In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist – 4 prints on democratic and socialist republics
1st print – people of Europe & America in long train – homage to Statue of Liberty (torch of enlightenment in
one hand and Charter of Rights of man in another) with remains of symbols of absolutist (no restraints on
power exercised) institutions
Utopian (ideal society unlikely to actually exist) vision – people of world are grouped as nations, identified by
flag and national costume
Leading the procession are USA & Switzerland (already nation states) followed by France (revolutionary
tricolor), Germany (black, red and golden flag). Till the time Sorrieu created the image Germans were not
united nation and carried liberal hopes in 1848 for unification. Followed by Germans were peoples of Austria,
the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.
Nationalism brought change in political and mental world of Europe – led to emergence of nation-state rather
than multi-national dynastic empire. Under nation state – sense for common identity and shared history
developed & was result of struggle, action of leaders and common people
Renan in “What is Nation?” - A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavors, sacrifice and devotion.
A heroic past, great men, glory that is the social capital upon which one bases a national idea. Its existence is
a daily plebiscite (direct vote to accept or reject proposal)
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French Revolution
1st expression of nationalism in 1789 Transfer from monarchy to body of French citizens – people constitute the nation and shape the destiny
The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community
enjoying equal rights
New French tricolor flag to replace former royal standard
Estates General was elected and renamed as National Assembly
Centralized administrative system with uniform laws for citizens within territory
Abolish internal custom duties and dues
Formulate uniform system of weights and measures
French became a common language and regional dialects were discouraged
Aim to liberate people of Europe from despotism
Establishment of Jacobin clubs – French army moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy in 1970s
Developments under Napoleon – Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code) did away with privileges based on
birth, established equality and secured right to property. He abolished feudal system and freed peasants from
serfdom. He removed guild restriction and improved transportation.
Initially French armies were welcomed in Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, Holland and Switzerland as
harbinger of liberty but later turned hostile as there was increased taxation, censorship and forced
conscription.
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Europe after Congress of Vienna, 1815
Making of Nationalism in Europe
Developments:
1797 – Napoleonic Wars begin
1814-1815 – Fall of Napoleon
1821 – Greek struggle for independence
1848 – Revolutions in Europe – demand for nation states by Italians, Germans, Magyars, Poles, Czechs
1859-1870 – Unification of Italy
1866-1871 – Unification of Germany
1905- Slav nationalism gather force in Habsburg & Ottoman
Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) - many different regions and peoples. It includes:
Alpine regions – Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland
Bohemia - German-speaking
Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia
Hungary – half population spoke Magyar & others regional dialects
Polish speaking people in Galicia
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Peasants - Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south, and Roumans to the
east in Transylvania
Dominant class on this continent – Landed aristocracy united by common way of life, owned estates & town
houses, spoke French for diplomacy, connected by marriage ties but was small in number
Peasantry was majority
West Europe – farming by tenants and small owners
East & Central Europe – vast estates cultivate by serfs
West & central Europe – growth of industrial production, emergence of commercial class.
2nd half of 18th century – industrialization in England & in 19th century in French and German states
Liberal Nationalism – liberalism (Latin – liber means free) means freedom for individual and equality of all
before law. It stood as end of autocracy and clerical privileges & stressed inviolability of private property
Universal suffrage – France – initially only property owned man had right to vote. Under Jacobins, right was
given to all adult males. Under Napoleon, righted were limited and reduced for women. Later opposition
movements began.
Liberalism stood for freedom of market and abolition of state imposed restrictions on movement of goods and
capitals under economic sphere. Demand for emerging middle class increased.
Under Napoleon – confederation of 39 states with own currency, weights and measures. Merchant had to pass
numerous custom barriers and pay custom duties on all.
Elle (measurement for cloth) – In Frankfurt was 54.7 cm of cloth, in Mainz it was 55.1 cm, in Nuremberg it was
65.6 cm, in Freiburg it was 53.5 cm.
In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German
states. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from more than 30 to 2. Idea
was to bind economically, protect external interest and stimulate internal productivity.
Conservatism After 1815
Conservatism is a philosophy that stresses on tradition, customs and prefers gradual change
They believed modernization can strengthen traditional institutions like monarchy making state more effective
Modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen
autocratic monarchies of Europe
In 1815, Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria who collectively defeated Napoleon met at Vienna under
Congress hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich to draw Treaty of Vienna. Idea was to undo
changes that happened under Napoleonic wars. Kept a check on expansion of French territory with
Netherlands including Belgium in north & Genoa in south, Prussia on west & Austria controlled north Italy.
Prussia given part of Saxony & Russia given part of Poland. Confederation of 39 states of German was
untouched. Sole objective was to restore monarchies overthrown by Napoleon.
This regime was autocratic, did not tolerate criticism & curbed activities that questioned legitimacy of
autocratic government. Censorship laws were imposed to control what has been said in newspapers.
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The Revolutionaries
Secret societies sprang up to train revolutionaries and spread ideas, oppose monarchy after Vienna congress and
fight for liberty and freedom.
Giuseppe Mazzini, Italian: born in Genoa in 1807 & became member of Carbonari secret society. Was exiled
in 1831 for revolution in Liguria. Formed 2 societies as Young Italy in Marseilles & Young Europe in Berne
(1833). He explained God has intended nations to be natural units of mankind. So Italy must be forged with
single unified republic. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.
Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848
Revolutionaries were educated middle class elite, professors, school teachers, clerks
and commercial middle classes. France upheaval in 1830 – Bourbon kings restored
to power were overthrown by liberal Louis Phillippe Metternich said ‘When France
sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.’
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July Revolution sparked uprising in Brussels that led to Belgium breaking away from UK of Netherlands.
Greek war of independence – Greece was part of Ottoman Empire since 15th century & struggle began in
1821. Nationalist in Greece got support from Greece living in exile. Lord Byron organized funds and later
went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824. Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece
as an independent nation.
Imagination & National Feeling
Nationalism came across by idea of culture (poetry, story and music) along with wars and territorial expansion.
Romanticism – criticized glorification of reason and science & focused on emotions, intuition and mystical
feelings. Idea was to share collective heritage, common cultural past and basis of nation.
French painter Delacroix – incident where 20,000 Greeks were said to have been killed by Turks on the island
of Chios.
Johann Gottfried Herder, German – discover German culture among common man (das volk) – by folk songs
and dances spirit of nation (volksgeist) was popularized
Collection of vernacular language and folklore to carry message to illiterate audiences
Poland was partitioned by Great Powers (Russia, Britain & Austria) and feelings kept alive by music and
language. Polish language was forced out and Russian became the common language. Members of the clergy
in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings &
seen as symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.
Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the
polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols
Grimm’s Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm who published 1st tales in 1812 & later published 33
volume dictionary of German language. French domination was considered a threat to German culture and their folktales were useful in building
nationalistic feelings.
Hunger, Hardship & Popular Revolt
1830s – years of economic hardships in Europe
1st half of 19th century – increase in population in Europe Population migration to urban areas and increasing slums
Stiff competition from cheap machine made imports
Peasants struggled under burden of feudal dues and obligations where aristocracy was in power
Rise of food prices and years of bad harvest aggravated the issue
1848 – Widespread food shortage, unemployment in Paris & Louis Phillippe was forced to flee. National
assembly proclaimed a republic and granted suffrage to all men above 21 years and guaranteed right to work.
1845 – weavers in Silesia led revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material and gave orders for
finished product but drastically reduced payments.
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1848: Revolution of Liberals
Brought abdication of monarch and republic based on universal male suffrage
Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes
combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification – constitution, freedom of press and
freedom of association
In Germany, German National Assembly was formed on 18th May, 1848 with 831 elected representatives.
They drafted a constitution for German nations to be headed by monarchy. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of
Prussia, rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. Parliament was dominated by
middle class who resisted workers’ demands. Assembly was disbanded and troops were called in.
Women formed political associations, founded newspapers and took part in political meetings but were
denied suffrage rights. In Frankfurt parliament in the Church of St Paul, women were admitted only as
observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery
Louise Otto-Peters (1819-95) was a political activist who founded a women’s journal and subsequently a
feminist political association (awareness of women rights and interests)
Monarchs realized that the cycles of revolution and repression could only be ended by granting concessions
to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries. After 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe
began to introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815. Thus serfdom
and bonded labor were abolished both in Habsburg dominions and in Russia. Habsburg rulers granted more
autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.
Making of Germany & Italy
Liberal initiative to nation-building in Germany was repressed by monarchy and military & supported by the
large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
Prussia took leadership for national unification with Otto von Bismarck as the architect. 3 wars over 7 years
with Austria, Denmark and France ended in Prussian victory & unification.
In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a
ceremony in Hall of Mirrors, at Versailles New state emphasized modernization of
currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany
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Image of Unification of Germany (1866-71)
Italy Unified
Italy had scattered dynasties and Habsburg Empire. In mid-19th century – it was divided in 7 states of which
Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by Italian princely house.
North was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under
the domination of Bourbon kings of Spain
Giuseppe Mazzini – unitary Italian Republic and formed Young Italy. Failure of uprisings in 1831 & 1848
meant Sardinia was now under King Victor Emmanuel II to unify Italy states for war. Unified Italy gave
possibility for economic development and political dominance
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Image of Italian States Before Unification, 1858
Chief Minister Cavour – led unification was neither revolutionary nor democrat. He spoke French better than
Italian. In alliance with France in 1859, Sardinia defeated Austria. Garibaldi in 1860 marched to South Italy
and Kingdom of Two Sicilies and removed Spanish rulers.
In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy. Much of Italy was illiterate and unaware of
liberal-nationalist ideology. Supporter of Garibaldi had never heard about Italia and thought “La Talia” was
wife of Emmanuel.
Garibaldi was sailor. Joined Young Italy movement in 1834 with Mazzini. He lived in exile till 1848 in South
America. In 1860, Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy. Volunteers joined and were
known as Red Shirts. In 1867, Garibaldi led an army of volunteers to Rome to fight the last obstacle to the
unification of Italy, the Papal States where a French garrison was stationed. In 1870, French withdrew forces
from Rome and Papal States joined to Italy.
Case of Britain
Nation state formation was not sudden but a long drawn out process. Prior to 18th century there were ethnic
groups like English, Welsh, Scot or Irish with their own culture and traditions. As it grew in wealth and
power, influence extended to other nations.
English parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688
Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of ‘United Kingdom of Great
Britain’ - England was able to impose its influence on Scotland
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British parliament was dominated by English members and Scotland’s culture was suppressed. Catholics
from Scotland suffered repression. Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or
wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
Ireland was divided between Catholics and Protestants. English helped Protestants to establish power over
Catholic nation. Catholics were suppressed. After failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen
(1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into UK in 1801.
Symbols of the New Britain: British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the
English language were actively promoted
Visualizing the Nation
Nations were portrayed as females. Female figure became an allegory (abstract idea expressed through person
or things) of the nation.
French used female allegory to portray liberty (red cap or broken chains), justice (blindfolded woman
carrying a pair of weighing scales) and republic ideas.
In France she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people’s
nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty & Republic – the red cap, the tricolor, the
cockade. Statues erected in public, also marks on coins and stamps were made.
Germania became the allegory of the German nation. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as German oak
stands for heroism.
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Image of Attribute and Significance
Nationalism and Imperialism
By last quarter of 19th century, nationalists groups became
intolerant and raged war Most serious happened in Balkan
after 1871
Balkans - geographical and ethnic variation included Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia,
Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro - people called as Slavs. Majority of Balkans
was under Ottoman Empire. Spread of romantic nationalism & disintegration of Ottoman Empire made this
region very explosive.
Balkans placed claims of independence on nationality and used history to prove it.
Intense rivalry among European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military & was seen in
Balkans. Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary were trying to control Balkan and led to 1st WW. This
nationalism and imperialism led Europe to disaster in 1914.
Nations colonized by Europe began to oppose imperial domination.
Anti-imperialist movements were nationalist and inspired by collective national unity.
European ideas of nationalism were nowhere replicated, for people everywhere developed their own specific
variety of nationalism. But idea that societies should be organized into ‘nation-states’ came to be accepted as
natural and universal.
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