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Ethical considerationsEthical considerations
Cost constraintsCost constraints
Availability of appropriate staffAvailability of appropriate staffAnticipated burden to the study subjectsAnticipated burden to the study subjects
Constraints on the part of the researcherConstraints on the part of the researcher
Characteristics of the study sampleCharacteristics of the study sample
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ObservationObservationBiomedical/biophysical methodsBiomedical/biophysical methods
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11r
13 r
15 r
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1989 1993 1997 2001 2005
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11r
13 r
15 r
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1989 1993 1997 2001 2005
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Self reported dataSelf reported data
StructuredStructured questionnaires/interviews (forquestionnaires/interviews (for
quantitative research)quantitative research)
UnstructuredUnstructured interviews/questionnairesinterviews/questionnaires
(qualitative research)(qualitative research)
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Structured questionnairesStructured questionnaires
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InterviewsInterviews
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Interviews: face to face, telephone formatInterviews: face to face, telephone format
Questionnaires: supervised groups, mailed,Questionnaires: supervised groups, mailed,
delivered personallydelivered personally
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Sample surveysSample surveys (main data collection method)(main data collection method)
Epidemiological studiesEpidemiological studies (supportive data collection(supportive data collection
method)method)
Clinical studiesClinical studies (supportive data collection method)(supportive data collection method)
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A reliable score is one that maximizes the true score of theA reliable score is one that maximizes the true score of the
attribute and minimizes the error component (systematic+attribute and minimizes the error component (systematic+
random)random)
The greater the measurement error the greater theThe greater the measurement error the greater the
unreliabilityunreliability
Reliability (repetability/precision): A scale or a test is reliableReliability (repetability/precision): A scale or a test is reliable
to the extent that repeated measurements made underto the extent that repeated measurements made under
constant conditions will give the same resultsconstant conditions will give the same results
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a) Satisfying (completing the task with aa) Satisfying (completing the task with a
minimum of efforts)minimum of efforts)
b) Social desirabilityb) Social desirability
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Example:Example:
I always take my medication at timeI always take my medication at time
Responses (1) yes, (2) noResponses (1) yes, (2) no
I often forget to take my pillsI often forget to take my pills
(1) yes, (2) no(1) yes, (2) no
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Response setResponse set
Are you satisfied with the care deliveredAre you satisfied with the care delivered
(1) yes(1) yes
(2) no(2) no (3) I do not know (hidden category)(3) I do not know (hidden category)
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Simple task (simple questions, response optionsSimple task (simple questions, response options
that cover all possible response alternatives, notthat cover all possible response alternatives, not
mentally demanding)mentally demanding)
Effort to maintain the motivation of theEffort to maintain the motivation of the
respondents (rewards, short instruments, interestsrespondents (rewards, short instruments, interests
etc)etc)
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The tendency to present a favorable image ofThe tendency to present a favorable image of
oneselfoneself
Socially desirable behaviors - overestimatedSocially desirable behaviors - overestimated
Socially undesirable behaviors - underestimatedSocially undesirable behaviors - underestimated
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ExampleExample
During an average day how muchDuring an average day how much
alcohool do you consume?alcohool do you consume?
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Non response biasNon response bias
RB= R[uRB= R[urr-u-unrnr))
Response bias (RB) is a function of response rateResponse bias (RB) is a function of response rate
(R) and the difference in characteristics between(R) and the difference in characteristics between
responders and non-responders (uresponders and non-responders (u11,u,u22))
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80% and above: good80% and above: good
70-79% : acceptable70-79% : acceptable
55-69% : suspect55-69% : suspect>55% : unacceptable>55% : unacceptable
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1) from sample frames (mostly socio-1) from sample frames (mostly socio-
demographics)demographics)
2) from late responders (follow-up reminders)2) from late responders (follow-up reminders)
3) from refusals who agree to give some3) from refusals who agree to give someinformation (shortened version of theinformation (shortened version of the
questionnaire)questionnaire)
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First enquiryRR 82%
Second enquiryRR 94%
Men 32% 58%
Women 17% 49%
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[J Public Health Dent[J Public Health Dent
1111
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Way of questioningWay of questioning
Organization of questions within the questionnaireOrganization of questions within the questionnaire
Explanation of conceptExplanation of concept
Cover letter to explain the purpose of the studyCover letter to explain the purpose of the study
Reminders/return envelopeReminders/return envelope
RewardsRewards
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Open ended questioningOpen ended questioning
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Unclear questionsUnclear questions
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Leading questionsLeading questions
Do you agree that nurse-midwives play anDo you agree that nurse-midwives play an
indispensable role in the health team?indispensable role in the health team?
Do you think the improved clinicDo you think the improved clinic
arrangements are better?arrangements are better?
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Negatively stated questionsNegatively stated questions
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The mentally ill are essentially incapable toThe mentally ill are essentially incapable to
care for themselves and should therefore becare for themselves and should therefore be
denied any responsibilities.denied any responsibilities.
(two questions in one)(two questions in one)
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Response alternativesResponse alternatives
Adequately covering of all significant alternativesAdequately covering of all significant alternatives
A category Other - please specify should beA category Other - please specify should be
employed very carefullyemployed very carefully
Mutually exclusive response alternatives*Mutually exclusive response alternatives* Response alternatives presented in a continuouslyResponse alternatives presented in a continuously
ascending/descending orderascending/descending order
Response alternatives should not be to lengthyResponse alternatives should not be to lengthy Each response alternative approximately equal inEach response alternative approximately equal in
lengthlength (to be continued)(to be continued)
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Response alternativesResponse alternatives (continued)(continued)
Avoid a large proportion of responses being in theAvoid a large proportion of responses being in the
other specify categoryother specify category
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How would you describe the color of your teeth?How would you describe the color of your teeth?
NormalNormal
WhiteWhite
YellowYellow BrownBrown
Others please specifyOthers please specify
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Mutually exclusive response alternativesMutually exclusive response alternatives
What is your age?What is your age?
30 and below30 and below
30-4030-40
40-5040-50
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Response alternativesResponse alternatives
Do you have any comments regarding the form ofDo you have any comments regarding the form of
your teeth?your teeth?
NormalNormal
PittingsPittings FracturesFractures
Others - please specifyOthers - please specify
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Nominal variablesNominal variables
Examples: gender, blood type, medicalExamples: gender, blood type, medical
specialityspeciality
Numbers are symbols that represent twoNumbers are symbols that represent two
different values of the gender attributedifferent values of the gender attribute
What is your gender?What is your gender?
1= male1= male
2= female2= female
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Nominal variablesNominal variables
Mutually exclusivenessMutually exclusiveness
Collectively exhaustivenessCollectively exhaustiveness
EthnicityEthnicity
1= Whites1= Whites
2= Africans2= Africans3= Hispanic3= Hispanic
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Ordinal measurements permits the sortingOrdinal measurements permits the sorting
of objects on the basis of their standing onof objects on the basis of their standing on
an attribute relative to each other.an attribute relative to each other.
Attributes are ordered according to someAttributes are ordered according to somecriterioncriterion
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Ability to perform activities of daily livingAbility to perform activities of daily living
1= completely dependent1= completely dependent
2= needs another persons assistance2= needs another persons assistance
3= needs mechanical assistance3= needs mechanical assistance
4= completely independent4= completely independent
NB: Ordinal measures only tells us theNB: Ordinal measures only tells us therelative ranking of the levels of an attributerelative ranking of the levels of an attribute
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Interval measurementInterval measurement
Interval measurements specify both theInterval measurements specify both the
rank ordering of objects on an attribute andrank ordering of objects on an attribute and
the distance between those objectsthe distance between those objects
Many psychological scales use intervalMany psychological scales use intervalmeasurementmeasurement
In interval scales there is no real zero pint.In interval scales there is no real zero pint.
Many widely used statistical proceduresMany widely used statistical procedures
requires at least interval levelrequires at least interval level
measurementsmeasurements
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Measures on a ratio scale provideMeasures on a ratio scale provide
information concerning the rank ordering ofinformation concerning the rank ordering of
objects on the critical attribute, the intervalsobjects on the critical attribute, the intervals
between objects (equal), and the absolutebetween objects (equal), and the absolutemagnitude of the attribute of the object.magnitude of the attribute of the object.
Many physical measures (examples weight,Many physical measures (examples weight,
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Muti- item scalesMuti- item scales
AttitudesAttitudes
Subjective normsSubjective norms
Personality traitsPersonality traits
Quality of life scalesQuality of life scales
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Oral Impact on Daily PerformanceOral Impact on Daily Performance
eating and enjoying foodeating and enjoying food
speaking and pronouncing clearlyspeaking and pronouncing clearly
cleaning teethcleaning teeth
sleeping and relaxingsleeping and relaxing
smiling and showing teeth without embarrassmentsmiling and showing teeth without embarrassment maintaining usual emotional statemaintaining usual emotional state
carry out major (school) work and social rolecarry out major (school) work and social role[Scale: (1) affected less than once a month/never (5) every or nearly every day][Scale: (1) affected less than once a month/never (5) every or nearly every day]
(Adulyanon and Sheiham, 1996)
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Each OIDP item was dichotomised:Each OIDP item was dichotomised:
(1)(1)
(0)(0)
affected less than once a month/neveraffected less than once a month/never
(2) affected once or twice a month(2) affected once or twice a month
(3)(3) (1)(1) affected once or twice a weekaffected once or twice a week
(4) affected 3-4 times a week(4) affected 3-4 times a week (5) affected every or nearly every day(5) affected every or nearly every day
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d b
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Study subjectStudy subject
Construct three hypotheses or researchConstruct three hypotheses or research
questions for a protocolquestions for a protocol
Outline appropriate methods of dataOutline appropriate methods of data
collection to gather the information that youcollection to gather the information that you
need in order to answer the researchneed in order to answer the research
questions. Justify your choice of dataquestions. Justify your choice of datacollection methodcollection method
S d b
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Study subjectStudy subject
Give examples of the type of questions thatGive examples of the type of questions that
you will use in your method of datayou will use in your method of data
collectioncollection
Discuss important issues to consider whenDiscuss important issues to consider whenconstructing the questions to be usedconstructing the questions to be used
during field workduring field work
Suggest ways of improving the followingSuggest ways of improving the following
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questionsquestions
1) Do you agree /disagree with the following:1) Do you agree /disagree with the following:Alcoholics deserve more pity than scorn andAlcoholics deserve more pity than scorn and
should be encouraged to seek medical rather thanshould be encouraged to seek medical rather than
spiritual assistancespiritual assistance
2). Would you disagree with the statement that2). Would you disagree with the statement that
nurses should not unionize?nurses should not unionize?
3) What is your opinion about the new health3) What is your opinion about the new health
reform bill?reform bill?