!g out )hether its likely to

"e true or !ot. $his is called statistical signicance. +f they are, the! it mea!s that

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they actually mea! somethi!g3 ho)e'er, if they are !ot, it mea!s that your results

ha'e hae!ed y cha!ce a!d you ca!t actually add a!ythi!g i!to them.

>sing Statistical 1ests

$he rst thi!g you do )rite a !ull hyothesis. At this stage, you assume this is correct.

You the! choose a sig!ica!ce le'el6 the le'el of roof that youre loo#i!g for. $he

smaller the sig!ica!ce le'el, the stro!ger the e'ide!ce that youre loo#i!g for that

your results are !ot


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Choosing a signicance level is a compromise. I# the margin you choose is too big

then you risk a Type error/ too small, a Type 0 error is risked.

arious Ways to test signi'cance

You ca! !e'er "e %& sure that a hyothesis is correct. Sig!ica!ce le'els are

assig!ed to esta"lish the ro"a"ility of a results "ei!g do)! to cha!ce. +!fere!tialstatistical tests hel to decide )hether to re


45/54

)ea#!ess of i!dee!de!t grous desig!s is that the articia!ts i! o!e grou may "e

'ery di(ere!t o! some ra!dom 'aria"le from the other grou, e.g. o!e grou may


46/54

for a sig!ica!t di(ere!ce. +f the aim is to test for a correlatio! "et)ee! t)o

'aria"les, the! the aim is to test for a sig!ica!t associatio!8

:e'el of 0easureme!ts1 $yes of /ata

/ata ca! "e roduced at !omi!al, ordi!al a!d i!ter'al le'els-

.ominal datais the most "asic le'el of measureme!t. A! examle is a fre*ue!cy

cou!t of a disti!ct category, such as the !um"er of aggressi'e a!d !o!6aggressi'e

acts i! a! o"ser'atio!.


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)ann9Whitney > test

0a!!6Ohit!ey M is a test of sig!ica!t di(ere!ce for u!related data. $he research

desig! must roduce u!related data 8e.g. i!dee!de!t measures9. $he le'el of

measureme!t ca! "e either ordi!al or i!ter'al.

Chi9suare test

hi6s*uare tests for di(ere!ce )he! the data is !omi!al a!d u!related. $he research

desig! must roduce u!related data 8e.g. i!dee!de!t measures9. $he le'el of

measureme!t must "e !omi!al 8e.g. categories9.

Analysis of ;ualitati/e (ata


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o ="ser'ers may "e "iased i! ho) they i!terret data. $herefore, i!ter6 o"ser'er

relia"ility !eeds to "e esta"lished.o Ethical reaso!s mea! that !aturalistic o"ser'atio!s ca! o!ly "e do!e )here

eole )ould exect to "e o"ser'ed

Particia!t ="ser'atio!

$his is )here articia!ts ully structured i!ter'ie)s are )here

articia!ts a!s)er a xed set of *uestio!s, a!d this is !ot cha!ged for a!y

articia!t. $his creates *ua!tati'e data. +!formal a!d1 or M!structured i!ter'ie)s

ofte! ha'e a "asis, "ut there is !o set structure, a!d *uestio!s are oe! for

articia!ts to a!s)er ho) they choose. $his creates *ualitati'e data.

Ad'a!tages

o >ully Structured +!ter'ie)s are *uic# a!d easy to a!alyseo +! a comromise, "oth closed a!d oe! *uestio!s could "e used to gai! a mix of

data tyeso M!structured i!ter'ie)s ca! create lots of detailed a!d i!sightful *ualitati'e

data.

/isad'a!tages

o :eadi!g a!d dou"le6 "arrelled *uestio!s are articular issues for researchers toa'oid

o Qualitati'e data is hard to a!alyse

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o Structured i!ter'ie)s limit ho) the articia!t ca! reso!d

ase Studies

ase Studies are detailed studies of o!e i!di'idual, grou, or e'e!t, usi!g ma!y

di(ere!t methods.

Ad'a!tages

o :ots of data is o"tai!ed, )hich other studies simly ca!!ot gi'eo $his data may gi'e i!sights i!to rare situatio!s

/isad'a!tages

o Caria"les are !ot co!trolled i! the study mea!i!g a si!gle cause a!d e(ect

ca!!ot "e o"tai!edo ?esults ca! rarely "e ge!eralised to the )hole oulatio!, as the samle sizes

are or examle-

o A!alysis of a tra!scrit or 'ideo i!'ol'es ide!tifyi!g stateme!ts. /i(ere!t

researchers may read di(ere!t thi!gs i!to each stateme!t

o Such a!alysis may gi'e "asis for hyothesis. $he hyothesis is therefore grou!di! the data, ho)e'er, it is still su"


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o +t is imossi"le to chec# )hich categories to use, or )hether stateme!ts use a

secic category.o +t is dicult to ma#e decisio!s o! )hat to i!clude i! the )rite u )ith *ualitati'e

data.o $here are su"


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+ar Charts

Bar harts ca! "e used. $hey-

o Are used to rese!t !o!6 co!ti!uous data 8)he! data falls i!to categories9o Bar charts colum!s do !ot touch each other.o Sho) a full 'ertical scale, or sho) )he! it is !ot rese!t, as this ca! other)ise

"e misleadi!g

6istograms!

2istograms ca! "e used. $hey-

o Are used to sho) data o! a co!ti!uous scale of measureme!t

o Each colum! sho)s a class i!ter'al, a!d the colum!s touch each othero All i!ter'als are sho)!, e'e! if there are ! scores for them

o +t is the height of a colum! that sho)s the !um"er of 'alues i! a! i!ter'al

#reuency Polygons

>re*ue!cy Polygo!s ca! "e used. $hey-

o Are similar to histograms "ut use li!es i!stead of "arso a! "e com"i!ed together. $his is useful )he! ma#i!g comariso!s "et)ee!

t)o thi!gs

Scatter Graphs

Scatter Grahs ca! "e used. $hey-

o Are used to sho) relatio!shis "et)ee! t)o co6'aria"les. A correlatio! co6

ecie!t is roduced, ra!gi!g from 6% 8a erfect li!ear !egati'e correlatio!9 to

X% 8a erfect li!ear ositi'e correlatio!9 i!dicates !o correlatio!. +! correlatio!

studies, this is sho)! o! scatter grahs.

$hese sho) correlatio!s. A correlatio! ca! "e either- ositi'e, !egati'e, or !o!6

existe!t. Positi'e correlatio!s are )he! the +C i!creases3 so does the /C. 7egati'e is

)he! the +C i!creases, the /C decreases. 7o correlatio! is rese!t )he! there is !o

li!ear atter! of the +C cha!gi!g the /C.

3eporting on Psychological &n/estigations

Speci'c Structure of 3eports

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All of this should "e )ritte! i! the Nrderso!5 a!d i! formal la!guage. A reort should

i!clude-

1itle; )hat the study is a"out, a!d ide!tify the +C a!d /C.

Astract; o!cise summary of )hat the study is a"out, ofte! !o more tha! %I

)ords. +t should i!clude a "rief descritio! a"out the aims a!d hyotheses, themethod, a!d the results. +t should also co!tai! @a)s to the study6 this is a lot to t

i!to a ti!y sace.

&ntroduction ; ge!eral o'er'ie) of the area "ei!g studied, i!cludi!g existi!g

theories, a!d closely relati!g existi!g studies.

Aim and 6ypothesis; the aim is, i! o!e se!te!ce, somethi!g that gi'es the urose

of the study. $he hyothesis is )hat is actually goi!g to "e tested, a!d should i!cludethe +C a!d /C.

)ethod ; $he method descri"es ho) the exerime!t )as carried out. Someo!e

should "e a"le to relicate the study from the method, so it !eeds to "e detailed. $he

method should i!clude i!formatio! o!-

o $he desig! of the exerime!t, i!cludi!g- the research method3 the research

desig!3 the 'aria"les3 order e(ects3 co!trolli!g extra!eous 'aria"les3 materialsused3 ethical issues "ei!g dealt )ith

o $he rocedure used, i!cludi!g a "lo)6"y6"lo) accou!t of )hat hae!ed, a!d

ho) the articia!ts #!e) )hat )as hae!i!g through ho) i!formed co!se!t

)as gathered

o $he use of articia!ts, i!cludi!g- the !um"er3 the demograhics3 a!d the

samli!g method

o $he resources used, i!cludi!g materials a!d aaratus.

3esults; i! the form of either descriti'e or i!fere!tial statistics, results should "e

clear a!d i!clude grahs, ta"les, a!d charts. $his also !eeds to i!clude )hy certai!

tests )ere chose!, a!d exlai! a!y u!exected !di!gs.

(iscussion; this co!tai!s a! exla!atio! of the !di!gs, the imlicatio!s of the

study, the limitatio!s a!d modicatio!s of the study, the relatio!shi to "ac#grou!d

research a!d suggestio!s for further research.

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3eferences; this co!tai!s all "oo#s a!d "ac#grou!d research you ha'e used, li#e a

"i"liograhy.

Appendices; a!y materials used, as )ell as ra) data a!d statistical calculatio!s.

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$/aluating 1heories

$/aluating 1heories 1he )ythical Sheet

Criteria 7ey Point,s- to ConsiderAssumption

s

Ohat assumtio!s u!deri! the theoryL 2o) logical a!d cohere!t are

the assumtio!sL

$ecti/enes

s

/oes the theory ro'ide a cohere!t exla!atio! of sychologyL +s the

theory em"edded i! a! aroach that ca! address a )ider ra!ge of

sychological he!ome!aL Are there imorta!t thi!gs it ca!1 ca!!ot

exlai!L6ypotheses /oes the theory ge!erate testa"le hyothesesL

$/idence

/oes research suort or challe!ge the theoryL 2o) sou!d is the

e'ide!ce for a!d agai!stL /oes the e'ide!ce come from a ra!ge of

research methods or

Documents

PSYA4 Study Guide