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The Genesis Project By Ian Beardsley Copyright © 2014-2015 The Genesis Project seeks to understand the Earth-Sun system as a life sustaining system, how to create one, and maintain the one we already have. Red 03

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Interconnection In Nature 01 Everything on earth is interconnected. It is the connection between natural elements that sustains life. The Sahara desert is the largest desert on the Earth, three million square miles in surface area. It is about the size of the United States. Winds from the east to the west lift about 182 million tons of dust from the Sahara, annually. About 27 million tons of that which are transported 3,000 miles across the Atlantic, are deposited in the Amazon Basin, the world’s largest rain forest. This dust contains phosphorus, a valuable nutrient for the rain forest. It was the NASA Calypso satellite that was launched in 2006, that measured three dimensionally, the plumes of dust lifted from the Sahara (2007-2013) in its study of the vertical structure of clouds and particles in the Earth’s atmosphere. The Amazon is thus replenished for what it loses due to surface runoff. Winds from the east to the west are created by pressure gradients that increase from south to north when acted on by coriolis forces (rotation of the earth). When the Earth’s rotation creates winds that transport dust, work is done and thus energy lost. The loss of energy is in the slowing of the Earth’s rotation. Energy from the sun creates the pressure gradients in the Earth’s atmosphere, but as long as the sun warms the Earth, this energy can always be supplied. The energy that comes from the rotation of the earth cannot always be supplied. The sun, however, is warming, and in about a billion years it will burn away the oceans, making the earth uninhabitable. The Amazon Rain Forest is important because it sinks carbon, reducing the greenhouse gas CO2, in other words, that would otherwise contribute to global warming. Ian Beardsley February 24, 2015

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The Gaia Fractal By Ian Beardsley Copyright © 2014 by Ian Beardsley

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From my earlier studies where I began to learn about fractals, and subsequent studies in Biology, and Climate Science, I have finally been able to put into words a primitive notion I had that was sparked by learning of the the Gaia Hypothesis of Lovelock and the similar, but different, idea of Gaia put forward by Isaac Asimov in his science fiction conclusion to his Foundation Trilogy, Foundation And Earth. A primitive notion is defined in Spacetime, Geometry, And Cosmology by William L. Burke as: A fundamental element in a physical theory that is not defined within the theory but is presumed to be known, either by description or from a more fundamental theory.

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Energetic Equilibrium and Gaia The Fractal Life is that which self-generates negative entropy. That is, it acquires the energy it needs to sustain its necessary biological functions, such as metabolism, photosynthesis, and homeostasis. Living things are organized and they can’t maintain organization without energy. Healthy life is that which is in energetic equilibrium, which is to say it loses as much energy as it gains. We say this because if an organism does not burn the energy it acquires, it will store the excess energy as fat, which produces a strain on the heart because it has to pump blood through more weight. The earth is similar in this respect in that a healthy earth is one that is in energetic equilibrium as well because if the earth gains more energy from the sun than it is losing, then it is warming which dries up reservoirs, and kills crops. Interestingly, when life on earth is in energetic equilibrium, the earth tends towards energetic equilibrium, because life living in excess produces a strain on the planet’s natural processes that interrupts its functionality like regenerative cycles such as the water cycle and carbon cycle. In this sense we see that animal and plant life mirror the way the physical aspects of the planet function in such a way that we can say life is but a part of a greater whole. The basic unit of all of life is the cell, which is constructed of non-living molecules. However, cells combine to form tissues, tissues form to make organs, and organs work together to make organ systems. Just as cells are part of life, life is part of the physical earth; if plants did not do photosynthesis, then carbon dioxide levels would rise. Carbon dioxide is a heat retaining gas. Too much of it and the earth would fail to lose as much heat as it receives from the sun, would be out of energetic equilibrium, the arctic ice caps would melt, decreasing the albedo of the earth, causing less sunlight to be reflected back into space (creating a feedback loop), and reservoirs, rivers, and crops would dry up. This connection of life, the biosphere, to the physical (atmosphere and water) that makes the earth like one giant organism, is called Gaia. In a sense the organization of cells into tissues, tissues into organs, organs into organ systems, goes beyond the organism. The organisms make populations, the populations make communities, the communities interact with the physical environment to form ecosystems, and the the ecosystems make the biosphere. We could say Gaia is a fractal, but in idea not physical geometry, because the idea behind the planet is similar to the idea behind its life components, and the life components display self-similarity as we move from simple to complex, single cell to organized structures, but expanded. Fractals have self-similarity as one of their properties.

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Homeostasis And Metabolism Of The Gaia Fractal We face a crisis known as the anthropocene, wherein humans are altering the environment in such a way that they are adding a new, but different, layer to the geologic record. Rapid deforestation and increase in greenhouse gases are putting the Earth out of energetic equilibrium, such that the carbon grid is saturated, which means the mechanism which syncs heat retaining carbon dioxide is over taxed, and the earth is warming. The key to healing the Earth is in understanding the homeostasis and metabolism of Gaia, which is founded in the fractal nature of Gaia, that is we need to know what the proper structure of the Gaia fractal should be, that is from its basic structure starting with single cellular life to their organizations into organisms, to the organization of organisms into systems of organisms, and all into the planet, which includes the physical, such as the composition of the atmosphere. Just as cells are composed of non-living molecules, the physical aspects of the earth, composed of biological entities, is such that the whole planet is alive. Thus the key words to understand are metabolism and homeostasis: Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell, and homeostasis, is the maintenance of internal conditions that allow metabolic processes to occur. Thus we must make sure the homeostasis of Gaia is such that its metabolic processes can be carried out so that life on earth is sustainable. Thus we need to know how the Gaia Fractal should be structured. Ian Beardsley October 18, 2014

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Model As climate science is a new science, there are many models for the climate and I learned my climate science at MIT in a free online edX course. One can generate a basic model for climate with nothing more than high school algebra using nothing more than the temperature of the sun, the distance of the earth from the sun, and the earth’s albedo, the percent of light it reflects back into space. The luminosity of the sun is: L_0=3.9E26 J/s The separation between the earth and the sun is: 1.5E11 m The solar luminosity at the earth is reduced by the inverse square law, so the solar constant is: S_0=3.9E26/4(pi)(1.5E11)^2 = 1,370 watts/square meter That is the effective energy hitting the earth per second per square meter. This radiation is equal to the temperature, T_e, to the fourth power by the steffan-bolzmann constant, sigma. T_e can be called the effective temperature, the temperature entering the earth. S_0 intercepts the earth disc, (pi)r^2, and distributes itself over the entire earth surface, 4(pi)r^2, while 30% is reflected back into space due to the earth’s albedo, a, which is equal to 0.3, so (sigma)(T_e)^4 = (S_0/4)(1-a) from (1-a)(S_0)(pi)(r^2)/4(pi)(r^2) But, just as the same amount of radiation that enters the system, leaves it, to have radiative equilibrium, the atmosphere radiates back to the surface so that the radiation from the atmosphere, (sigma)(T_a)^4 plus the radiation entering the earth, (sigma)(T_e)^4 is the radiation at the surface of the earth, (sigma)(T_s)^4. However, (sigma)(T_a)^4=(sigma)(T_e)^4 and we have: (sigma)(T_s)^4=(sigma)(T_a)^4 + (sigma)(T_e)^4 = 2(sigma)(T_e)^4 T_s=(2^(1/4))(T_e)

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(sigma)(T_e)^4=(S_0/4)(1-a) sigma = 5.67E-8 S_0=1,370 (1,370/4)(1-0.3)=(1,370/4)(0.7)=239.75 (sigma)(T_e)^4=239.75 (T_e)^4 = (238.75)/(5.67E-8) = 4.228E9 T_e=255 degrees kelvin So, for the temperature at the surface of the Earth: (sigma)(T_s) = 2(sigma)(T_e)^4 T_s=(2^(1/4))T_e or T_s = 1.189(255) = 303 degrees Kelvin Let’s convert that to degrees centigrade: Degrees Centigrade = 303 - 273 = 30 degrees centigrade And, let’s convert that to Fahrenheit: Degrees Fahrenheight = 30(9/5)+32=86 Degrees Fahrenheit In reality this is warmer than the average annual temperature at the surface of the earth, but, in this model, we only considered radiative heat transfer and not convective heat transfer. In other words, there is cooling due to vaporization of water (the formation of clouds) and due to the condensation of water vapor into rain droplets (precipitation or the formation of rain).

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Summary The incoming radiation from the sun is about 1370 watts per square meter as determined by the energy per second emitted by the sun reduced by the inverse square law at earth orbit. We calculate the total absorbed energy intercepted by the Earth's disc (pi)r^2, its distribution over its surface area 4(pi)r^2 and take into account that about 30% of that is reflected back into space, so the effective radiation hitting the Earth's surface is about 70% of the incoming radiation reduced by four. Radiative energy is equal to temperature to the fourth power by the Stefan-boltzmann constant. However, the effective incoming radiation is also trapped by greenhouse gases and emitted down towards the surface of the earth (as well as emitted up towards space from this lower atmosphere called the troposphere), the most powerful greenhouse gas being CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) and most abundant and important is water vapour. This doubles the radiation warming the surface of the planet. The atmosphere is predominately Nitrogen gas (N2) and Oxygen gas (O2), about 95 percent. These gases, however, are not greenhouse gases. The greenhouse gas CO2, though only exists in trace amounts, and water vapour, bring the temperature of the Earth up from minus 18 degrees centigrade (18 below freezing) to an observed average of plus 15 degrees centigrade (15 degrees above freezing). Without these crucial greenhouse gases, the Earth would be frozen. They have this enormous effect on warming the planet even with CO2 existing only at 400 parts per million. It occurs naturally and makes life on Earth possible. However, too much of it and the Earth can be too warm, and we are now seeing amounts beyond the natural levels through anthropogenic sources, that are making the Earth warmer than is favorable for the conditions best for life to be maximally sustainable. We see this increase in CO2 beginning with the industrial era. The sectors most responsible for the increase are power, industry, and transportation. Looking at records of CO2 amounts we see that it was 315 parts per million in 1958 and rose to 390 parts per million in 2010. It rose above 400 in 2013. Other greenhouse gases are methane (CH4) and Nitrous Oxide (N2O). Agricultural activities dominate emissions for nitrous oxide and methane. A healthy earth is one that is in radiative equilibrium, that is, it loses as much radiation as it receives. Currently we are slightly out of radiative balance, the Earth absorbs about one watt per square meter more than it loses. That means its temperature is not steady, but increasing. Ian Beardsley July 11, 2014

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Economics And The Gaia Fractal Because Capitalism looks for the cheapest way for a person to turn the Earth’s resources into profit, it goes against the optimal method of maintaining the Earth’s ability to sustain life. Communism does not do any better. We have said we need to understand the nature of the Gaia Fractal, so that we can make sure we do not interrupt the natural process it needs to carry out to function as an organism. We need to make sure it can maintain homeostasis. The political structure of a society determines its economic strategies, and the economics adopted by a people determines perhaps, more than any other factor, the homeostasis of the Gaia Fractal. Much to the credit of some great minds, we do have an economic theory that would seem to serve such ends; it is called bioeconomics. Bioeconomics is easy to understand, it simply uses biology to determine how we can use natural resources in such a way that they maximize the well being of life on earth in a sustainable way, as opposed to concentrating their value into a few hands in the form of money that represents them, which would not sustain life very long.

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When The Terrestrial Vitality Is In Decline The visionary H.G. Wells came up with an important phrase, or wording: Terrestrial Vitality, in his work Mind At The End Of Its Tether. Further he said it was in decline and that it could be that hard imaginative thinking is no longer able to keep pace with the increasing complexity of human problems. Let us try to think of all the ways we can that the terrestrial vitality is in decline:

1. The rotation of the earth is slowing so the days (albeit very slowly) become longer, and thus the earth warmer.

2. The Sun, albeit extremely slow of a phenomenon, is getting warmer. 3. Human caused global warming from burning fossil fuels threatens the health of

our food crops and water supplies. 4. Poor treatment of the ecosystem seems to be driving bee populations into decline,

thus threatening the pollination of fruit bearing crops. 5. Deforestation and destruction of plankton on the ocean surface threatens the

production of breathable oxygen and interrupts the carbon cycle.

6. The more time goes by, the higher the odds of being hit by an asteroid or large meteor that would kick up enough dirt in the atmosphere to block the sun’s rays thus interrupting photosynthesis and causing the food crops to die off and all the vegetation that farm animals feed on.

7. We could come out of the interglacial and enter an ice age. 8. The Earth's Magnetic Field becomes weaker, thus decreasing its ability to shield the earth from the solar wind. We can make this list much longer, and it is pretty incredible that all the necessary factors for the success of humans remained stable for more than the 5 million years it took them to evolve from primitive hominids. I list these threats to the terrestrial vitality, so that in clarifying them in our mind, we can address them and thereby come up with clear solutions that can be derived from the sciences. I think any advanced civilization and intelligent life form, would rather than ignore these threats, would put their minds to finding viable solutions. Ian Beardsley July 24, 2014

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The Human Situation The reality of the human situation is clearly one where humanity is poised between going in two different directions, one outlined by H.G. Wells in Mind At The End Of Its Tether and the other as outlined by Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick in 2001: A Space Odyssey: H.G. Wells: Humans must go steeply up or down. If he goes up so great is the adaptation required of him that he must cease to be a man. Ordinary man is at the end of his tether, and the odds seem all in favor of him going down and out. Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick: Humans end their reliance with technology and become the starchild. Humanity spreads its wings and flies through the Universe.

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AP Biology 01

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The Setting In the beginning, billions of years ago, there were only microorganisms. The animals and plants came into existence about 200 million years ago. Humans appeared about 2 million years ago, and anatomically modern humans have been around for about 200,000 years. Most of the mass of life consists of: Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur: CHNOPS AP Biology 1.1 Properties of Water And Carbon You should know: 1) Water forms polar covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds which gives it its properties that allow it to sustain life: a) adhesion b) cohesion c) surface tension d) high specific heat e) bonding not just between atoms, but between molecules lower density in its solid phase f) solubility (means a solute like NaCl will break up into Na+ and Cl- with Na+ attaching to the negative O2 in H2O and Cl- attaching to the H+ in H2O). 2) Carbon has four valence electrons, which allows it to form into a high diversity of chains or ring structures known as hydrocarbons. 3) Isomers are critical to structure and function of biological molecules. 4) Be able to identify what property a molecule has based on its functional groups. Types Of Functional Groups: Methyl Hydroxyl Carbonyl (Ketone) Carbonyl (Aldehyde) Carboxyl Amino Sulfhydryl Phosphate AP Biology 1.2 Using the carbon backbone (hydrocarbons) combined with functional groups we make repeating units known as monomers, that form macromolecules. The monomers combine by dehydration synthesis to form polymers, long complex chains of repeating units. The polymers can be broken back down into monomers by hydrolysis. There are four classes of macromolecules: Lipids, Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Nucleic Acids.

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Dehydration Synthesis (Condensation Reactions): A water molecule is removed from the monomers by breaking the bond to leave a hydroxyl group and a hydrogen ion. So you remove a water molecule and form a bond. Hydrolysis: We break a water bond splitting it into a hydroxyl group and hydrogen ion, and put them back on the monomers, making them separate again. This is the process of digestion. So you add water and break a bond. Dehydration Synthesis is used to build polymers out of monomers. Macromolecules 1) Carbohydrates Monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides, simple sugars made up of 3, 5, or 6 carbons. All sugar names end in “ose”. That is how you can tell it is a carbohydrate. These monomers are in ring shape structures. Two monomers come together in dehydration synthesis making a dysaccharide. In a carbohydrate this is called glycocitic linkage. Combing a glucose with a fructose monomer makes sucrose (table sugar). We make maltose by joining two glucose monomers and we make lactose by joining glucose and galactose. Multiple monomers make polysaccharides, like starch. This is used for energy storage in plant tissue. Some of these polymers can be used for energy storage, others for structural purposes. 2) Lipids Triglycerides (fats): Made up of three fatty acid chains and one glycerol molecule. They form in dehydration synthesis to make bonds called ester linkages where water is removed: a hydroxyl group from the fatty acid and a hydrogen ion from the glycerol. Fats store twice as much energy than carbohydrates. There are saturated fats like, butter and lard,(linear linkages) and unsaturated fats (that have one double bonded carbon). They are commonly called oils because they are liquid at room temperature. Steroids and Phospholipids: Steroids are made up of four carbon rings and examples are, cholesterol and cortisol. Phospholipids are glycerol, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group. These are key components of cell membranes. 3) Nucleic Acids It is a monomer nucleotide, a five carbon sugar, with nitrogen base on carbon 1, phosphate group on carbon 5, and is bonded with what are called phosphodiester bonds in dehydration synthesis of the phosphate of one nucleotide and carbon 3. The two main nucleic acids are DNA and RNA. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose and in RNA it is ribose. DNA is double helix, RNA single is a single strand. DNA stores and copies information and RNA transmits information.

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4) Proteins: There are thousands of different proteins and they can have many different functions like, be enzymes, antibodies, receptors, structural, motor, storage, and communication. There are 20 different amino acids and they are responsible for all the different proteins and all their different structures. They are found in all organisms. It is their R groups which are responsible for the structure of the proteins. Proteins can take a helix or pleated shape. Protein shape is crucial to the proper function of biological processes in the cell. An R group is a side chain attached to the backbone that makes up a large molecule.

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What Discover Is Finding By Ian Beardsley Copyright © 2015 by Ian Beardsley

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In an effort to find patterns in mathematics, nature, and the universe, I have decided to undertake writing a computer program, called Discover, that searches for them in the hopes that from these patterns a theory of everything can be established. In a vast sea of billions of grains of sand on the Earth alone, and billions of stars in the Galaxy alone, it takes a program like Discover to find its hidden nuances. I have already had some success. I have found a relationship pertaining to silicon circuitry, perhaps even AI. I wrote: If the golden ratio conjugate is to be found in Artificial Intelligence, it should be in silicon, phosphorus, and boron, since doping silicon with phosphorus and boron makes transistors. We take the geometric mean between phosphorus (P) and Boron (B), then divide by silicon (Si), then take the harmonic mean between phosphorus and boron divided by silicon:

Arithmetic mean of these two numbers: (0.65 + 0.57)/2 = 0.61. 0.61 is the first two digits of the golden ratio conjugate. The code for some of the programs, which I wrote in the language C, can be found in the appendices, for which I provide the theories behind them.

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Notice near fahrenheit-centigrade equivalence for the golden ratio and its conjugate when applied to the sun (solar luminosity) and the earth (AU) and the albedo of the planet: Running Discover 08 jharvard@appliance (~): cd Dropbox/descubrir jharvard@appliance (~/Dropbox/descubrir): ./discover8 bash: ./discover8: No such file or directory jharvard@appliance (~/Dropbox/descubrir): ./discover08 This program calculates the temperature of a planet,... Given the luminosity of the star and the albedo of the planet,.. What is brightness of the star in solar luminosities? 1.618 What is the albedo of the planet (0-1)? 0.618 What is the distance of the planet from the star in AU? 1.618 The surface temperature of the planet is: 231.462616 K That is -41.537384 C, or -42.767292 F jharvard@appliance (~/Dropbox/descubrir):

Feb 23, 2015

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running star.c (discover 03) for HD 26961 and NGC 6738 jharvard@appliance (~): cd Dropbox/discover jharvard@appliance (~/Dropbox/discover): make star clang -ggdb3 -O0 -std=c99 -Wall -Werror star.c -lcs50 -lm -o star jharvard@appliance (~/Dropbox/discover): ./star 0 enter an int 4 1 enter an int 18 2 enter an int 15 3 enter an int 50 4 enter an int 17 5 enter an int 44 4.00 hours 18.00 minutes 15.00 seconds 50.00 deg 17.00 min 44.00 sec RA For Star One = 60.30 deg Dec For Star One = 50.30 deg 0 enter an int 19 1 enter an int 2 2 enter an int 1 3 enter an int 11 4 enter an int 37 5 enter an int 28 19.00 hours 2.00 minutes 1.00 degrees

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11.00 deg 37.00 min 28.000 sec RA For Star Two =285.03 deg Dec For Star Two = 11.62 deg The separation between star one and star two is 228.03 The ratio of separation to 360 is 0.63 jharvard@appliance (~/Dropbox/discover): The result is close to the golden ratio conjugate and levinson’s number.

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Appendix 1 The Theory Behind discover 04 and discover 08 (Goldilocks.c and Discover 08) As climate science is a new science, there are many models for the climate and I learned my climate science at MIT in a free online edX course. One can generate a basic model for climate with nothing more than high school algebra using nothing more than the temperature of the sun, the distance of the earth from the sun, and the earth’s albedo, the percent of light it reflects back into space. The luminosity of the sun is:

!

L0 = 3.9 "1026J /s The separation between the earth and the sun is:

!

1.5 "1011m The solar luminosity at the earth is reduced by the inverse square law, so the solar constant is:

!

S0 =3.9 "1026

4# (1.5 "1011)2=1,370Watts /meter2

That is the effective energy hitting the earth per second per square meter. This radiation is equal to the temperature,

!

Te , to the fourth power by the steffan-bolzmann constant, sigma

!

(" ).

!

Te can be called the effective temperature, the temperature entering the earth.

!

S0 intercepts the earth disc,

!

"r2 , and distributes itself over the entire earth surface,

!

4"r2 , while 30% is reflected back into space due to the earth’s albedo, a, which is equal to 0.3, so

!

"Te4 =

S04(1# a)

(1# a)S0$r2

4$r2

But, just as the same amount of radiation that enters the system, leaves it, to have radiative equilibrium, the atmosphere radiates back to the surface so that the radiation from the atmosphere,

!

"Ta4 plus the radiation entering the earth,

!

"Te4 is the radiation at

the surface of the earth,

!

"Ts4 . However,

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!

"Ta4 ="Te

4 and we have:

!

"Ts4 ="Ta

4 +"Te4 = 2"Te

4

Ts = 214Te

"Te4 =

S04(1# a)

" = 5.67 $10#8

S0 =1,370a = 0.31,3704

(0.7) = 239.75

Te4 =

239.755.67 $10#8

= 4.228 $109

Te = 255Kelvin

So, for the temperature at the surface of the Earth:

!

Ts = 214Te =1.189(255) = 303Kelvin

Let’s convert that to degrees centigrade: Degrees Centigrade = 303 - 273 = 30 degrees centigrade And, let’s convert that to Fahrenheit: Degrees Fahrenheit = 30(9/5)+32=86 Degrees Fahrenheit In reality this is warmer than the average annual temperature at the surface of the earth, but, in this model, we only considered radiative heat transfer and not convective heat transfer. In other words, there is cooling due to vaporization of water (the formation of clouds) and due to the condensation of water vapor into rain droplets (precipitation or the formation of rain).

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Discover 04 (Goldilocks.c) #include <stdio.h> #include <math.h> int main (void) { printf("This program finds the habitable zone of a star,...\n"); printf("And the surface temperature of the planet in the habitable zone\n"); float LC, r, L, HZ, AU, a, root, number, N, answer, C, F; printf("What is the luminosity of the star in Joules per second? \n"); scanf("%f", &L); AU=L/3.9E26; HZ=sqrt(L/3.9E26); printf("The luminosity of the star in solar luminosities is: %f\n", AU); printf("The habitable zone of the star is in AU: %f\n", HZ); r = HZ*1.5E11; LC=L/(4*3.141*r*r); printf("luminosity constant of star in watts per square meter: %f\n", LC); printf("What is the albedo of the planet? (between 0 and 1): "); scanf("%f", &a); N = (1-a)*LC/(4*(5.67E-8)); root = sqrt(N); number = sqrt(root); answer = 1.189*number; printf("The surface temperature of the planet is: %f K\n", answer); C = answer - 273; F = (C*1.8) + 32; printf("That is %f C, or %f F \n", C, F); }

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Discover 08 #include <stdio.h> #include <math.h> int main(void) { float s, a, l, b, r, AU, N, root, number, answer, C, F; printf("This program calculates the temperature of a planet,...\n"); printf("Given the luminosity of the star and the albedo of the planet,..\n"); printf("What is brightness of the star in solar luminosities? "); scanf("%f", &s); printf("What is the albedo of the planet (0-1)? "); scanf("%f", &a); printf("What is the distance of the planet from the star in AU? "); scanf("%f", &AU); r=1.5E11*AU; l=3.9E26*s; b=l/(4*3.141*r*r); N=(1-a)*(b)/(4*(5.67E-8)); root=sqrt(N); number=sqrt(root); answer=1.189*(number); printf("The surface temperature of the planet is: %f K\n", answer); C=answer-273; F=(C*1.8)+32; printf("That is %f C, or %f F", C, F); printf("\n"); }

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Appendix 2 Theory Behind Discover 01 The arithmetic mean is the midpoint, c, between two extremes a, and c:

!

b =a + c

2

The harmonic mean is not necessarily the midpoint between two extremes but is the value that occurs most frequently:

!

b =2ac

a + c

The geometric mean, b, between a and c, is the side of a square that has the same area as a rectangle with sides a and c:

!

b = ac The following relationship holds:

!

a :a + c

2::2ac

a + c: c

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Appendix 3 discover 03 (star.c) #include <stdio.h> #include <math.h> int main(void) { float num[6], a, b, c, d, e, A, B, D, E, F; for (int i=0; i<=5; i++) { printf("%d enter an int \n", i); scanf("%f", &num[i]); } printf("%.2f hours\n", num[0]); printf("%.2f minutes\n", num[1]); printf("%.2f seconds\n", num[2]); printf("%.2f deg\n", num[3]); printf("%.2f min\n", num[4]); printf("%.2f sec\n", num[5]); printf("\n"); printf("\n"); a=num[0]*15; b=num[2]/60; c=b+num[1]; d=c/60; e=a+d; printf("RA For Star One = %.2f deg\n", e); A=num[3]; B=num[5]/60; D=B+num[4]; E=D/60; F=E+A; printf("Dec For Star One = %.2f deg\n", F); float dig[6], h, i, j, k, l, H, I , K, L, M; for (int j=0; j<=5; j++) { printf("%d enter an int \n", j); scanf("%f", &dig[j]); } printf("%.2f hours\n", dig[0]); printf("%.2f minutes\n", dig[1]); printf("%.2f degrees\n", dig[2]);

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printf("%.2f deg\n", dig[3]); printf("%.2f min\n", dig[4]); printf("%.3f sec\n", dig[5]); printf("\n"); printf("\n"); h=dig[0]*15; i=dig[2]/60; j=i+dig[1]; k=j/60; l=h+k; printf("RA For Star Two =%.2f deg\n", l); H=dig[3]; I=dig[5]/60; K=I+dig[4]; L=K/60; M=L+H; printf("Dec For Star Two = %.2f deg\n", M); float dif, ratio; dif=sqrt(((e-l)*(e-l))+((F-M)*(F-M))); ratio=dif/360; printf("The separation between star one and star two is %.2f\n", dif); printf("The ratio of separation to 360 is %.2f\n", ratio); }

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Albedo Albedo is a function of surface reflectivity and atmospheric reflectivity. Atmospheric albedo seems to ply the primary role in the overall albedo of a planet. Albedo is the percent of light incident to a surface that is reflected back into space. It has a value ranging from zero to one inclusive. Zero is a black surface absorbing all incident light and one is a white surface reflecting all incident light back into space. Albedo plays a dominant role in the climate of a planet. Let us see if we can find a relationship between composition of a planet and its albedo if not in its distance from the star it orbits and its albedo, even a relationship between its albedo and orbital number, in that albedo could be a function of distance from the star a planet orbits because composition seems to be a function of distance of a planet from the star it orbits. As in the inner planets are solid, or terrestrial, and the outer planets are gas giants. There may be an analogue to the Titius-Bode rule for planetary distribution, but for albedo with respect to planetary number. The inner planets are dominantly CO2, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and water vapor, the outer planets, hydrogen and helium.

1 Mercury  albedo  of  0.06  composition  95%  CO2  2 Venus  albedo  of  0.75  composition  clouds  of  sulfuric  acid  3 Earth  albedo  of  0.30  composition  Nitrogen,  Oxygen,  H20  or  water  vapor  4 Mars  albedo  of  0.29  composition  CO2  5 Asteroids  6 Jupiter  albedo  of  0.53  composition  hydrogen  and  helium  7 Saturn  albedo  of  0.47  composition    hydrogen  and  helium  8 Uranus  albedo  of  0.51  composition  hydrogen,  helium,  methane  9 Neptune  albedo  of  0.41  composition  of  hydrogen  and  helium  

We see the outer gas giant, which are composed chiefly of hydrogen and helium have albedos around 50%. Earth and Mars, the two planets in the habitable zone, are about the same (30%). Go to the next page for a graph of albedo to planetary number.

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mercury   0.06  venus   0.75  earth   0.3  mars   0.29  asteroids  

 jupiter   0.52  saturn   0.47  uranus   0.51  neptune   0.41  

The average for the albedo of the inner planets is: (0.6+0.75+0.3+0.29)/4 = 0.35 This is close to the albedo of the habitable planets Earth and Mars. The average for the albedo of the outer planets is: (0.52+0.47+0.51+0.41)/4 + 0.4775 ~0.48 This says the outer planets are all close to 0.48~0.5 All this also says, if the planet is solid and habitable it probably has an albedo of around 0.3, otherwise it is an outer gaseous planet and probably has an albedo of around 0.5. (0.48+0.35) /2 = 0.375 Ian Beardsley February 25, 2015

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I first took an introduction to computer science at Harvard, called CS50. The compiler provided is the CS50 appliance. It runs on linux, so whether you use a PC or a Mac, you have to upload the free VirtualBox that allows you to use software that runs on linux. This course begins with learning to write code in C. The MIT course teaches you to write code in Python. The compiler, which is called Enthought Canopy Express, can be downloaded for free and is available for PC, Mac, or linux.

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If you make a computer language and it has six primitives (elements) it can compute anything. It was Alan Turing who showed this. If you write a program in a computer language that has six primitives, you can write a program that does the same thing in any other language that has six primitives. A computer language that has six primitives is said to be turning complete. I your language does not have six primitives, it is a fixed program computer and can only do a finite number of things. If the computer language has at least six primitves, it is a stored program computer, for which you can write an algorithm for anything. Let us look at the language C. It has six primitives that allow us to do anything. Perhaps they are: if, then, else, for, printf(), and scanf(). Could this say at the basis of human consciousness there are six primitives? That, the human mind has the potential to compute anything? Is evolution just not the development of a more and more sophisticated set of primitives, but the development the primitives and added elements made from the basic primitives? Ian Beardsley February 21, 2015

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Wikipedia writes: “To show that something is Turing complete, it is enough to show that it can be used to simulate some Turing complete system. For example, an imperative language is Turing complete if it has conditional branching (e.g., "if" and "goto" statements, or a "branch if zero" instruction. See OISC) and the ability to change an arbitrary amount of memory locations (e.g., the ability to maintain an arbitrary number of variables). Since this is almost always the case, most (if not all) imperative languages are Turing complete if the limitations of finite memory are ignored.”

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Let’s see if Turing was right; that you can write the same program in another language if both have six primitives. Here is what my first program in python looks like name.py name=raw_input('Enter your name: '); print('Are you ' +name+ '?'); answer=raw_input('Answer: '); print('Thank you'); Running it does this: Enter your name: Ian Beardsley Are you Ian Beardsley? I thinks so. Thank you. Here is the same program in C (name.c) #include <stdio.h> int main (void) { char first[15], last[15], answer[15]; printf ("Enter your last name: "); scanf("%s", last); printf ("Enter your first name: "); scanf("%s", first); printf("Are you %s, %s?\n", last, first); scanf("%s", answer); printf("Thank you, %s\n", answer); } Running it: jharvard@appliance (~/Dropbox/descubrir): ./name Enter your last name: Beardsley Enter your first name: Ian Are you Beardsley, Ian? yes Thank you, yes jharvard@appliance (~/Dropbox/descubrir):

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Branching Programs square.py y=float(raw_input('Enter a number: ')) print('square of y: ') print(y*y) remainder.py x=int(raw_input('Enter an int: ')) if x%2 == 0: print(' ') print('even') else: print(' ') print('odd') print('Done with conditional') nested.c x=int(raw_input('Enter an int: ')) if x%2==0: if x%3==0: print('Divisible by 2 and 3') elif x%3==0: print('Divisible by 3 and not by 2') else: print('Not divisible by 2 or 3')

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