In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist – 4 prints on democratic and socialist republics

1st print – people of Europe & America in long train – homage to Statue of Liberty (torch of enlightenment in

one hand and Charter of Rights of man in another) with remains of symbols of absolutist (no restraints on

power exercised) institutions

Utopian (ideal society unlikely to actually exist) vision – people of world are grouped as nations, identified by

flag and national costume

Leading the procession are USA & Switzerland (already nation states) followed by France (revolutionary

tricolor), Germany (black, red and golden flag). Till the time Sorrieu created the image Germans were not

united nation and carried liberal hopes in 1848 for unification. Followed by Germans were peoples of Austria,

the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.

Nationalism brought change in political and mental world of Europe – led to emergence of nation-state rather

than multi-national dynastic empire. Under nation state – sense for common identity and shared history

developed & was result of struggle, action of leaders and common people

Renan in “What is Nation?” - A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavors, sacrifice and devotion.

A heroic past, great men, glory that is the social capital upon which one bases a national idea. Its existence is

a daily plebiscite (direct vote to accept or reject proposal)

RAKESH SIR SST

French Revolution

1st expression of nationalism in 1789 Transfer from monarchy to body of French citizens – people constitute the nation and shape the destiny

The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community

enjoying equal rights

New French tricolor flag to replace former royal standard

Estates General was elected and renamed as National Assembly

Centralized administrative system with uniform laws for citizens within territory

Abolish internal custom duties and dues

Formulate uniform system of weights and measures

French became a common language and regional dialects were discouraged

Aim to liberate people of Europe from despotism

Establishment of Jacobin clubs – French army moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy in 1970s

Developments under Napoleon – Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code) did away with privileges based on

birth, established equality and secured right to property. He abolished feudal system and freed peasants from

serfdom. He removed guild restriction and improved transportation.

Initially French armies were welcomed in Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, Holland and Switzerland as

harbinger of liberty but later turned hostile as there was increased taxation, censorship and forced

conscription.

RAKESH SIR SST

Image of Europe After Congress of Vienna, 1815

RAKESH SIR SST

Europe after Congress of Vienna, 1815

Making of Nationalism in Europe

Developments:

1797 – Napoleonic Wars begin

1814-1815 – Fall of Napoleon

1821 – Greek struggle for independence

1848 – Revolutions in Europe – demand for nation states by Italians, Germans, Magyars, Poles, Czechs

1859-1870 – Unification of Italy

1866-1871 – Unification of Germany

1905- Slav nationalism gather force in Habsburg & Ottoman

Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) - many different regions and peoples. It includes:

Alpine regions – Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland

Bohemia - German-speaking

Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia

Hungary – half population spoke Magyar & others regional dialects

Polish speaking people in Galicia

RAKESH SIR SST

Peasants - Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south, and Roumans to the

east in Transylvania

Dominant class on this continent – Landed aristocracy united by common way of life, owned estates & town

houses, spoke French for diplomacy, connected by marriage ties but was small in number

Peasantry was majority

West Europe – farming by tenants and small owners

East & Central Europe – vast estates cultivate by serfs

West & central Europe – growth of industrial production, emergence of commercial class.

2nd half of 18th century – industrialization in England & in 19th century in French and German states

Liberal Nationalism – liberalism (Latin – liber means free) means freedom for individual and equality of all

before law. It stood as end of autocracy and clerical privileges & stressed inviolability of private property

Universal suffrage – France – initially only property owned man had right to vote. Under Jacobins, right was

given to all adult males. Under Napoleon, righted were limited and reduced for women. Later opposition

movements began.

Liberalism stood for freedom of market and abolition of state imposed restrictions on movement of goods and

capitals under economic sphere. Demand for emerging middle class increased.

Under Napoleon – confederation of 39 states with own currency, weights and measures. Merchant had to pass

numerous custom barriers and pay custom duties on all.

Elle (measurement for cloth) – In Frankfurt was 54.7 cm of cloth, in Mainz it was 55.1 cm, in Nuremberg it was

65.6 cm, in Freiburg it was 53.5 cm.

In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German

states. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from more than 30 to 2. Idea

was to bind economically, protect external interest and stimulate internal productivity.

Conservatism After 1815

Conservatism is a philosophy that stresses on tradition, customs and prefers gradual change

They believed modernization can strengthen traditional institutions like monarchy making state more effective

Modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen

autocratic monarchies of Europe

In 1815, Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria who collectively defeated Napoleon met at Vienna under

Congress hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich to draw Treaty of Vienna. Idea was to undo

changes that happened under Napoleonic wars. Kept a check on expansion of French territory with

Netherlands including Belgium in north & Genoa in south, Prussia on west & Austria controlled north Italy.

Prussia given part of Saxony & Russia given part of Poland. Confederation of 39 states of German was

untouched. Sole objective was to restore monarchies overthrown by Napoleon.

This regime was autocratic, did not tolerate criticism & curbed activities that questioned legitimacy of

autocratic government. Censorship laws were imposed to control what has been said in newspapers.

RAKESH SIR SST

The Revolutionaries

Secret societies sprang up to train revolutionaries and spread ideas, oppose monarchy after Vienna congress and

fight for liberty and freedom.

Giuseppe Mazzini, Italian: born in Genoa in 1807 & became member of Carbonari secret society. Was exiled

in 1831 for revolution in Liguria. Formed 2 societies as Young Italy in Marseilles & Young Europe in Berne

(1833). He explained God has intended nations to be natural units of mankind. So Italy must be forged with

single unified republic. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

Revolutionaries were educated middle class elite, professors, school teachers, clerks

and commercial middle classes. France upheaval in 1830 – Bourbon kings restored

to power were overthrown by liberal Louis Phillippe Metternich said ‘When France

sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.’

RAKESH SIR SST

July Revolution sparked uprising in Brussels that led to Belgium breaking away from UK of Netherlands.

Greek war of independence – Greece was part of Ottoman Empire since 15th century & struggle began in

1821. Nationalist in Greece got support from Greece living in exile. Lord Byron organized funds and later

went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824. Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece

as an independent nation.

Imagination & National Feeling

Nationalism came across by idea of culture (poetry, story and music) along with wars and territorial expansion.

Romanticism – criticized glorification of reason and science & focused on emotions, intuition and mystical

feelings. Idea was to share collective heritage, common cultural past and basis of nation.

French painter Delacroix – incident where 20,000 Greeks were said to have been killed by Turks on the island

of Chios.

Johann Gottfried Herder, German – discover German culture among common man (das volk) – by folk songs

and dances spirit of nation (volksgeist) was popularized

Collection of vernacular language and folklore to carry message to illiterate audiences

Poland was partitioned by Great Powers (Russia, Britain & Austria) and feelings kept alive by music and

language. Polish language was forced out and Russian became the common language. Members of the clergy

in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings &

seen as symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.

Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the

polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols

Grimm’s Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm who published 1st tales in 1812 & later published 33

volume dictionary of German language. French domination was considered a threat to German culture and their folktales were useful in building

nationalistic feelings.

Hunger, Hardship & Popular Revolt

1830s – years of economic hardships in Europe

1st half of 19th century – increase in population in Europe Population migration to urban areas and increasing slums

Stiff competition from cheap machine made imports

Peasants struggled under burden of feudal dues and obligations where aristocracy was in power

Rise of food prices and years of bad harvest aggravated the issue

1848 – Widespread food shortage, unemployment in Paris & Louis Phillippe was forced to flee. National

assembly proclaimed a republic and granted suffrage to all men above 21 years and guaranteed right to work.

1845 – weavers in Silesia led revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material and gave orders for

finished product but drastically reduced payments.

RAKESH SIR SST

1848: Revolution of Liberals

Brought abdication of monarch and republic based on universal male suffrage

Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes

combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification – constitution, freedom of press and

freedom of association

In Germany, German National Assembly was formed on 18th May, 1848 with 831 elected representatives.

They drafted a constitution for German nations to be headed by monarchy. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of

Prussia, rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. Parliament was dominated by

middle class who resisted workers’ demands. Assembly was disbanded and troops were called in.

Women formed political associations, founded newspapers and took part in political meetings but were

denied suffrage rights. In Frankfurt parliament in the Church of St Paul, women were admitted only as

observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery

Louise Otto-Peters (1819-95) was a political activist who founded a women’s journal and subsequently a

feminist political association (awareness of women rights and interests)

Monarchs realized that the cycles of revolution and repression could only be ended by granting concessions

to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries. After 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe

began to introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815. Thus serfdom

and bonded labor were abolished both in Habsburg dominions and in Russia. Habsburg rulers granted more

autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.

Making of Germany & Italy

Liberal initiative to nation-building in Germany was repressed by monarchy and military & supported by the

large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.

Prussia took leadership for national unification with Otto von Bismarck as the architect. 3 wars over 7 years

with Austria, Denmark and France ended in Prussian victory & unification.

In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a

ceremony in Hall of Mirrors, at Versailles New state emphasized modernization of

currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany

RAKESH SIR SST

Image of Unification of Germany (1866-71)

Italy Unified

Italy had scattered dynasties and Habsburg Empire. In mid-19th century – it was divided in 7 states of which

Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by Italian princely house.

North was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under

the domination of Bourbon kings of Spain

Giuseppe Mazzini – unitary Italian Republic and formed Young Italy. Failure of uprisings in 1831 & 1848

meant Sardinia was now under King Victor Emmanuel II to unify Italy states for war. Unified Italy gave

possibility for economic development and political dominance

RAKESH SIR SST

Image of Italian States Before Unification, 1858

Chief Minister Cavour – led unification was neither revolutionary nor democrat. He spoke French better than

Italian. In alliance with France in 1859, Sardinia defeated Austria. Garibaldi in 1860 marched to South Italy

and Kingdom of Two Sicilies and removed Spanish rulers.

In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy. Much of Italy was illiterate and unaware of

liberal-nationalist ideology. Supporter of Garibaldi had never heard about Italia and thought “La Talia” was

wife of Emmanuel.

Garibaldi was sailor. Joined Young Italy movement in 1834 with Mazzini. He lived in exile till 1848 in South

America. In 1860, Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy. Volunteers joined and were

known as Red Shirts. In 1867, Garibaldi led an army of volunteers to Rome to fight the last obstacle to the

unification of Italy, the Papal States where a French garrison was stationed. In 1870, French withdrew forces

from Rome and Papal States joined to Italy.

Case of Britain

Nation state formation was not sudden but a long drawn out process. Prior to 18th century there were ethnic

groups like English, Welsh, Scot or Irish with their own culture and traditions. As it grew in wealth and

power, influence extended to other nations.

English parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688

Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of ‘United Kingdom of Great

Britain’ - England was able to impose its influence on Scotland

RAKESH SIR SST

British parliament was dominated by English members and Scotland’s culture was suppressed. Catholics

from Scotland suffered repression. Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or

wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.

Ireland was divided between Catholics and Protestants. English helped Protestants to establish power over

Catholic nation. Catholics were suppressed. After failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen

(1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into UK in 1801.

Symbols of the New Britain: British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the

English language were actively promoted

Visualizing the Nation

Nations were portrayed as females. Female figure became an allegory (abstract idea expressed through person

or things) of the nation.

French used female allegory to portray liberty (red cap or broken chains), justice (blindfolded woman

carrying a pair of weighing scales) and republic ideas.

In France she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people’s

nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty & Republic – the red cap, the tricolor, the

cockade. Statues erected in public, also marks on coins and stamps were made.

Germania became the allegory of the German nation. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as German oak

stands for heroism.

RAKESH SIR SST

Image of Attribute and Significance

Nationalism and Imperialism

By last quarter of 19th century, nationalists groups became

intolerant and raged war Most serious happened in Balkan

after 1871

Balkans - geographical and ethnic variation included Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia,

Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro - people called as Slavs. Majority of Balkans

was under Ottoman Empire. Spread of romantic nationalism & disintegration of Ottoman Empire made this

region very explosive.

Balkans placed claims of independence on nationality and used history to prove it.

Intense rivalry among European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military & was seen in

Balkans. Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary were trying to control Balkan and led to 1st WW. This

nationalism and imperialism led Europe to disaster in 1914.

Nations colonized by Europe began to oppose imperial domination.

Anti-imperialist movements were nationalist and inspired by collective national unity.

European ideas of nationalism were nowhere replicated, for people everywhere developed their own specific

variety of nationalism. But idea that societies should be organized into ‘nation-states’ came to be accepted as

natural and universal.

RAKESH SIR SST

RAKESH SIR SST