Q&A for Liquid Fuels

BESECTIONB,ENG.CHEMISTRY Dr.A.Sharon,AppliedChemsitry,[email protected]:LIQUIDFUEL

1

Composition of crude oil, processing of crude oil, Refining, Reforming & Cracking, Synthetic Oil. Diesel: Diesel engine ignition temperature, Flash point, Fire point, Smoke point, Cetane no. Petrol: Spark ignition IC engine, Gasoline fuel, Grading gasoline, Knocking, Additives & Dopants, Octane No. Alternative fuels: Propane, Methanol, Ethanol Q.1. a)WhatisPetroleum?b)DiscusstheaveragecompositionofPetroleum.c)BrieflydiscussaboutthemajorconstitutensofPetroleum.

Ans: a) Petroleumisoneoftheimportantliquidfuelswhichhaveextensiveuseinindustriesaswellasforthedomesticpurposes.ThetermPetroleumiscomingfromtheLatinwordsPetrameansrockandOleummeansoil.Hencepetroleumisalsoknownasrockoilwhichisfounddeepinthesolideearthscrust.Miningofpetroleumiscarriedoutbydrilingholesandsinkingpipesuptotheoilbearingzonesintheearthcrust.b) AverageComposition:PetroleumisamixtureofdifferenthydrocarbonswithsmallfractionsoforganiccompoundscontaiingOxygen,Nitrogen,Sulphuretc.Thehydrocarbonspresent inthepetroleumaremainlystraightchainparaffins,olefinsandaromaticcompounds.Theaveragecompositionofcrudepetroleumisasfollows:Carbon: 8085%, Hydrogen: 1015%, Nitrogent: 0.31.0%Sulphur: 0.1%3.5% andOxygen: 0.1%1%.c) ConstituentsofPetroleumThemajorconstituentsarefollowings:i)Hydrocarbons: Approx70%Normal,BranchedandCycloalkanes.LowerBoiling

fractionsalsocontainalkylbenzenes.HigherBoilingfractionscontainpolynucleararomaticslikenaphthalenes.Terpenesarealsopresenttosmallextent.

ii)Sulphur: H2S,Thiols,Thiopene,Thioalkanesetc.iii)Oxygen: C4C9carboxylicacidsoccurinlowboilingfractions

Naphthenicacidoccurinhighboilingfractions. Traceamountsofphenolsandcresolsalsopresent

iv)Nitrogen: Pyrrole,Indole,Pyridine,Quinolineetc.v)Inorganic: Organomettalic:CU,Fe,NianVareverylittleextent

Q.2. WritedownthenameofmostpopoularandverstileliquidfuelobtainedfromPetroleum.

Ans: Petrol(Gasoline),Diesel,andKerosenQ.3. WritedownfewnamesofimportantchemicalsobtaineddirectlyorindirectlyfromPetroleum

Ans: alkane,alkenes,benzene,ethanol,aceticacid,styreneetc.Q.4. Writedownthemajorsteps,whichinvolveinrefiningofcrudeoil.

Ans:Theprocessofpetroleum(crudeoil)refiningincludesthesequenceofsteps:Step1: RemovalofWater(CottrellsMethod)Thecrudepetroleumisextremelystableemulsionofoilandsaltwaterasitisderivedfromearthcrust.Thesaltcanbeseparated(demulsification)fromwaterbyallowingthecrudeoilto flow through twohighlychargedparallelplaceelectrodes.Thecolloidalwaterparticlescoalescetoformlargesizedropletsandareeasilyseparatedfromoil.


2

Step2: RemovalofharmfulsulphurcompoundsSulphur atom has the addiction twoards CuO (Cupric oxide). Thus to remove sulphurcompounds fromoil, it is treatedwithCuO.The resultant solution containsprecipitateofsolidcoppersulphide(CuS),whichiseasilyseparatedbyfiltration.Step3: FractionalDistillationThecrudepetroleumistakeninanironretortanditisheateduptot400Ctemperaturesothatallvolatilematterareevaporated.Thehotpetroleumvapouristhenpassedthroughacylindrical column (fractionation column)which contains a number of horizontally placedtraysatshortgap.Eachtrayisconnectedtoasmallchimney.Asthevapourmovesupward,fractionalcondensationtakesplaceatdifferentheightsofthecolumn.Highboilingfractionsarecondensedfirstfollowedbylowboilingfractions.

Figure1 FractionalDistillationofcrudepetroleum

S.No. Constituent BoilingRange #CarbonandUses

1 UncondensedGas 30C C1C4;DomesticFuel(LPG)

2 PetroleumEther 30C70C C5C7;EssentialOil,SolventforFats

3 Petrol(Gasoline) 40C120C C5C9;AsmotorfuelforI.Cengine

4 NaphthaorSolventSpirit 120C180C C9C10;Solventforpaintandvarnishes.

5 KeroseneOil 180C250C C10C16;JetEngineFuel,IlluminatingStoveFuel

6 DieselOil 250C320C C10C18;DieselEngineFuel

7 HeavyOil 320C400C C17C30;ShipFuel,MetallurgicalFurnaces

8 Residue(AsphaltandPetroleumCoke)

>400C C30andabove;Waterproofingroofs,moulding,electrode


3

Q.5. Drawalinediagramtodescribefractionaldistillationprocessofcrudepetroleum

Ans. ExplaintheearlierdiscussedFigureandTableQ.6. Brieflydiscussaboutthemostimportantliquidfuele.g.gasoline,keroseneanddieseloil. Ans.

i. Petrol or Gasoline: Gasoline is most important fraction of petroleum (40120), Theapproximate composition of Gasoline is C: 84%, H: 15%, and N,O, S: Low. The mainconstituentofpetrol isthemixtureofpentane(C5H12)andOctane(C8H18).Petrol isvolatileinflammableandhasextensiveusesasfuelsforICengines,automobilesandairplanes.TheCalorificValueofpetrolisabout11250Kcal/kg.ii.KeroseneOil(180250):Mainuseindomesticfuelinstoves.ItalsouseinJetenginefueland for producing oil gas. The main constituent of kerosene oil is decane (C10H22) andhexadecane(C16H34).iii.DieselOil:(250320).Themixtureofhigherhydrocarbons likepentadecane(C15H32)andOctadecane(C18H38).Itisusedmainlyasafuelindieselengine.ThecalorificvalueofDieseloilis10000Kcal/kg.

Q7. WhatismeantbyStraightRunPetrol.?

Ans. ThemostimportantfractionofpetroleumobtainedbyfractionaldistillationispetrolorgasolineasithasextensiveuseinICengineofmotorvehicles.Unfortunately,only20%ofthetotalpetroleumispetrolorgasoline.ThequalityofthesocalledStraightRungasolineisnotgoodenoughand it isusedonlyafterproperblending. It contains surplusamountofheavierpetroleum fractions. To avoid suchdifficulties, theheavy andmiddle fractionsofhydrocarbon are cracked to get more useful and volatile petrol. The quality of petrolobtainedbycrackingismuchbetterthanStraightRunPetrol.

Q.8. whatismeantbycrackingofpetroleum?Brieflydiscussaboutthemethodofcracking. Ans.Cracking is thedecompositionofhighmolecularweighthydrocarbonsofhighboilingpoint into simpler such as light hydrocarbons, by the breaking of carboncarbon bonds in theprecursors.Thus,thecracking isthebreakdownofa largealkane intosmaller,moreusefulalkanesandanalkene.

LongChainAlkaneSmallerAlkanes+Alkenes+H2

ThemethodsofCrackingaremainlyofthetwotypes:ThermalcrackingandCatalyticcracking.


4

ThermalCracking: The thermal cracking is performed by heating the heavy oils (heavy ormiddle fractions of petroleum) under high pressure in absence of Catalyst. In thermal cracking,heavier and larger hydrocarbon molecules break down and produce smaller molecules of lowmolecularweightparaffins,olefinandsomeH2.

Thermalcrackingisoftwotypes,liquidphaseandvapourphasethermalcracking.LiquidPhaseCracking: OctaneRating6570,MoretimerequiredVapourPhaseCracking:OctaneRating>70,Lesstimerequired.HoweverOilshouldbevapourizable.CatalyticCracking: To obtain the better quality petrol in higher quantity, the cracking ofpetroleum is done in presence of some suitable catalysts like Aluminum Silicate [Al2(SiO3)3] orAluminumoxide(Al2O3).Forcatalyticcrackingthetemperatureandpressurerequiredismuchlowerthanthermalcracking.CatalyticCrackingcanbedonebytwodifferentways:i)FixedBedCatalyticCracking ii)MovingBedCatalyticCracking


5

Q.9. Explainschematicallyi)FixedBedCatalyticCracking ii)MovingBedCatalyticCrackingmethodsofobtaininggasoline.i)FixedBedCatalyticCracking

TEMPERATURE: 425450CPRESSURE 1.5kg/cm2YIELD: Conversion40%intogasoline,with24%Carbonformation.Carbonadsorptiononcatalyticbedcausingcatalystquenchingandrequiresreactivation.Thustheburningoffmethodneedstousetoremovethedepositedcarbonfromcatalyst.Duringthereactivation,thevapoursaredivertedthroughanothercatalystchamber.ii)MovingBedCatalyticCracking

Cycloneallowsonlythecrackedoillvapourstopassonthefractionaingcolumn,butretainsallthecatalysitpowderinthereactor.TheCarbonadsorbedcatalyst(heavier)setllestothebottom,fromwhereitforcedbyairblowertotheregeneratorchamber(600C)forburningofftheadsorbedcarbon.Regeneratedcatalystwillmixedwithfreshbatchofheavyoilvapourforfurthercracking.


6

Q.10. Discuss the advantages associated with Catalytic Cracking over Thermal Cracking

I. Quality of Petrol obtained by Catalytic Cracking is better than thermal cracking II. The quantity of petrol obtained is higher in catalytic cracking.

III. In catalytic cracking no external fuel is required. IV. A much lower pressure is sufficient for catalytic cracking V. The product obtained by catalytic cracking contains higher amount of aromatic

compounds and hence it has better anti-knock properties. VI. The cost involved in production of low molecular weight hydrocarbons by catalytic

cracking is much lower as high temperature and pressure is not needed in the process.

Q.11. Discuss the gasoline production by catalytic cracking with an example.

Catalytic cracking increases the proportion of gasoline and also produces alkenes and branched-chain hydrocarbons by isomerization. Thus the product is high quality motor fuel, its octane number being greatly improved. Q.12. Illustratethemechanismfora)Thermalandb)CatalyticCracking.a)Itisbelievedthatthermalcrackinggothroughwithfreeradicalmechanism.GenerallyfreeradicalreactionprocessthroughwelldefinedpathwaysvizInitiation,PropagationandTermination.Illustrationwithanexampleofthermalcrackingofnnonane:

b) Catalytic Cracking: The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalyst (silica or alumina based), which promote a heterolytic breakage of bonds yielding pairs of


7

ions, usually a carbocation and unstable hydride anion. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination.

Duetothermalcracking,firstasmallamountofAlkenesisformedwhichgetsprotonatedattheacidicsitesofthecatalyst.

Thechainofreactionsiseventuallyterminatedbyradicalorionrecombination.

Q. 13 What is knocking? In the internal combustion engine, the mixture of petrol vapour and air is ignited. The efficiency of I.C. engine depends on compression ratio which in turn depends on the quality of the nature of components present in the petrol used. In presence of some specific components, the petrol burns with a high rate and the remaining portion of the fuel-air mixture burns instantaneously and produces an explosive violence or metallic rattling known as knocking. Due to knocking the efficiency of engine decreases. It is observed that the components like straight-chain alkanes produce greater amount of knocking compared to the branched chain alkanes. Q.14. Define the term Octane number or Octane rating The anti-knocking efficiency of a fuel is measure by its octane rating or octane number. The anti-knocking property of a fuel cannot be expressed by simple numerical value and hence an arbitrary scale of octane rating was introduced. According to this scale, Iso-octane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) possess higher anti-knock properties and n-heptane possess lower anti-knock properties than any commercially used petrol. Arbitrarily, it is considered that iso-octane has octane rating 100 and for n-heptane, the rating is 0 (zero). The octane number or octane rating of a fuel is the % of iso-octane in the mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane which has same knocking characteristics of a fuel under consideration in the same set of conditions. Improvement by Additives to increase octane rating: Addition of some foreign hydrocarbons to the fuel can enhance the anti-knock properties of fuel. These additives are called anti-knock agents. Anti-knock agents, however not recommended due to its toxic and pollutant nature i) Tetra Ethyl Lead [Et4Pb] or TEL and ii) Diethyl telluride [(Et)2Te]


8

In IC chamber, TEL is ignited which produces Pb and PbO. These compound acts as chain inhibitors by arresting the chain propagation process of the explosive chain reaction responsible for knocking. Ethyl bromide is also requires to add to remove Pb and PbO as volatile PbBr2. Unleaded Petrol: The octane rating can be increased by addition of some compound like iso-pentane, iso-octane, ethyl benzene, methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) etc which do not contain any lead compound. Q. 15. Explain Reforming The antiknock characteristics of gasoline can be improved by reforming. This in effect brings about structural modifications in the components of feed-stock either by thermally or catalytically. TEL addition can improve Octane No: Tetraethyl Lead (Et4Pb). 1,2-dibromoethane is requires to remove Pd deposition as PdBr2 volatile and serious pollutant. Therefore no lead petrol is recommended

The major chemical modifications that occur during reforming process are: Isomerisation, Alkylation and Cyclisation. Isomerization

Alkylation Isobutylene produced as a by-product of cracking of petroleum, alkylates isobutane to form isoocatane in the presence of c. H2SO4

isobutane

+

Isobutylene

H2SO4

2,2,4-trimethylpentane

Octane No: 100 Aromatization The C6-C8 straight chain alkanes in the presence of Pt catalyst at 500 C, yield a mixture of benzene, toluene and xylenes (BTX)

The gasolines prepared by isomerization and alkylation, when blended with BTX are about 90 octane. This is the fuel that is now sold as no-lead gasoline.


9

Synthetic Fuel

1. Water Gas (Blue Gas): It is mixture of combustible CO and H2 and a little amount of

non-combustible gases like CO2 and N2. Water gas is also called blue gas as it burns with a blue flame. The average composition of water gas is: CO: 41%, H2: 51%, N2: 4%, CO2: 4% The calorific value of water gas is about 2800 kcal/kg Preparation: Water gas is prepared by passing steam over red-hot bed of coke or coal to a about 900-1000 C C+ H2O -- CO + H2 - 29 kcal Use: i) Production of H2 gas, ii) Preparation of synthetic petrol

2. Producer Gas: Producer Gas is a mixture of combustible Carbon monoxide (CO) gas and non combustible N2 gas. The average composition of producer gas is: CO: 20-30%, H2: 8-12%, N2: 50-55%, CO2: 2-3% The calorific value of producer gas is about 900-1300 kcal/kg Preparation: Producer Gas preparation is a two step process: a) Oxidation: In this step, Carbon of coke is oxidized in presence of air i) C + O2 ---------- CO2 + 97 kcal ii) C + O2 ----------- CO + 53 kcal b) Reduction: In this step CO2 and steam reacts with Carbon or Coal to produce Hydrogen and CO i) C + CO2 --2CO - 36 kcal ii) C + H2O -- CO + H2 -29 Kcal iii) C + 2H2O -- CO2 + 2H2 -19 kcal Use: Producer gas is generally used as: i) Reducing agent in metallurgical activities. ii) Fuel for coke oven plant, open hearth furnace etc.

3. Coal Gas: Coal gas mainly contains H2 and methane. It is colourless gas having characteristic odour. The average composition of coal gas is: Hydrogen (H2): 40%, Methane (CH4): 32%, Carbon monoxide (CO): 7%, Acetylene (C2H2): 25%, Ehtylene (C2H4): 3%, Nitrogen (N2): 4%, Carbon dioxide (CO2): 1% and other gases The calorific value of coal gas is about 4900 kcal/m3 Preparation: Coal gas is prepared by heating coal in absence of air at about 1300 C Coal ------------- Coke + Coal Gas The coal gas thus produced is not pure and with the help of different process, its impurity is removed to make is usable. Use: Coal gas can be used as: I An illuminating gas for lighting. ii. To produce reducing atmosphere in metallurgical industries.


10

Synthetic Oil Conversion of Coal into Liquid Fuels

Petrol can be synthesized by any one of the following methods: 1. Fisher-Tropsch Method 2. Bergius Process 1. Fisher-Tropsch Method: The raw material is the hard coke which is converted into water gas (CO+H2) by passing steam over red hot coke.

A mixture of hydrogen and water gas (CO + H2) is first purified by passing through Fe2O3 (to remove H2S) and then into a mixture of Fe2O3+Na2CO3 (to remove organic sulphur compounds). The purified gas is compressed to 5 to 25 atom and then passed through a convertor maintained at about 200-300 C. The convertor is packed with a catalyst, consisting of a mixture of Co, Th, MgO and Keiselguhr earth. A mixture of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons yield from this process, after condensation liquid resemble with crude oil. The similar fractional distillation process needs to repeat to isolate gasoline and high boiling fractions. The heavy oil can be reused for cracking to get more gasoline. Bergius Process In this process, finely powdered coal and a suitable catalyst is made into a paste with Heavy Oil produced in the process. The coal paste is then preheated and pumped to the Converter. Here the paste is heated to 450 C and hydrogen bubbled through it at 250 atm pressure. The coal, which really a mixture of high molecular complex organic compounds deficient in hydrogen, and elementary carbon, combines with hydrogen to form higher, saturated compounds. These as a result of cracking and simultaneous hydrogenation yield a mixture of alkanes. Thus the vapours leaving the converter upon condensation yield synthetic Petroleum or Crude Oil. This crude oil upon fractional distillation produces i) Petrol ii) Middle Oil and iii) Heavy Oil.

Diesel Oil: It is a mixture of higher hydrocarbons (C15 to C18). This fraction is obtained between 250 to 320 C. It is used as a fuel for diesel engine and its calorific value is about 11000 cal/gm.


11

Diesel Engine, Ignition Temperature and Ignition Delay: Ignition Temperature is the minimum temperature at which the combustion is self-supporting. This also referred to as spontaneous ignition temperature. In the diesel engine, air is first drawn into the cylinder and compressed to a pressure of about 500 psi. This compression is accompanied by a rise in temperature to about 500 C. Towards the end of the compression stroke; diesel is injected in the form of finely-divided spray into air in the cylinder heated to about 500 C by compression. The oil absorbs the heat from the air and it ignites spontaneously as it attains ignition temperature. This raises the temperature and pressure. The piston is pushed by expanding gases in the power stroke. The combustion of fuel in a diesel engine is not instantaneous, the interval between the start of fuel injection and its ignition is called the the ignition delay If the ignition delay is long, it will lead to fuel accumulation in the engine even before the ignition. When ignited, an explosion results as the combined effect of increased temperature and pressure. This is responsible for diesel knock.

Overall, it is desirable to have fuels with short ignition delay but the ignition delay must be long enough for the compression stroke to be completed. Ignition delay mostly depends on chemical nature of the diesel fuel composition e.g., ignition delay is shorted for paraffinic fuel, than for olefinic, naphthalenic and aromatic fuels. Define Cetane Number: In order to grade the diesel fuels, cetane rating is employed. Thus cetane number is a measure of the ease with which fuels will ignite under compression. Cetane: C16H34 ( n-hexadecane): Cetane No: 100 Very Short igntion delay -methyl naphthalene Cetane No: 0 Longer Ignition Delay

CH3

Therefore, Cetane number of a diesel fuel is the percentage of n-hexadecane (cetane)

in a mixture of n-hexadecane and -methyl naphthalene, which has same ignition properties as that of a fuel under consideration at the saem set of conditions. Comparision of Petrol and Diesel Engines: S. No Description Petrol Engine Diesel Engine 1 Fuel Petrol + Air mixture Diesel+ Air mixture 2 Ignition By spark plug Compression of Air 3 Cause of knocking Pre-ignition Delayed-Igntion 4 Knocking Rating Octane Rating Cetane Rating 5 Additives TEL, Diethyl telluride Alkyl nitrites The cetane number of fuel can be increased by addition of very small amount of compound called pre-igntion dopes like Ethyl-nitrate, iso-amyl alcohol, Di-t-Butyl peroxide etc. Flash Point: Flash Point may be defined as: The minimum temperature at which an oil gives off enough vapors to form a momentary flash of light when a flame is brought near its surface. The fire point is the temperature at which it will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame. At the flash point, a lower temperature, a substance will ignite briefly, but vapor might not be produced at a rate to sustain the fire. In general the fire points can be assumed to be about 10 C higher than the flash points. The smoke point of oil is the temperature at which it begins to break down to glycerol and free fatty acids, and produce smoke. Considerably above the temperature of the smoke point is the flash point, the point at which the vapors from the oil can first ignite when mixed with air.


12

Alterntive Fuels (Proapne, Methanol, Ethanol)

1. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is considered as Clean Alternate Fuels

Natural gas is a fossil fuel found in earths crust. It is commonly found trapped between liquid petroleum and capping rock. Although it is found commonly with or near crude oil deposits, it is not a component of crude oil. India has twice as much as natural gas reserves as crude oil reserves.

CNG is odourless, colourless, and tasteless. It consists mostly of methane and is drawn from gas wells or in conjunction with crude oil production. CNG vehicles store natural gas in high-pressure fuel cylinders at 3000 to 36000 pounds per square inch. An odorant is normally added to CNG for safety reasons.

Two types of CNG fuel systems are on the market; dedicated vehicles, which operate exclusively on natural gas, and dual fule vehicles, which can use both natural gas and gasoline.

CNG is considered the most promising vehicle fuel and should be promoted as the fuel of tomorrow. The following points make CNG as better fuel:

i) Natural gas exists naturally and it is sufficiently available. ii) CNG provides more energy per kg. iii) Octane rating is more, therefore thermal efficiency his high. iv) It exhibits very low particulate emission. v) Life of engine component is increase, as deposits are less vi) Natural gas is a safe fuel. It has vapour density nearly three times lighter than air, hence it rises and dissipates quickly when released. Biodiesel: Biodiesel is a clean burning, carbon-neutral, renewable fuel which can be used in any diesel engine and requires no engine modifications. Biodiesel emissions are significantly lower than those of regular diesel, and it is 100% biodegradable. A vegetable oil is a triglyceride extracted from a plant. Biodiesel is made from vegetable oil, primarily from soybeans or canola.

C19 Unsaturated

C20Saturated It has two main advantages: i) Biodiesel is a cleaner, environmentally-sound alternative to petroleum diesel. ii) Biodiesel can prolong the life of your engine by lubricating engine and fuel systems, thereby reducing engine wear.


13

Biodiesel is made using vegetable oil, lye, and alcohol (pure methanol or ethanol) through a process called trans-esterification. The most common vegetable oils that are used are soybean oil and rapeseed oil (canola), biodiesel can also be made from sunflower oil.

x 100% biodiesel is referred to as B100 x 20% biodiesel, 80% diesel is labeled B20 x 5% biodiesel, 95% diesel is labeled B5 x 2% biodiesel, 98% diesel is labeled B2 Blends of 20% biodiesel and lower can be used in diesel equipment with no, or only minor modifications, although certain manufacturers do not extend warranty coverage if equipment is damaged by these blends. Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) LNG is made by refrigerating (-260 F) natural gas to condense it into a liquid. The liquefaction process removes most of the water vapor, butane, propane and other trace gases, that are usually included in ordinary natural gas. The resulting LNG is usually more than 98 % pure methane. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) LPG is mostly made up of propane. Actually LPG is made of a mixture of propane and other similar types of hydrocarbon gases. Different batches of LPG have slightly different amounts of the different kinds of hydrocarbon molecules. These hydrocarbons are gases at room temperature, but turn to liquid when they are compressed. LPG is stored in special tanks that keep it under pressure, so it stays a liquid. Ethanol and Methanol Fuels The use of ethanol as a fuel for internal combustion engines, either alone or in combination with other fuels, has been given much attention mostly because of its possible environment and long-term economical advantages over fossil fuel. Both ethanol and methanol have been considered for this purpose. While both can be obtained from petroleum or natural gas, ethanol may be the most interesting because many believe it to be a renewable resource, easily obtained from sugarcane or corn. When 10% alcohol fuel is mixed into gasoline, the result is known as Gasohol. When 85% alcohol fuel is mixed into gasoline, the result is known as E85. Methanol has been considered as a fuel, mainly in combination with gasoline. It has received less attention than ethanol because it has serious toxic concern. However manufacture is easy for methanol. Since the 1960s, methanol has been the required fuel for the racing cars. The reason for this is a single chemical entity; however gasoline composition may vary between batches to batch. __________________ SuggestedBooks:EngineeringChemistry,ShashiChawla,ii)EngineeringChemistry:Jain&Jain,AtextbookforEngineers&Technologist,H.D.Gesser

Documents

Q&A for Liquid Fuels