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Reducing the Effects of Work-Family Conflict on Job Satisfaction: The Kind of Commitment Mattersab
Article published in Human Resource Management Journal http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1748-8583.2011.00187.x/abstract
Filomena Buonocore
Department of Management University of Naples Parthenope
Via Medina, 40 – 80133 Naples Italy [email protected]
Marcello Russo (corresponding author)
Department of Management and Strategy Rouen Business School
1, Rue de Maréchal Juin BP 325 76825 Mont Saint Aignan, France
a The authors are listed alphabetically to reflect their equal contributions. b We are grateful to Loriann Roberson and Maria Ferrara for helpful comments to earlier versions of this article. We would also like to thank Tony Dundon and two anonymous HRMJ reviewers for their valuable guidance in revising the work.
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Abstract
The way in which organizational commitment influences the relationship between work-
family conflict and job satisfaction is a question that has produced contradictory results.
We address this issue by developing and testing a model that integrates role conflict
theory and major research on organizational commitment, to elucidate the consequences
that time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict have on job satisfaction. The research is
based on data collected among Italian nurses, and the results show that time- and strain-
based conflict are negatively related to job satisfaction. In addition, affective
commitment moderates the relationship between strain-based conflict and job
satisfaction, whereas normative commitment moderates the relationship between time-
based conflict and job satisfaction. We discuss the implications of these results for theory
and practice.
Keywords: work-life balance, work-family conflict, time-based conflict, strain-based
conflict, behaviour-based conflict, job satisfaction, organizational commitment.
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Introduction
Work-family conflict has been defined as a conflict that occurs between work roles and
family roles, resulting from the highly demanding pressures associated with each role, and
reducing performance in both roles (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985). Work-family conflict is
based on role conflict theory (Kahn et al., 1964) and assumes that people have fixed amounts
of resources, in terms of time and energy, to distribute among different roles. Current
research distinguishes the source, nature, and direction of work-family conflict (e.g.
Kelloway et al., 1999). That is, work-family conflict is conceived as a bidirectional
phenomenon that includes work-to-family and family-to-work conflict (Netemeyer et al.,
1996). Work-family conflict refers to the interference of work on family responsibilities,
whereas family-work conflict refers to the interference of family on work responsibilities. In
addition, researchers argue that work-family conflict is the result of three components: time-,
strain-, and behaviour-based conflict (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985). Time-based conflict
occurs when the amount of time devoted to one role makes it harder (or impossible) to
accomplish the activities of another. Strain-based conflict refers to emotional exhaustion
occurring when the stress, fatigue, or anxiety of one role reduces the effectiveness of the
second role. Finally, behaviour-based conflict occurs when behaviours that are effective in
one role are not functional for the second role (Greenhaus et al., 2006).
A great bulk of research has shown that work-family conflict is responsible for
detrimental effects on organizational outcomes (see Eby et al., 2005 for a review). For
example, researchers have shown that work-family conflict affects job satisfaction (Perrewè
et al., 1999), organizational commitment (Aryee et al., 2005), intention to quit (Simon et al.,
2004), burnout (Peeters et al., 2005), and stress (Killien, 2004). However, in the last two
decades work-family research has been criticized as being atheoretical (Zedeck, 1992),
inadequately conceptualized (Lambert, 1990), methodologically inappropriate (Casper et al.,
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2007), or narrowly focused (Carlson et al., 2009). For example, researchers have paid less
attention to the three forms of work-family conflict, considering more often a comprehensive
measure of role conflict (see for an exception Heilmann et al., 2009). In addition, the
majority of research has provided scant consideration of possible moderators of the
relationship between role conflict and job outcomes (see for an exception Namasivayam and
Zhao, 2007). This represents a limitation of existing research, since it fails to examine
individual or situational characteristics that may be responsible for the different effects of
work-family conflict on employee attitudes and behaviours at work (Blanch and Aluja,
2009).
The central aim of this article is to extend what is currently known about work-family
conflict, by examining the different effects of the three forms of work-family conflict on
organizational outcomes among a sample of Italian nurses. Specifically, we aim to verify
what effects time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict have on nurses’ job satisfaction, at
different levels of organizational commitment. This article also aims to investigate whether
the kind of organizational commitment (i.e. affective, normative, and continuance
commitment) is relevant in moderating the effects of the three forms of work-family conflict
on job satisfaction.
In the following sections we will start with a short review of work-life literature and a
discussion of the mechanisms through which three forms of work-family conflict may impact
on job satisfaction.
Literature review and hypotheses development
Work-life research has evolved greatly in recent decades. In the 1950s there was a substantial
lack of interest in this theme, the main idea being that work and life are two distinct domains
that do not affect each other (Lambert, 1990). In the 1960s and 1970s, when a substantial
number of women began entering the workforce, the need for an awareness of work-life
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issues emerged. In particular, the main assumption in that period was that work-life balance
was a ‘feminine’ problem. In the1980s and 1990s, research on the work-life issue was
influenced by conflict theory, which depicted work and life as mutually incompatible
(Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985). Scholars argued that work-life interaction mostly assumes a
negative form according to a ‘zero-sum game’, so that each professional or family gain
implies a loss in the other domain (Friedman et al., 1998). Managers and employees
‘accepted the cliché that success always demands a price and that the price is usually
deterioration in the private life’ (Bartolomé and Evans, 1980, p. 32). In contrast, current
research suggests that there may also be a positive interaction between work and family roles
(Wayne, 2009). Researchers introduced the concepts of enrichment, positive spillover,
enhancement, and facilitation to elucidate the positive synergies occurring between work and
family domains (Carlson et al., 2006; Greenhaus and Powell, 2006). These constructs are
based on the assumption that engagement in multiple roles may promote positive outcomes
such as enhanced performance, emotional gratification, greater effectiveness, and improved
quality of work and family lives (Greenhaus and Powell, 2006).
In this article, we decided to focus on work-family conflict among nurses for several
reasons. First, nursing is a profession constantly exposed to job demands and stress, causing
role conflict (Namayandeh et al., 2011). Researchers have shown that difficulties in
balancing work and family lives affect job performance and quality of care, and increase the
likelihood of harmful malpractices (Grzywacz et al., 2006). Hence, an analysis of the
possible ways to reduce the negative effects of work-family conflict in the workplace may be
highly relevant for employees, management, and policymakers. In addition, it has been found
that work-family conflict is more commonly experienced than family-work conflict among
nurses (Kinnunen and Mauno, 1998). Taken together, these arguments support the idea that
focusing on work-family conflict rather than on other work-life constructs may be valuable in
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reducing the shortage of nurses and increasing the attractiveness of the nursing profession
(Simon et al., 2004).
The relationships between time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict and job
satisfaction
Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) suggested that work-family conflict is composed of
time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict. Time-based conflict refers to the lack of time to
accomplish activities associated with work and family roles, and it has been found to be
related to the presence of evening or night shift work, the number of hours worked per week,
and the inflexibility of the work schedule (Carlson, 1999). Strain-based conflict refers to
physical and psychological fatigue that impedes an individual from participating fully in both
roles (Byron, 2005). In the nursing profession, strain-based conflict relates to a variety of job
stressors, such as working conditions, role overload, daily exposure to disease, and limited
career opportunities (Burke and Greenglass, 2001). Behaviour-based conflict refers to
behaviours that are effective in one role but that are inappropriately applied in the other
(Greenhaus et al., 2006). Kelloway and colleagues (1999) argued that behaviour-based
conflict has rarely been shown to exist, and is difficult to measure. However, Bruck and
colleagues (2002) showed that behaviour-based conflict was the only form of conflict related
to the global and composite measure of job satisfaction, and that it was a more powerful
predictor of job dissatisfaction than time- or strain-based conflict.
In the current study we suggest that the three dimensions of work-family conflict are
negatively related to nurses’ job satisfaction. Job satisfaction reveals an attitude that indicates
a positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or various facets of one’s
job (Locke, 1984). Job satisfaction has been the most studied job-related outcome associated
with work-family conflict. However, research on this topic has produced contrasting findings
(Amstad et al., 2011). Employees with high levels of work-family conflict have been found
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to be less satisfied (Allen et al., 2000), more satisfied (Thompson and Blau, 1993), and
equally satisfied with their jobs when compared with employees with low levels of work-
family conflict (Aryee et al., 1999). Kossek and Ozeki (1998) suggested that contrasting
findings might be due to different measurements of investigated constructs. In a similar vein,
Bruck and colleagues (2002) argued that ignoring the multidimensionality of work-family
conflict might have contributed to the inconsistency of the findings. Following these
arguments, in this paper we consider the separate effects of time-, strain-, and behaviour-
based conflict on job satisfaction. Adopting this distinction may make it possible to show that
the different forms of work-family conflict are associated with different consequences
(Lapierre and Allen, 2006).
The relationship between the three forms of work-family conflict and job satisfaction
is explained in this study through role stress theory (Kahn et al., 1964), which assumes an
incompatibility between the requirements and an incongruence of values between work roles
and family roles. Pressure resulting from this incompatibility has an effect on organizational
attitudes, especially when the job is seen as a threat to family roles (Grandey et al., 2005).
For example, when a nurse believes that work shifts or the stressful work environment are
responsible for the lack of time or energy to devote to the family, he or she might develop a
feeling of resentment, which, in turn, reduces the level of job satisfaction. Hence, we posit
that job satisfaction is expected to decrease when workers experience time-, strain-, and
behaviour-based conflict. Accordingly:
H1: (a) Time-based conflict, (b) strain-based conflict, and (c) behaviour-based
conflict have a negative relationship with job satisfaction among nurses.
The moderating role of organizational commitment
Organizational commitment is the psychological attachment of an employee toward the
organization (Allen and Meyer, 1990). The concept of commitment represents a key
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construct in the literature on work-life balance. For example, Greenhaus and colleagues
(2003) suggested that work-life balance refers to ‘the extent to which an individual is equally
engaged in – equally satisfied with – his or her work role and family role’ (p. 513). However,
the idea that individuals might show an equal level of commitment to different and
theoretically conflicting roles has been repeatedly questioned in the literature. Some
researchers have argued that equal levels of commitment to work and family roles are not
plausible (Sturges and Guest, 2004). High levels of job involvement require a complete
absorption of time, concentration, and energy so that an equal involvement in other roles is
not possible (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990). In contrast, recent work-family theorists (Greenhaus
and Powell, 2006) have argued not only that involvement in multiple roles is possible, but
that such involvement might also provide benefits for work and family performance. This
belief is based on the assumptions that individuals can simultaneously operate with high
levels of job and personal involvement, and that time, energy, or other individual resources
may expand rather than reduce through simultaneous participation in multiple roles (Marks,
1977; Romzek, 1989). Consistently, the studies by Begley and Czajka (1993) and
Namasivayam and Zhao (2007) have shown that high levels of organizational commitment
may have positive consequences on employees’ work and family lives, attenuating the
negative consequences of work stressors on job pleasure and job satisfaction.
In the present article we aim to investigate whether high levels of organizational
commitment may reduce or exacerbate the effects of work-family conflict on job satisfaction.
Specifically, we examine whether and how the three dimensions of organizational
commitment (i.e. affective, normative, and continuance commitment) influence the effects of
time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict on job satisfaction.
Affective commitment. Affective commitment refers to an emotional bond that
individuals develop toward the organization. It results from an emotional mind-set
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characterized by the desire to remain with the organization and to behave in a way that
maximizes the organization’s interests (Meyer and Herscovitch, 2001).
In the current research, we hypothesize that affective commitment may reduce the
negative effects of time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict on job satisfaction. Affective
commitment has been found to affect an individual’s emotional state (Meyer et al., 1993) and
to reduce personal experience of stress in the workplace (i.e. Begley and Czajka, 1993).
Existing research has shown that employees with high levels of affective commitment show a
strong desire to be part of their organization (they want to be) and that they are more likely to
enjoy the job (Namasivayam and Zhao, 2007; Williams, 2010). In contrast, employees with
low levels of affective commitment may be more likely to focus on negative aspects of the
job, which causes on-going feelings of distress and dissatisfaction (Carlson, 1999).
Consistently, we posit that high levels of affective commitment may induce among
employees an overall positive mood that influences individual attitudes, thoughts, and
feelings, which, in turn, reduce the salience of role conflict. Accordingly:
H2: The relationships between (a) time-, (b) strain-, and (c) behaviour-based conflict
and job satisfaction are moderated by affective commitment, so that high levels of affective
commitment reduce the negative effects of time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict on job
satisfaction.
Normative commitment. Normative commitment reflects perceived obligations to
remain in the organization. It is based on a feeling of gratitude toward the organization for the
inducements received (i.e. socialization, training, and professional growth) that prevent
employees from looking for other employment alternatives (Meyer et al., 2002).
In the current research, we hypothesize that normative commitment may reduce the
negative effects of time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict on job satisfaction. In
accordance with reciprocity norms theory (Gouldner, 1960), we believe that high levels of
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normative commitment may stimulate a sense of indebtedness toward the organization, which
may influence attitudes at work and responses to role conflict. For example, employees with
high levels of normative commitment may be likely to rationalize their judgment of job
satisfaction by giving more weight to the inducements received from the organization than to
role stressors such as work-family conflict. In addition, high levels of normative commitment
may lead nurses to conceive dimensions of role conflict (such as time devoted to the job) in a
different and less negative light, i.e. as a necessary sacrifice to reciprocate the benefits
received from the organization, rather than as a job feature that prevents work-life balance.
Accordingly:
H3: The relationships between (a) time-, (b) strain-, and (c) behaviour-based conflict
and job satisfaction are moderated by normative commitment, so that high levels of
normative commitment reduce the negative effects of time-, strain-, and behaviour-based
conflict on job satisfaction.
Continuance Commitment. Continuance commitment occurs when individuals
perceive that they have too much to lose by leaving the organization, because of their intense
personal investments in the job and the limited employment alternatives (Allen and Meyer,
1990).
In the current research, we hypothesize that continuance commitment may exacerbate
the negative effects of time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict on job satisfaction.
Employees with high levels of continuance commitment do not experience an emotional
attachment to the organization, but they typically feel trapped, as if they have no alternative
(Namasivayam and Zhao, 2007). Accordingly, researchers have argued that individuals with
high levels of continuance commitment often report feelings of resentment and dissatisfaction
at work (Meyer et al., 2002). In line with these arguments, continuance commitment is
expected to function as an exacerbator of the relationships between time-, strain-, and
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behaviour-based conflict and job satisfaction. For example, employees with high levels of
continuance commitment may perceive more strongly the salience of role stressors, which, in
turn, increase their feeling of resentment and dissatisfaction toward the organization.
Accordingly:
H4: The relationships between (a) time-, (b) strain-, and (c) behaviour-based conflict
and job satisfaction are moderated by continuance commitment, so that high levels of
continuance commitment exacerbate the negative effects of time-, strain-, and behaviour-
based conflict on job satisfaction.
Research methods
Sample Data for the present study were collected during September and October 2009 in five classes
of a postgraduate course managed by the Italian nursing association (I.PA.SVI.). The sample
consisted of 197 nurses working in public hospitals and private clinics located in the
Campania Region of Italy. Questionnaires were hand-delivered to educators, who distributed
them at the end of classes. Participation was voluntary, and respondents were assured that
their responses would be confidential for research purposes only. A total of 171
questionnaires were completed with a response rate of 86.8 percent.
Of the 171 participants, 62 percent were women; 53.8 percent of the sample were part
of a dual-earner couple; 61.4 percent had at least one child, and 65 percent declared
themselves to have family responsibilities (including childcare or parent care). The mean age
of respondents was 38.81 years (SD = 6.73) and mean tenure in the nursing profession was
13.55 years (SD = 7.23). Some 51 percent of the respondents were graduates, and 35.7 had
subsequently undertaken a postgraduate or specialization course. The majority of the sample
(85.2 percent) worked a regular eight-hour shift, while 13 percent had a flexible schedule.
The average number of working hours per week was 36.84 (SD = 5.15; range 36–55 hours).
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Around 35 percent of the sample held positions with high levels of responsibility, such as
nursing coordinator or trade union representative.
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Measurement
Work-family conflict. Work-family conflict was measured using Carlson and
colleagues’ scale (2000). The scale is composed of 18 items and is divided into three
subscales that provide specific measures of time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict.
Sample items are: ‘The time I must devote to my job keeps me from participating equally in
the household’ (time-based conflict), ‘I am often so emotionally drained when I get home
from work that it prevents me from contributing to my family’ (strain-based conflict), and
‘Behaviour that is effective and necessary for me at work would be counterproductive at
home’ (behaviour-based conflict). Cronbach’s alpha was 0.89 for time-based conflict, 0.89
for strain-based conflict, and 0.79 for behaviour-based conflict.
Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction was measured using Spector’s (1985) job satisfaction
scale. The scale is composed of 36 items and respondents indicate how satisfied or
dissatisfied they are with a number of work factors, including pay, promotion, relationship
with colleagues and supervisors, and the nature of the work. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.84.
Organizational commitment. Affective, normative, and continuance commitment
were measured using Meyer and colleagues’ scale (1993). The scale is composed of 36 items
and is divided into three subscales, measuring the three dimensions of commitment. A sample
item is: ‘This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me’ (affective
commitment). Cronbach’s alpha was 0.83 for affective commitment, 0.78 for normative
commitment, and 0.73 for continuance commitment.
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Control variables. We controlled for gender, tenure, presence of dual-earner couples,
number of children, family responsibilities, work schedule, position with a high level of
responsibility, and number of working hours per week, factors which have been found to
affect both work-life and organizational attitudes among nurses (Grzywacz et al., 2006).
Analysis
To test the research model we used partial least squares path modelling (PLS-PM).
PLS is a second-generation multivariate regression-based technique for the assessment and
estimation of structural models (Wold, 1982). All PLS-PM analyses were performed using
XLSTAT for Windows version 2010. To test the hypotheses of the moderation of affective,
normative, and continuance commitment, we followed the ‘simple-slope’ procedure
suggested by Aiken and West (1991). This allows for the verification of the level of
significance of the slope reflecting the variation of the dependent variable on the independent
variable at higher, moderate, and lower levels of the moderator variable.
Results
Before all the proposed paths were tested, a preliminary correlation analysis was conducted.
Mean, standard deviation, and correlations are reported in Table 2. The findings show that the
almost all the relationships were in the expected direction. Time- and strain-based conflict
were negatively associated with job satisfaction, whereas behaviour-based conflict was not.
Affective and normative commitment were positively associated with job satisfaction,
whereas continuance commitment showed a negative association. Finally, the number of
children and the presence of a dual-earner couple were positively related to time- and
behaviour-based conflict respectively.
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A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to verify the properties of the
measurement scales. The test of the measurement model includes the estimation of internal
consistency reliability and the convergent validity of the instrument items. All reliability
measures were greater than the recommended level of 0.70 as an indicator of adequate
internal consistency (Hair et al., 2006). Construct reliability was also evaluated using Dillon-
Goldstein’s rho. A rho value higher than 0.70 indicates that the variance of a variable
explains at least 70 percent of the variance of the corresponding measure (Fornell and Larker,
1981). In this research, Dillon-Goldstein’s rho is higher than 0.70 for all the constructs.
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Insert Table 3 about here
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We proceeded to test the structural model by adding predictive paths among the latent
constructs. The overall variance explained by the research was 0.347 (for time-based
conflict), 0.474 (for strain-based conflict), and 0.316 (for behaviour-based conflict), which
implied a satisfactory and substantial model. With regard to the paths, the results indicate that
the direct path between time-based conflict and job satisfaction (β = - 0.238, p < 0.001), and
between strain-based conflict and job satisfaction (β = - 0.406, p < 0.001) were significant.
Thus, hypotheses H1a and H1b were supported. In contrast, the direct path between
behaviour-based conflict and job satisfaction was not significant (β = - 0.043, p > 0.05).
Thus, hypothesis H1c was not supported. The hypotheses H2, H3, and H4 assume the
existence of a moderator effect of affective, normative, and continuance commitment on the
relationships between time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict and job satisfaction. The
findings support only the hypotheses H2b and H3a since the interaction terms – time-based
conflict × affective commitment (β = 0.282, p < .05) and strain-based conflict × normative
commitment (β = 0.188, p < .05) – were significantly related to job satisfaction (Table 4).
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The simple-slope test (Aiken and West, 1991) revealed that for nurses with higher levels of
normative commitment, time-based conflict was less negatively related to job satisfaction
than it was for nurses with lower levels of normative commitment (b = 0.312, t = 1.97, p <
.05) (Figure 1). Similarly, for nurses with higher levels of affective commitment, strain-based
conflict was less negatively related to job satisfaction than it was for nurses with lower levels
of affective commitment (b = -0.234, t = -2.79, p < .05) (Figure 2).
Finally, a multi-group comparison test was performed to investigate whether control
variables assumed a significant role in the hypothesized model. In PLS-PM analysis, the
multi-group comparison test allows verification of whether path coefficients change
significantly because of control variables. For example, we conducted a comparison between
two groups, nurses with no children and nurses with children, and a test of significance on the
path coefficients across the groups. The results of the comparison tests did not reveal any
significant difference in the path coefficients after checking for control variables.
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Discussion
The objective of this research was to examine the links between the three forms of work-
family conflict (time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict), job satisfaction, and the three
facets of organizational commitment (affective, normative, and continuance commitment).
The findings of the research show that only time- and strain-based conflict have a negative
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impact on job satisfaction. In addition, for nurses with high levels of affective and normative
commitment such forms of conflict have less detrimental consequences on job satisfaction.
The research makes a significant contribution to work-life and commitment
literatures. The first contribution, to work-life literature, is the examination of the relationship
between the three-dimensional model of work-family conflict and job satisfaction. The
multidimensional conceptualization of work-family conflict has been frequently ignored in
previous research. The present research shows that the three forms of work-family conflict
may have a different effect on job satisfaction, and that, contrary to previous research (Bruck
et al., 2002); behaviour-based conflict was not significantly related to job satisfaction. A
possible explanation for this result might lie in the characteristics of the nursing profession.
Nursing is a profession in which work roles share similar experiences with family roles. For
example, the main purpose of the nursing profession is to take care of human beings and
assist them to optimize their health status (Fawcett, 1983). Similarly, in the family domain
nurses regularly take care of significant others and assist them to optimize their status (Ross
et al., 1994). In addition, nurses often use skills gained in the workplace (e.g. medical skills)
to enhance the effectiveness of their family functioning (e.g. taking care of a sick baby).
Hence, for nurses it is likely that behaviours that are functional in the work domain may also
be useful in the family domain.
The second contribution, to the commitment literature, is the examination of the role
of organizational commitment as a moderator in the relationship between work-family
conflict and job satisfaction. Specifically, the results of this study suggest that there may be a
correlation between the three forms of work-family conflict and the kind of organizational
commitment. In particular, the research shows that affective and normative commitment have
a distinctive buffer effect on strain-based conflict and time-based conflict respectively. It is
interesting to note that these findings extend earlier research on this topic (e.g. Namasivayam
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and Zhao, 2007), since they highlight that normative commitment has a specific and
independent effect on the relationship between role conflict and job satisfaction in
comparison with affective commitment.
An explanation of why affective commitment moderates the negative consequences of
strain-based conflict on job satisfaction might be found in research on work stress and
spillover. Role stress theory asserts that individuals who seek to fulfil multiple roles tend to
experience stress and dissatisfaction (Kahn et al., 1964). However, researchers have found
that affective commitment reduces the salience of work stressors (Glazer and Kruse, 2008).
Specifically, scholars have argued that work stressors are seen as less threatening in highly
committed employees, as affective commitment gives them a sense of stability and security
within the organization (Williams, 2010). Consistently, recent research on spillover argues
that positive emotions (e.g. good mood) experienced in the work domain may spill over into
family domain, enhancing the overall quality of life (Allis and O’Driscoll, 2008). Hence, it is
plausible that nurses with high levels of affective commitment may experience positive
emotions at work as well as in the family domain, which, in turn, may lead them to abandon
the belief that the organization is responsible for work-life imbalance, with positive
consequences on job satisfaction.
In addition, the results suggest that normative commitment has a moderating effect on
the negative consequences of time-based conflict only. An explanation for this result might
be found in reciprocity norms theory (Gouldner, 1960). According to this theory, moral
obligations lead workers to put substantial efforts into their work in an attempt to reciprocate
the favourable treatment received (Allen and Meyer, 1990). It is reasonable to assume that
normative commitment, by nurturing a moral obligation among employees, may reduce the
salience of time-based conflict, which, in turn, prevents negative consequences for job
satisfaction. To explain how normative commitment may operate to reduce the negative
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effects of time-based conflict on job satisfaction, we use an example inspired by the US
television series Army Wives. In an episode broadcast in Italy in July 2011, a father tells his
son that he cannot be there for his birthday since he has to leave because of his job (i.e. time-
based conflict). The son answers that he does not want his father to go away, and remarks
gloomily, ‘You’re never here with me when I need you.’ This provokes a negative emotional
reaction on the part of the father, which translates into feelings of resentment and
dissatisfaction toward the job. However, the wife reminds the son that it is necessary for the
father to leave, since his job provides the family with income and valuable benefits (including
a beautiful house provided by the army and a good education for him). In this case, it is
plausible that normative commitment operates as a buffer on the relationship between role
conflict and job satisfaction, by reducing the negative emotional reaction toward the job. In
particular, normative commitment does not eliminate the cause of time-based conflict, but it
may have induced in the father a reflection that missing his son’s birthday is a necessary
sacrifice he has to make in order to reciprocate the favourable treatment received from the US
army.
Finally, results show that continuance commitment has neither a buffer nor an
exacerbator effect on any form of work-family conflict. A possible explanation might be
found in the characteristics of the Italian healthcare labour market. This is characterized by a
low rate of unemployment and a chronic shortage of workers (ISTAT, 2011). Therefore,
Italian nurses have few difficulties in finding new and better jobs because the number of job
vacancies exceeds the supply of workers. Hence, it is plausible that affective and normative
commitment may have a more relevant effect on role conflict and job satisfaction among
nurses.
Implications for managerial practices and future research
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We found evidence that affective and normative commitment moderate the
relationship between strain- and time-based conflict and job satisfaction. Nevertheless, there
are a number of questions that could be addressed by an extension of this work. For example,
it would be interesting to test the hypothesized model considering other foci of commitment,
such as professional commitment (Blau, 1989). Nurses have a long period of professional
training, during which they develop a strong feeling of commitment toward the profession
that provides the basis of their self-identity (Fagermoen, 1997). Hence it would be interesting
to investigate whether and how high levels of professional commitment operate to reduce the
negative consequences of role conflict on job satisfaction.
In addition, the present research has highlighted the importance of affective
commitment on job-related stressors, such as strain-based conflict. An important extension of
this work may lie in a deeper focus on work-family enrichment (Greenhaus and Powell,
2006). It would be interesting to investigate whether and how conflict and enrichment
simultaneously operate to influence job satisfaction. Participation in multiple roles might
enhance employees’ quality of work and family lives, by reducing the salience of job-related
stressors. However, adopting ‘multitasking’ behaviours may also have unfavourable
consequences for stress and health (Stoddard and Madsen, 2007). Individuals could face
overwhelming situations as a result of the strain of balancing different activities, thus
experiencing work-family conflict rather than enrichment. These arguments are consistent
with previous research (e.g. Grzywacz and Bass, 2003) in suggesting that individuals may
simultaneously experience work-family enrichment and work-family conflict, and suggest the
need to conduct further analyses on this topic.
This study has interesting implications for management. The main implication for
organizations is that nurses’ perception of work-family conflict may be influenced
constructively through the creation of a work environment that encourages affective and
20
normative commitment. This is a welcome piece of news for the healthcare industry, since
traditional family-friendly policies, such as flexible work arrangements, teleworking, and
extended leave, are not suitable for solving work-life problems among healthcare providers
(Pas et al., in press). We posit that in order to reduce the salience of role stressors, managers
should intervene to enhance the perception of an empowerment environment, which has been
shown to strengthen employees’ emotional attachment toward an organization, and, at the
same time, to engender a sense of gratitude toward it (Berg et al., 2003). That is, providing
nurses with greater autonomy, variety, significance, feedback, and organizational support can
be an effective intervention for stimulating organizational commitment. For example,
healthcare organizations can focus on the redesign of team processes and the creation of
multidisciplinary work teams (Bourbonnais et al., 2006). The redesign of team processes
must primarily concern the involvement of nurses in the decision-making process and, as a
secondary goal, must provide nurses with appropriate resources and complete information on
their tasks and roles. Intervening by introducing multidisciplinary teams with the
participation of nurses, doctors, physicians, and managers, as well as initiatives for shared
governance or case management, may also enhance nurses’ skills, autonomy, and self-
esteem, thus increasing the perception that the job is valuable which, in turn, strengthens
commitment (McNeese-Smith, 2001).
Limitations
The present study has several limitations. First, its conclusions are based only on self-
reported data, collected at one point in time, causing common-method variance (Podsakoff et
al., 2003). In addition, the cross-sectional design raises some concerns regarding causality
among the variables investigated. For example, it is possible that high levels of job
satisfaction may lead to higher levels of affective and normative commitment. There is
therefore a need to conduct further research to explore these relationships with a longitudinal
21
design, using diary techniques or repeated measures over time, in order to increase the
generalizability of the results. In addition, collecting responses from nurses’ significant
others, such as spouses or partners, can provide specific information on nurses’ experience of
time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict. Finally, another limitation derives from the
sample, which included only registered nurses (N = 171) from healthcare organizations in a
specific geographical area. Further research with samples that are more heterogeneous in
terms of organizational settings and cultures is needed. This would allow the proposed model
to be tested in other settings, and the role of contextual factors in the relationship between
work-family conflict and organizational attitudes to be explored.
Despite these limitations, this study makes a significant contribution to research and
healthcare management. Johnson and Chang (2006) highlighted the importance of identifying
which kind of organizational commitment is more salient for individuals, so that employers
can achieve greater success by focusing their efforts and resources toward it. The present
study, showing as it does the specific relevance of affective and normative commitment for
nurses, may be considered an attempt to achieve this goal.
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Table 1
Summary of nurses’ characteristics
Frequency Percentage Cumulative Gender Male 60 35.1 35.1 Female 106 62.0 97.1 No answer 5 2.9 100.0 Dual-earner couple
Yes 92 53.8 53.8 No 25 14.6 68.4
No answer 54 31.6 100.0 Family responsibilities
Yes 111 64.9 64.9 No 47 27.5 92.4
No answer 13 7.6 100.0 Number of children
0 66 38.6 38.6 1 30 17.5 56.1
2 60 35.1 91.2 3 13 7.6 98.8 more than 3 2 1.2 100.0 Work shift Daily regular shift 55 32.1 32.1 Rotating shift 91 53.2 85.3 Flexible or non-standard shift 22 12.8 98.1 No answer 3 1.9 100.0 High responsibilities position
Yes 58 33.9 33.9 No 112 65.4 99.3 No answer 1 0.7 100.0
31
Table 2
Correlations, mean and standard deviations.
Mean s.d. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(1) Gender n.a. n.a. - 0.382
** 0.020 -0.030 0.005 0.032 0.047 -0.004 0.103 -0.145 0.032 -0.060 0.011 -0.022
(2) Dual-earner couple n.a. n.a.
- 0.084 0.106 0.054 0.134 -0.135 -0.088 -0.101 0.165
* 0.166
* 0.107 0.154
* 0.171
* (3) Family Resp. n.a. n.a.
- 0.292
** 0.385
** 0.237
** -0.100 -0.041 -0.150 -0.107 -0.071 -0.053 0.040 -0.003
(4) N. of children n.a. n.a.
- 0.328
** 0.134 0.008 0.213
** -0.073 -0.085 0.056 -0.007 0.022 0.063
(5) Tenure 13.55 7.23 -
0.268** 0.085
-0.180
* -0.115 -0.071 0.156
* 0.034
-0.022 0.054
(6) High-respon. position
n.a. n.a. - -0.079 -0.077 -0.047 -0.058
0.190*
0.159*
0.097 0.145
(7) Average working hours 36.84 5.15
- 0.063 0.017 0.131 0.105 -0.012 0.133 0.094
(8) TBC 3.14 1.11 -
0.505**
0.198**
-0.200
** -0.094
-0.273
**
-0.293
**
(9) SBC 3.38 1.15 -
0.305**
-0.198
**
-0.157
*
-0.371
**
-0.500
** (10) BBC 1.96 0.91 - -0.033 0.038 0.012 -0.063
(11) AC 3.13 0.96 - 0.575
** 0.363
** 0.570
**
(12) CC 2.59 0.86 - 0.312
** 0.500
**
(13) NC 2.68 0.96 - 0.74*
* (14) JS 2.61 0.45 -
**. p< .001; *. p< .05
32
Table 3
Summary of measurement scales
Constructs Number of items
Rho of Dillon-Goldstein
First eigenv.
Second eigenv.
Cronbach’s Alpha
Time-based conflict (TBC)
3 0.908
3.815
0.767
0.89
Strain-based conflict (SBC)
3 0.910
4.063
0.668
0.89
Behavior-based conflict (BBC)
3 0.834
2.107
0.783
0.79
Affective Commitment (AC)
6 0.898
6.099
1.168
0.83
Normative Commitment (NC)
6 0.875 4.865
2.885
0.78
Continuance Commitment (CC)
6 0.860
6.201
2.073
0.73
Job Satisfaction (JS)
36 0.765 11.391
4.320
0.84
33
TABLE 4
Summarized results for the research path tests
Research path R2 Standardized path loadings (β) t-value Hypothesis
supported? Job satisfaction (time-based conflict)
0.347
TBC → JS
-0.248*** -3.867 H1a (yes) AC → JS 0.531*** 8.367 - NC → JS 0.470*** 7.297 - CC → JS 0.719*** 13.543 - TBC*AC → JS 0.022 n.s. 0.725 H2a (no) TBC*NC → JS 0.282**. 4.284 H3a (yes) TBC*CC → JS 0 n.s. 0.005 H4a (no) Job satisfaction (strain-based conflict)
0.474
SBC → JS
-0.406*** -7.141 H1b (yes) AC → JS 0.483*** 8.417 - NC → JS 0.434*** 7.392 - CC → JS 0.650*** 12.397 - SBC*AC → JS 0.188**. 3.519 H2b (yes) SBC*NC → JS 0.050 n.s 0.885 H3b (no) SBC*CC → JS -0.002 n.s. -0.044 H4b (no) Job satisfaction (behavior-based conflict)
0.316
BBC → JS
-0.043 n.s. -0.672 H1c (no) AC → JS 0.564*** 8.834 - NC → JS 0.511*** 7.587 - CC → JS 0.749*** 14.484 - BBC*AC -0.036 n.s. -0.568 H2c (no) BBC*NC 0.055 n.s. 0.808 H3c (no) BBC*CC 0.018 n.s. 0.356 H4c (no) Work-family conflict✚ 0.115
Gender → TBC -0.131 n.s. -0.844 - Tenure → TBC -0.006 n.s. -0.607 - Dual earner couple → TBC 0.389** 1.972 - Family responsibility → TBC 0.219 n.s. 1.315 - N. of children → TBC -0.112 n.s. -1.350 - High responsibility job → TBC 0.014 n.s. 0.095 - Average working hours → TBC 0.043* 1.854 -
34
* Path coefficient significant at the 0.1 level. ** Path coefficient significant at the 0.05 level. *** Path coefficient significant at the 0.001 level. n.s. Path coefficient non-significant. ✚ Latent variable composed of three-manifest variables: time-, strain-, and behavior based conflict. Figure 1
Normative commitment as moderator of the relationship between time-based conflict and job
satisfaction
35
Figure 2
Affective commitment as moderator of the relationship between strain-based conflict and job
satisfaction
=
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