Putting Error Correction

into Proper Perspective

Georgette Ioup

Department of English

University of New Orleans

Changing Theories of Language teaching

Stage 1: Grammar Translation Stage 2: Audio Lingual Method

(ALM) Stage 3: a.Communicative Competence

(W. Rivers, 1968) b. L1 Acq. = L2 Acq.

(Dulay & Burt, 1974)

Krashen’s Monitor Model

Five Hypotheses

Acquisition / Learning Hypothesis Natural Order Hypothesis Monitor Hypothesis Input Hypothesis Affective Filter Hypothesis

Acquisition / Learning Acquisition: Subconscious processes Learning: Conscious formal knowledge

Formal Learning

Learned Grammar

Monitor

Natural Input Acquired

Grammar

Language Output

Input Hypothesis Relates to Acquisition only. We acquire by receiving

Comprehensible input – input that is a little beyond our current level.

Current Level – i Comprehensible Input - i + 1

Critical Responses to Krashen’s Theory

Higgs & Clifford, 1982A. Terminal 2s:

Street learners with uncorrected errors

B. Advocates “accuracy first’(See also, Valette, 1991)

Critical Responses to Krashen’s Theory

White, 1987Certain types of errors need rule instruction.

L1 French – L2 English

1. Mary studied the lesson carefully2. Carefully Mary studied the lesson3. *Mary studied carefully the lesson

Critical Responses to Krashen’s Theory

Long, 1991

Focus on Form, not Focus on Forms

Focus on Forms: Teaching isolated rulesFocus on Form: teaching rules in

context

Critical Responses to Krashen’s Theory

Ellis, 1990

Forms that contribute little to communication tend to be ignored. They need attention.

Critical Responses to Krashen’s Theory

Schmidt, 1994

Must notice the gap. When there is a discrepancy

between a TL form and an IL form, adults won’t notice it unless attention is drawn to it.

In Support of Krashen’s Theory

VanPatten, 1988

A. No evidence that “terminal learners are terminal.”

B. Early focus on grammar will inhibit developing fluency.

In Support of Krashen’s Theory

Schwartz, 1993

LAD can only accept natural input

• Includes syntactic rules of Universal Grammar

• Excludes morphology and lexiconThese two can be learned

formally.

In Support of Krashen’s Theory

Paradis, 1994

Explicit Knowledge -> Declarative Memory

– Consciously accessible knowledge– Facts and Concepts

Ex: Formal knowledge of grammar rules

In Support of Krashen’s Theory

Paradis, 1994

Implicit Knowledge -> Procedural Memory

– Information derived unconsciously– Skills and Processes

Ex: Natural language acquisition

In Support of Krashen’s Theory

Paradis, 1994

Declarative memory cannot translate into procedural memory.

Each uses a different part of the brain.

Sounding AlarmsThe American Scene

Valette, 1991, Modern Language Journal

The level of foreign language proficiency has deteriorated in the last 25 years. The median proficiency score for foreign language majors is now probably no higher than 1+.

Two causes: “contact with inaccurate models and the acceptance (or non-correction) of inaccurate speech production.”

Sounding Alarms

The British Scene

Mitchell, 2000, Applied Linguistics

“Grenfell (1999) has documented current disillusionment and uncertainty among the MFL professional community in England with the present National Curriculum/GCSE framework.”

“…despite the focus on communication, a disappointing proportion of pupils are making the transition to creative control of the TL system.”

Research Comparing Implicit and Explicit Language Teaching

Scott, 1989Explicit condition performed better

Alenan, 1995The groups who received rules performed

better

Robinson, 1995Instructed groups better on easy rules

VanPatten & Oikkenon, 1996Explicit rule group did worseConflicting results could be due to monitoring

Research on Error Correction in Writing

It is effective – improves writing proficiency

– Cardell & Carno (1982)

It gives no advantage over no correction– Fathman & Walley (1990)

It is ineffective – doesn’t improve writing proficiency

– Kepner (1991)– Semke (1984)

It impedes proficiency development– Sheppard (1992)

Research on Error Correction in Writing

Truscott, 1996A. Agrees with Krashen and

Schwartz According to learning theory, structures learned through error correction can’t become part of the internal grammar.

B. Advocates an end to grammar correction in writingIt is ineffective and harmful.

Research on Error Correction in Writing

Ferris (1999)

*Argues for a role for grammar correction.

*Claims studies are inclusive.*Truscott’s radical stance is

premature.

Weakness in Focus-on-Form Research

My problem with focus-on-form studies:

They cover a short period of time.

Similar view expressed in DeKeyser, 1977

Two Questions

1. Can formal instruction help, if formal learning cannot become part of the acquired grammar?

2. Why might it take a long time for the formal learning to become effective?

Answer to Question 1Can instruction help?

Paradis (1994), DeKeyser (2002), Hulstijn (2002)

Explicit Knowledge -> Declarative Memory

– Consciously accessible knowledge– Facts and Concepts

Ex: Formal knowledge of grammar rules

Answer to Question 1Can instruction help?

Paradis (1994), DeKeyser (2002), Hulstijn (2002)

Implicit Knowledge -> Procedural Memory

– Information derived unconsciously– Skills and Processes

Ex: Natural language acquisition

Answer to Question 1Can instruction help?

Paradis (1994), DeKeyser (2002), Hulstijn (2002)

Declarative memory cannot translate into procedural memory.

Each uses a different part of the brain.

Answer to Question 1Can instruction help?

Anderson (1995), DeKeyser (2002), Hulstijn (2002), Paradis (1994)

Each time one uses a metalinguistic declarative rule,

One simultaneously builds unconscious, implicit procedural knowledge.

Answer to Question 1Can instruction help?

Hulstijn, 2002

Metalinguistic knowledge doesn’t actually transform into implicit knowledge.

An implicit network that is separate from and in addition to the explicit system is independently constructed.

Answer to Question 2Why might it take a long

time?

McLaughlin (1990), DeKeyser (2001)

Complex skills start as controlled processes. Given:* Time* Attention

They become automatic routines.

It is practice which accomplishes this.

Answer to Question 2Why might it take a long

time?

Shriffrin & Schneider, 1986The development of automaticity for

generalized skills depends on high levels of practice.

McLaughlin, 1990“A skill must be practiced again and

again and again, until no attention is required for performance.”

Answer to Question 2Why might it take a long

time?

Anderson, 1995

A second factor is important for automaticity – feedback.

My StudyJenny

Immigrated to the U.S. at age 10 Mainstreamed into regular classes, no ESL Entered university at age 19 Many fossilized grammar errors Required to take ESL classes Needed 7 semesters plus one summer

tutoring to destabilize her errors I argue that rule isolation and error

correction destabilized her fossilized structures

Type of Instruction Given

Some formal rule presentation Consistent feedback on errors

in written work Revision with error correction

required

Two Contributions that Instruction Provided

1. Made her aware of which forms were incorrect

2. Gave her the necessary practice to change her grammar

Table 1 Proficiency Scores on Initial

Placement and End of Semester Exams

MTAC MTELP COMPInitial Placement 88 85 58

Intensive 90 86 78

Nonintensive I

Time 1 87 88 81

Time 2 92 87 81

Time 3 90 81 85

Nonintensive 2

Time 1 87 89 89

Time 2 93 89 87

Time 3 90 90 88

Figure 1. T-unit analyses of 200-word samples at 3 different levels.

Figure 2. Mean percent of error-free T-units per sample at 3 different levels.

Table 2Comparison of Selected Errors

by Level

Prep Tense Article Verb Form Plural-s

Entry 4 18 19 15 9

Midway 1 4 6 4 6

Exit 4 2 1 6 4

Persistent Errors

1. Because of + S“Because of my father’s restaurant short of hand.”

2. Make + Infinitive“made the car to go in reverse”

Finally eradicated at exit level

Conclusion

Focus-on-form combined with abundant contextualized practice and feedback can aid a communicative learning approach.