REFUGES N ERIL - WaterWatch of Oregonwaterwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Klamath_Report_2004.pdflions of migratory birds darken the sky ... salmon runs are a central part of

Fish, Wildlife, and theKlamath Water Crisis

REFUGES IN PERIL

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Contents

Introduction 1

Chapter 1: Everglades of the West 2

Chapter 2: Settlement, Reclamation,and the Decline of Wildlife 3

Chapter 3: Crisis in the Klamath Basin 5

Chapter 4: The National Wildlife Refuges 8

Profiles of the Refuges 11

Solving the Klamath Crisis 17

The National Wildlife Refuges of the Upper Klamath Basin


One hundred and fifty years ago, this was thescene that greeted the first European settlers toarrive in the Klamath River Basin: a vast areastretching from the high desert of SouthernOregon to the foggy redwoods of NorthernCalifornia. But today, these spectacular naturaltreasures are a shadow of their former splendor.A massive federal irrigation project aimed at bring-ing farming to the high desert has radically alteredthe natural balance in this region, and a century ofmismanagement has drained and polluted rivers,lakes, and marshes while leaving fish and wildlife incritical condition.

The surviving fragments of marshland in theKlamath Basin are largely confined within theboundaries of six national wildlife refuges.Klamath Marsh, Upper Klamath, Lower Klamath,Tule Lake, Bear Valley, and Clear Lake refugeswere each set aside to preserve the vanishing natu-ral landscape of the region. As lakes and wetlandsin other parts of the basin have been destroyed,these precious public lands have taken on an enor-mous importance for fish and wildlife.

But the Klamath Basin's national wildlife refugesare in serious trouble. So much water has beendrained from the region's lakes, rivers, and wet-lands that fish and wildlife populations have plum-meted, with several species now on the brink ofextinction. State and federal officials have prom-ised more water for high desert irrigation than theenvironment can sustain. Even in good years theresimply isn't enough to go around.

"Refuges in Peril: Fish, Wildlife, and the KlamathWater Crisis" highlights the enormous importanceof the Klamath refuges. This report explores thehistory of these special public lands, their value,and the many problems they face. While the cur-rent picture is grim, "Refuges in Peril" also pointsthe way to a better future by suggesting actionsthat can be taken today to restore and protect theamazing natural treasures of the Klamath Basin.

I magine a vast network of lakes,marshes, and rivers located in anisolated pocket of high desert

along the Oregon and California bor-der, teeming with an incredible varietyof fish and wildlife. Each year, mil-lions of migratory birds darken the skyas they move through the region, their thundering wing beats and echoingvoices drowning out all other sound. Unique fish thrive in prodigiousnumbers in three massive freshwater lakes, and the third largest salmonrun on the West Coast surges up over 250 miles of roaring river, return-ing from the Pacific Ocean to spawn beneath giant cottonwoods and pon-derosa pines in mountain streams. Several Native American tribes maketheir homes along the region's waterways, and the abundance of fish andwildlife forms the cornerstone of their culture.

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USFWS


Chapter 1:Everglades of the WestThe Klamath Basin once contained over 350,000acres of marshes, wet meadows, and shallow lakes,all threaded together by a network of rivers andstreams. These extensive wetlands historically sup-ported what may have been the largest concentra-tion of waterfowl found anywhere in the world. A1955 report estimated peak numbers of more thanseven million waterfowl in Tule Lake and LowerKlamath National Wildlife Refuges alone.

Though approximately 80% of the basin's wetlandshave been drained to provide land for irrigated agri-culture, over three-quarters of the waterfowl in thePacific Flyway still funnel through the basin eachyear during their spring and fall migrations. Thewetlands of Lower Klamath and Tule Lake NationalWildlife Refuges are especially critical resting andfeeding areas for these migrating birds. Tens ofthousands of white-fronted, snow, Ross' and Canadageese, tundra swans, northern pintails, mallards,American wigeon, and other ducks can still be seenduring the peak of migration.

Because of the abundance of prey and prime roost-ing areas in Bear Valley National Wildlife Refuge, thebasin supports the largest population of bald eaglesin the lower 48 states during the winter, at timesnumbering more than 900. A large number of otherraptors, including golden eagles, prairie falcons,northern harriers, short-eared owls, and rough-legged and red-tailed hawks can also be found in therefuges.

Klamath Basin refuges are also among the most pro-lific waterfowl and marsh bird nesting areas in theNorthwest, producing thousands of ducks, geese,grebes, egrets, herons, ibis, avocets, and other waterbirds each year. Klamath Marsh National WildlifeRefuge is especially important for breeding sandhillcranes and yellow rails, while three of the West's last

surviving white pelican breeding colonies are locatedat Upper Klamath, Lower Klamath, and Clear LakeNational Wildlife Refuges.

Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon's largest natural freshwaterlake, is home to some of the largest rainbow trout foundanywhere in theworld. This blueribbon fishery stillproduces trout of15 pounds or more.The lake also oncesupported enor-mous populationsof Lost River andshortnose suckers,known as Qapdo(�cup-to�) and C'wam(�tshuam�) to TheKlamath Tribes and asmullet to early settlers. These rare fish are found only inthe Klamath and Lost River Basins and can live for morethan 30 years.

Qapdo and C'wam were once an important foodsource to both The Klamath Tribes and early settlers,and as late as the 1950s the annual "mullet season"on Upper Klamath Lake drew recreational fishermenfrom all over Oregon. Qapdo and C'wam are stillextremely critical to the culture and economy of TheKlamath Tribes, who are working hard to recover fishpopulations to harvestable levels. Important nurseryand feeding habitat for the fish are provided by thewetlands of the Upper Klamath National WildlifeRefuge at the northern end of the lake.

The Klamath River, a federally protected "Wild andScenic River," was once the third most productivesalmon and steelhead river in the West, surpassedonly by the Columbia and the Sacramento. Itssalmon runs are a central part of the culture andeconomy of several Native American Tribes. Theriver also serves as the nursery for the coastal fish-ing economy that stretches from Coos Bay, Oregonto Fort Bragg, California.

The Klamath Basin is also home to mule deer, elk,pronghorn antelope, cougar, black bear, and riverotters. Over 430 wildlife species, including 263 birdspecies, have been observed in the basin. Dozensof these species are considered to be "of concern"or "at risk" by the US Fish and Wildlife Service andthe states of Oregon and California due to habitatloss and declining populations.

Because of its importance to fish and wildlife, andthe fact that it still represents the largest freshwaterwetlands west of the Mississippi River, conserva-tionists have long called the Klamath Basin the"Everglades of the West.�

Snow geese are one of the major migrants in the Klamath Basin(Otis Swisher).

Rainbow trout thrive in UpperKlamath Lake (USDA).

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Chapter 2: Settlement,Reclamation, and theDecline of Wildlife

The First People of the Klamath Basin

The first people to make their homes in theKlamath Basin were Native Americans of theKlamath, Modoc, and Yahooskin Tribes, who allshared portions of the upper basin, as well as theYurok, Karuk, and Hoopa Tribes in the lower basin.For thousands of years the basin's abundant fishand wildlife sustained their communities. Salmonwere extremely important to all native people in theregion, and Qapdo and C'wam were at the center ofthe culture of upper basin tribes. These tribalresources are dependent on the water flowing in therivers, lakes, and marshes of the Klamath Basin.

Conflict with early explorers and settlers led totremendous suffering and loss for the native peopleof the region. Treaties with the United States gov-ernment reduced some of these conflicts, but deniedthe Tribes much of their traditional homelands.Most of the treaties did promise, however, that thehunting, fishing, and gathering rights needed to sup-port their traditional way of life would be preserved.Recent court rulings have found that these treatiesnot only protect the rights to fish, but also the waterneeded to sustain them. However, for over a centu-ry state and federal officials have failed to protect therights of Native Americans by giving irrigation thetop priority for water.

Early Settlers

The first Europeans to reach the Klamath Basinarrived nearly 200 years ago. In the 1820s, fur trap-pers with the Hudson Bay Company harvestedbeaver, otter, and marten in the basin. Early explor-ers such as Peter Skeen Ogden and John C. Fremontalso spent time in the region.

In the late 1800s, homesteaders making the longjourney from cities in the East began to arrive.Cattle ranchers soon took advantage of the upperbasin's open meadows and marshlands to graze live-stock, and in 1868 two farmers dug the basin's firstirrigation canal. But these early efforts had relativelylittle impact upon the land compared to the whole-sale changes that were to come.

The Reclamation Era

In 1902 the United States Congress passed theReclamation Act, establishing an ambitious programaimed at bringing agriculture and settlement to thearid American West. Wild landscapes and the watersthat flowed through them were to be "reclaimed"and put to good use. The survival of fish andwildlife, as well as the communities that dependedon them, were often given little consideration in thisprocess. At the time the thriving marshland areas ofthe Klamath Basin were viewed as worthless, andwater left in rivers to reach the ocean as wasted.

With its high elevation, short growing season, andisolation from major markets, the Upper KlamathBasin would seem an unlikely place for a massive irri-gation project. But the US Bureau of Reclamation

VANISHING WETLANDSThe marshes of the Klamath Basin oncespread across 350,000 acres, but a century ofirrigation development has taken a heavy tollon these important wildlife areas. Only 20%of the basin�s original wetlands remain.

Two of the region�s most important wildlifeareas�Lower Klamath and Tule Lakes�havebeen vastly reduced in size. What remains ofthe Lower Klamath marshes is less than aquarter of their former size, while Tule Lakehas been reduced to less than 15% of its his-toric size. In recent years the Bureau ofReclamation has failed to provide even themeager amounts of water needed to sustainthese surviving fragments of marsh.

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was undeterred by the harsh realities of the region'sclimate and, in 1905, chose the Klamath Project asthe nation�s second reclamation project.

The high desert surrounding the basin's lakes andmarshes generally made poor farmland, but the soilsbeneath the wetlands were fertile. To make way foragriculture, the Bureau of Reclamation set out todrain vast areas of lake and marsh and re-plumb theregion's rivers and streams.

Over the last century the Bureau was extremelyeffective in carrying out this task. Working in con-junction with a railroad project in 1917, the Bureau ofReclamation cut the natural flow of water to LowerKlamath Lake, drying up one of the most spectacularwildlife areas in North America. A series of damsand reservoirs on the Lost River diverted and evapo-rated billions of gallons of water, strangling flows toTule Lake. This magnificent lake which once coveredup to 100,000 acres has now been reduced to twowastewater sumps totaling some 13,000 acres.

As wildlife was displaced from the marshes of LowerKlamath and Tule Lakes, crops like potatoes andalfalfa took its place. To provide water for agricultureon the former lake beds the Bureau of Reclamation

blasted a hole in the natural reef that formed UpperKlamath Lake, replacing it with the Link River Dam.This dam did not raise the lake level, but insteadallowed the Bureau to drain the lake well below natu-ral levels. Today Upper Klamath Lake is the principalsource of irrigation water for the Klamath Project.

Over the course of a century, the Bureau ofReclamation drained over 100,000 acres of wetlandsand constructed a vast matrix of dams, diversions,canals, and pumping stations to deliver water to thirstycrops. What began as a tiny project irrigating a fewthousand acres has grown into a massive complex with185 miles of irrigation canals, 516 miles of lateralditches, 728 miles of drains, 45 pumping stations, and7 dams that irrigate over 200,000 acres. At the sametime that the Klamath Project was replacing naturalmarshlands with commercial agriculture, state offi-

cials in Oregon and California encouraged settlementand agricultural development in other parts of thebasin. State water rights were issued to divert addi-tional water from the basin to irrigate another200,000 acres of ranch and farmland.

As alfalfa and potatoes replaced tule reeds and ducksin the upper basin, six hydroelectric dams were con-structed on the Klamath River. The lower four damswere constructed without any form of fish passage,thereby killing off much of the river's historic salmonrun. Today they still block salmon and steelheadfrom reaching hundreds of miles of historic spawn-ing streams in the upper basin.

Cost and Consequences

A century of irrigation development has taken a ter-rible toll on the Klamath Basin's fish and wildlife,and on the communities that depend on them.Prior to the arrival of government engineers andland speculators, the upper Klamath Basin con-tained some 350,000 acres of shallow lakes, streams,and marshes. Today only about 75,000 acresremain. With the loss of the basin's marshes camesevere declines in fish and wildlife populations, andthe natural water storage and cleansing function ofthe wetlands was lost.

Lower Klamath Lake, which was once so large that asteamboat was used to transport people and goodsacross it, was drained completely dry for two decades,depriving millions of birds of critical habitat. In the1940s Lower Klamath Lake was partially revived, butthe natural tie between the lake and the Klamath Riverremains severed. The important buffer the lake provid-ed against droughts and floods has been lost.

Tule Lake, which historically fluctuated from 50,000to 100,000 acres in size, has been reduced to twomanaged sumps of approximately 13,000 acres.The Lost River, which fed the lake, now serves as anirrigation canal that sometimes backflows into near-by springs, polluting drinking water supplies.

These potatoes, growing in Tule Lake NWR, illustrate theconversion of refuge marshlands to commerical agriculture(USFWS).

Most of the wetlands within Tule Lake NWR have been replacedby commercial agriculture (ONRC).

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So much water is drained annually from UpperKlamath Lake and agricultural return flows fromranching in the upper basin are so polluted thatOregon's largest lake is near ecological collapse.The lake suffers from annual algal blooms caused bypollution and low water levels that have sparkedsevere fish kills. The once massive numbers ofQapdo and C'wam of Upper Klamath Lake have allbut vanished and, in 1988, both fish were listed asendangered under the federal Endangered SpeciesAct (ESA). Water withdrawals from operation ofthe Klamath Project also drain wetlands along thelake's shore, often completely drying up all 14,000acres of marsh in Upper Klamath Lake NationalWildlife Refuge, as well as thousands of acres ofother marsh lands around the lake.

The Klamath River suffers from much the same fateas Upper Klamath Lake. With the loss of naturalwetland storage, excessive water diversions, andsevere agricultural pollution, the river now suffersfrom poor water quality and chronic low waterflows. These conditions result in fish kills, includingthe catastrophic fish kill of 2002 that claimed morethan 34,000 adult salmon before they spawned. Thesix dams on the river, operated by Scottish Power,further add to the salmon's woes by blocking thefish from reaching their historic habitat in the upper

basin. Coho salmon that once spawned in prolificnumbers in Klamath River tributaries were listed asa threatened species under the ESA in 1997.

The development of the Klamath Project also devas-tated many human communities. As agriculturalproductivity and the quality of life in the upper basinincreased, the economic and cultural well-being offamilies that depended upon the fish and wildlife ofthe lower basin deteriorated. Commercial fishingfleets from Fort Bragg, California to Coos Bay,Oregon saw their fortunes decline as fish runs col-lapsed. In recent years, an estimated 6,870 fishing-dependent jobs, amounting to more than $137 mil-lion in total personal income, have been lost as aresult of Klamath River salmon declines.

Native American communities have also sufferedsevere losses. For Tribes like the Karuk, Yurok, andHoopa, salmon are a way of life, both a source offood and the center of their culture. Treaty rightsthat promised native families healthy salmon runswere ignored in the construction and operation ofthe irrigation project. In the upper basin, TheKlamath Tribes' treaty rights to salmon were violatedby the Klamath River dams that cut off these mag-nificent fishfrom theirupper basinspawninggrounds. Theplummetingpopulationsof Qapdo andC'wam alsohit TheKlamathTribeshard�theTribes� cultur-al beliefs tie theirown survival tothat of the fish.Except for the ceremonial catch of two fish annually,The Klamath Tribes stopped harvesting Qapdo andC'wam in 1986.

Chapter 3: Crisis in the Klamath Basin

Too many promises, too little water

As construction of the Klamath Project began in1905, the federal government launched a programto lure homesteaders to the region with the promiseof abundant irrigation water. For over a century thestates of Oregon and California did the same, grant-ing water rights to irrigators outside the KlamathIrrigation Project. Over the years more rights tothis precious resource were given away than theenvironment could sustain.

Water promised to the homesteaders by the federaland state governments had already been promisedto the Native Americans of the Klamath, Karuk,Yurok, and Hoopa Tribes. The federal governmentalso has a responsibility to ensure that the region'snational wildlife refuges and endangered and threat-ened species receive the water they need to survive.Other legitimate claims to Klamath water also exist.The economic well-being of commercial fishing

When water flow to the basin�s wetlands and marshes is signifi-cantly reduced, �permanent marshes� can dry up (ONRC).

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Members of the Karuk Tribe fishing nearthe confluence of the Salmon andKlamath Rivers (Dylan Darling, H&NPhotos).


communities on the California and Oregon coastsare closely tied to the fate of the river and salmonruns, as are the communities that depend on riverrecreation and tourism.

Running on Empty - The Crisis Comes to a Head

For decades, whenever the demand for waterexceeded supply, downstream communities, NativeAmericans, and national wildlife refuges wereforced to make do with what was left after irriga-tion interests received their full share. Today thislop-sided policy has resulted in an ecological crisis.

Populations of Qapdo and C'wam in UpperKlamath Lake and salmon in the Klamath Riverhave suffered enormous declines due to the irriga-tion project. Decimated fish runs have, in turn,fired outrage and anger among Native Americans,commercial fishermen, and other communities thatdepend on healthy rivers and streams. Throughoutthe 1990s lake and river dependent communitiesurged the Bureau of Reclamation to modify opera-tions of the irrigation project to reduce its impacton threatened and endangered fish. But the Bureauinstead focused on maintaining full water deliveriesfor irrigation.

In 2001, after years of legal battles, the EndangeredSpecies Act finally forced the Bureau of Reclamationto provide more water for threatened salmon andthe endangered Qapdo and C'wam. Unfortunately,at the same time the Bureau reluctantly began to dealwith the fact that it had over-promised the region'swater supplies, the Klamath Basin experienced oneof the worst droughts on record. Much of the lim-ited supply of water that was available was set asidefor the survival of threatened and endangered fish,as well as for bald eagles.

This was the first time in the history of theKlamath Project that water supplies for irrigationwere restricted in order to protect fish and wildlife.While this decision gave hope to salmon-dependentcommunities and wildlife advocates, it incensed irri-gation interests. Irrigators embarked on a series ofhighly visible anti-government protests that lastedfor several months.

Some farmers did suffer substantial economic lossesduring the drought of 2001, but protesters� effortsto portray the situation as a total water shut-offwere exaggerated. Roughly half of the irrigatedlands in the basin, those located outside theKlamath Project, did not face any irrigation restric-tions. Even on lands in the Klamath Project, farm-ers ultimately received more than 60% of normalwater deliveries in 2001.

While threatened and endangered fish weatheredthe 2001 drought with bare minimum water levels,the Klamath wildlife refuges were not so lucky.Seasonal and permanent marshlands went dry, caus-ing tremendous harm to breeding and migratorybirds.

At first the refuges were not slated to receive anywater for over-wintering bald eagles, but faced withan embarrassing court battle, the InteriorDepartment agreed to provide minimal water forthe majestic birds.

The ire over the 2001 drought and efforts to saveendangered lake fish and coho salmon have sparkeda backlash against the Endangered Species Act inCongress. But attacking the ESA and efforts toprotect threatened fish ignores the core problemfacing the basin�too much water promised to toomany interests. Gutting the ESA or de-listing cohosalmon will not solve the problems that led to theirdecline, and will only lead to further economic loss-es for the Native American, commercial, and recre-ational fishing communities that depend on them.

Dwindling water supplies have taken a huge toll on wildlife in therefuges (Mary Paetzel).

Bald eagles who winter in the Klamath refuges managed toreceive water during the 2001 drought due to citizen enforce-ment of the Endangered Species Act (Don Getty).

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Tragedy On the Klamath River

The conflict over scarce Klamathwater supplies exploded again in2002, when the Interior Department,under pressure from politicalappointees in the Bush administra-tion, adopted a new operating planfor the Klamath Project that over-turned fish restoration efforts. Theplan favored irrigation interests overall other communities in the basin.The administration's plan relied on a26-page "interim" report it commis-sioned from the National ResearchCouncil, while ignoring years of sci-entific research on Klamath fisheries,suppressing key scientific reports,and inappropriately pressuring feder-al biologists. The results were tragicfor fish, wildlife, and the NativeAmerican, commercial fishing, andrecreational fishing communities thatdepend on them.

During the first year of the plan,hundreds of threatened juvenilecoho salmon were stranded andkilled in the Klamath River whenspring water flows were suddenlydiminished. Marshes in the refugeswere again left dry due to a lack ofwater, while adjacent refuge landsleased for commercial farming togrow potatoes, alfalfa, and othercrops received full water deliveries.Upper Klamath Lake was drained dangerously low,drying up large areas of Upper Klamath National Wildlife Refuge and surrounding marshlands.

But the greatest tragedy came in September of 2002,when the Bush administration�s water plan reduced theamount of water entering the Klamath River from theupper basin to nearly half the 41-year average.Spawning chinook salmon were forced into overcrowd-ed pools to escape the hot, shallow water. Disease out-breaks ensued, sparking a massive fish kill that claimedover 34,000 salmon before they could spawn. It wasone of the largest adult fish kills in US history.

An Uncertain Future

Court battles continue to rage over the scarce watersof the Klamath Basin. How these cases will play outis unknown, but one thing is certain: there is simplynot enough water left in the Klamath Basin to honorall of the legitimate claims. If the conflict over wateris ever to be solved, demand for this preciousresource must be brought back into balance withwhat nature can sustain.

�Government Admits Role In Klamath Fish Die-Off

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service saysdiversions of water to farmers in 2002helped create river conditions lethal tofish.�

-The OregonianNovember 19, 2003

The Bush administration�s decision to reduce flowsto the Klamath River led to a massive fish kill andangry protests by Native Americans (Yurok Tribe).

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Dead salmon litter the banks of the Klamath (H&N Photos).


Chapter 4: The National Wildlife RefugesThe six national wildlife refuges that dot the upperKlamath Basin today are only fragments of themassive network of lakes, marshes, and rivers thatonce blanketed the area. As irrigation has expand-ed in the upper basin, these surviving wild landshave taken on enormous importance for fish andwildlife. Many species literally have nowhere elseleft to go.

The Klamath refuges are also special places for peo-ple. The spring and fall bird migrations offer aunique opportunity to connect with nature andobserve these creatures on an awesome scale. Therefuges provide many opportunities for outdoorrecreation, from bird watching and canoeing towaterfowl hunting and hiking. The tourism generat-ed by these special public lands has also become amajor economic resource for the region.

But the national wildlife refuges of the KlamathBasin are in trouble. Problems stemming from theoperation of the Klamath Project, uncertain watersupplies, and commercial farming, grazing, and log-ging within their boundaries threaten their future.

The Nation's First Waterfowl Refuge

The Klamath marshes first gained national attentionin the late 1800s when biologists began to under-stand their value for fish, wildlife, and scenic beauty.But at the same time that news accounts began to

circulate about the massive waterfowl migrationsand enormous salmon runs, increasing numbers ofcommercial hunters and homesteaders were movinginto the region. Market hunters were killing hugenumbers of ducks, herons, grebes, egrets, and otherbirds for meat and plumes, while homesteaders weredestroying marsh and meadow lands. When newsof the destruction began to appear in newspapersaround the country, the public demanded protectionof these wild lands.

In 1908 President Theodore Roosevelt respondedby setting aside 81,000 acres of marsh and openwater in Lower Klamath Lake with the designationof one of our nation's first refuges for migratorybirds: Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge.

Reclamation Versus Refuges

President Roosevelt's effort to protect the birds ofthe Klamath Basin was a visionary step, but it collid-ed with the push to "reclaim" the marshes for agri-culture. In 1905, when the Bureau of Reclamationfiled notice of its intent to develop a massive irriga-tion project in the basin, state and local officials, landspeculators, homesteaders, and farmers embracedthe proposal.

Roosevelt's fledgling refuge was devastated in 1917when the Bureau of Reclamation, collaborating witha local railroad project, diked off the natural flow ofwater to Lower Klamath Lake. What was once an80,000 acre mecca for wildlife and waterfowl soonbecame a dried out wasteland of alkali flats bakingin the desert sun. Beginning in the 1920s, wildfiresburned through the dried peat soils of the formerlakebed, sending plumes of dust and ash into thesky and shutting down schools as far away asKlamath Falls.

Tundra swans frequent the refuges of the Klamath Basin(USFWS).

The wetlands of Lower Klamath NWR provide a haven formigratory waterfowl and other birds (scotthardingphoto.com).

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The destruction of Lower Klamath Lake led pho-tographer and former Oregon Game Commissioner,William Finley, to write in 1925: "Today, LowerKlamath Lake is but a memory. It is a great desertwaste of dry peat and alkali. Over large stretchesfire has burned the peat to a depth of from one tothree feet, leaving a layer of white loose ashes intowhich one sinks above his knees. One of the mostunique features in North America is gone. It is acrime against our children."

Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge wouldremain dry for two decades. Its size was alsoreduced by almost half to allow homesteading andagricultural development in what was supposed tohave been a haven for wildlife.

Clear Lake National Wildlife Refuge, created in1911, was radically altered when the Bureau ofReclamation installed a dam there. The damflooded the lake to higher than natural levels dur-ing the winter months to provide water for sum-mer irrigation, while holding back flow from theenormous Tule Lake. Natural water flows to TuleLake were further reduced when the Bureau com-pleted damming the Lost River in 1912. In 1917,the Bureau of Reclamation opened up portions ofTule Lake's drained bed to homesteading and irri-gation.

In 1928, Tule Lake National Wildlife Refuge wasestablished to preserve the remnants of this oncevast lake. Some 10,300 acres were protected by thisinitial designation�a fraction of the lake�s naturalsurface area of up to 100,000 acres.Conservationists argued that more of the areashould be protected to offset the devastation of theLower Klamath Lake National Wildlife Refuge.Their concerns prompted President Franklin D.Roosevelt to triple the size of Tule Lake NationalWildlife Refuge to 37,000 acres.

Also in 1928, Upper Klamath National WildlifeRefuge was created on the shores of UpperKlamath Lake. The Bureau of Reclamation's desire

to use Upper Klamath Lake water for irrigationspared some of its marshes from homesteading;however, as water is drawn from the lake for irriga-tion, refuge wetlands along the shore are left highand dry. In some years, nearly all 14,000 acres ofmarsh within the refuge are drained completely dryby the operation of the Klamath Project.

As irrigation development in the Lost River areaincreased during the 1930s, so did the amount ofwater running off of farmlands. Much of thiswater seeped back into the river, where it flowedonce again into Tule Lake. While Lower KlamathNational Wildlife Refuge was bone dry, the rem-nants of Tule Lake were threatening to break out ofthe surrounding dikes and levees to flood the"reclaimed" land.

The Bureau of Reclamation engineered a compli-cated scheme to solve this problem by blasting atunnel some 6,000 feet long through Sheepy Ridgeand connecting the Lost and Klamath River Basins.In 1942, water from Tule Lake began to be pumpedthrough the ridge and into Lower KlamathNational Wildlife Refuge, bringing water back tothe devastated refuge after twenty years of Bureauneglect.

But while Tule Lake irrigators and conservationistswere pleased by the move, the solution created awhole new set of problems. Because of inadequatedrainage, Lower Klamath Lake irrigators wereflooded and the stagnant pools of water led tosevere disease outbreaks that killed thousands ofbirds. The Bureau of Reclamation devised a sec-ond major engineering scheme to solve this prob-lem. A new drain was constructed that allowed thenow heavily polluted alkaline waters of LowerKlamath Lake to be dumped into the KlamathRiver. The refuges' water pollution woes werereduced, but at the cost of shifting the burden tothe communities downstream.

Fragments of Lower Klamath Lake were revived when water wasreturned to them in the 1940s (USFWS).

The sagebrush surrounding Clear Lake NWR shows the drycharacter of much of the Upper Klamath Basin (USFWS).

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The Lease Land Farming Controversy

The creation of Lower Klamath and Tule LakeNational Wildlife Refuges was intended to preservevital fragments of the once-vast Klamath marsh-lands. Unfortunately the protection these refugesoffer for fish and wildlife has been severely under-mined by the presence of commercial agriculturaloperations within their boundaries.

In the 1940s and 50s a combination of populationgrowth, irrigation subsidies, and crop prices led toan increase in the demand for land within theKlamath Project. For decades portions of TuleLake and Lower Klamath NWRs were leased foragriculture, but some irrigators were not satisfied.They argued the refuges should be opened up forpermanent development and private ownership.

Conservationists strongly opposed any such move,and a fierce debate ensued. Some local irrigatorsportrayed the debate as "duck vs. farmer," foreshad-owing future conflicts over water. Debate over thefate of the refuge lease lands would ultimatelystretch all the way to the United States Congress.

Stewart Udall, Interior Secretary for PresidentJohnson, came to the defense of the refuges, argu-ing that the remaining marshlands were simply too

important tolet slip frompublic own-ership. Anumber ofprominentirrigatorstestified infavor ofdraining thelease lands,contendingthat notdoing sowould vio-

late the very purpose of the Klamath IrrigationProject. The conservation community ultimatelyprevailed, but it was not a complete victory.

The 1964 Kuchel Act settled the lease land issueby barring any future homesteading within therefuges. But it also allowed the practice of leasingnearly 22,000 acres of refuge land for commercialagriculture to continue as long as it remained com-patible with refuge purposes. While termed a�compromise� in an attempt to preserve thealready degraded marshlands, over time it hasbecome increasingly evident that broad scale com-mercial farming can never be compatible withrefuge purposes.

With most of the basin's historic marshland outsidethe refuges now destroyed, each acre of wetlandwithin the refuges is of critical value for fish andwildlife. Yet commercial agricultural operations andcrops such as potatoes, onions and alfalfa occupypublic refuge lands. These crops provide little or nobenefit to wildlife, and require pesticides harmful tonative insects, birds, and fish. The lease land pro-gram also consumes an enormous quantity ofwater: nearly 16 billion gaillons�water that could beused to restore wetlands, or to maintain river flowsand lake levels needed by threatened and endan-gered fish.

Even some local landowners have begun to chal-lenge the practice, arguing that leasing refuge landsunfairly competes with the rental of private proper-ty in the basin.

The Later Refuges

Roughly 60 miles north of Upper Klamath Lake, afifth National Wildlife Refuge was created in theKlamath Basin in 1958, the Klamath Marsh NWR.This large natural marsh, currently consisting ofover 40,000 acres, provides important nesting, feed-ing, and resting habitat for waterfowl. The sur-rounding meadowlands are attractive nesting andfeeding areas for sandhill cranes, yellow rails, variousshorebirds, and raptors.

Klamath Marsh National Wildlife Refuge is notaffected by the Klamath Project, but irrigation with-drawals from water rights issued by the State ofOregon curtail flows to the refuge wetlands. Refugemanagers have allowed logging operations, extensivecommercial hay growing, cattle grazing, and period-ic pesticide use within the boundaries of this refuge.

Bear Valley National Wildlife Refuge was the sixthrefuge created in the Klamath Basin, designated in1978 to preserve an important roosting area for baldeagles. Over 900 eagles winter in the Klamath Basin,the largest population in the lower-48 states. Manyof these majestic birds feed on waterfowl within themarshes of Lower Klamath Lake and Tule LakeNWRs, then return to this 4200-acre refuge to roost.

The failure to secure water for Lower Klamath andTule Lake marshlands threatens the eagles that usethis refuge. Additionally, conservationists have hadto remain vigilant to ensure that over-zealous log-ging proposals do not harm the old growth pon-derosa pines, cedars, and firs used by roostingeagles and other birds.

The followings are profiles of the six wildliferefuges in the Klamath Basin.

Stewart Udall was a firm supporter of pre-serving the refuges (Tom Dustin, IzaakWalton League).

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lands are last in line for this precious resource.Irrigation demand within the Klamath Project andelsewhere in the Klamath Basin has grown so large,that in most years there is not enough water leftover to fully sustain the refuge's vital wetlands.What little water is received is often polluted agri-cultural runoff, contaminated with animal wastes,pesticides, and fertilizers.

In addition, approximately 6,000 acres of land withinthe refuge are leased for commercial agriculturaloperations. Land that was set aside for eagles andgeese is instead managed for crops such as barley.Worse, land leased for commercial agriculturereceives water before refuge marshlands. In lowwater years, fields of potatoes in nearby Tule LakeNational Wildlife Refuge receive full water deliverieswhile marsh areas critical for wildlife are allowed togo dry in Lower Klamath National NWR.

Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge protectsremnants of Lower Klamath Lake, which once cov-ered 80,000 acres before it was completely drainedby the Bureau of Reclamation. The destruction ofthe lake took place after President TheodoreRoosevelt designated it in 1908 as one of America'sfirst refuges for waterfowl and other migratory birds.

Some water was returned to the refuge in the 1940s,and, though reduced in size, today the refuge is thesingle most important staging area for both fall andspring migratory waterfowl in the entire PacificFlyway. The concentration of geese, ducks, andswans during the peak of migration is one of thenation's great wildlife spectacles. Lower Klamath

also supportsimportantbreeding pop-ulations ofducks, herons,egrets, terns,avocets,white-facedibis, and oneof the lastbreedingcolonies ofwhite pelicansin the West.The still largenumbers ofmigratorywaterfowlattracted by

the marshes provide food for up to 900 threatenedbald eagles each winter.

The operation of the Klamath Irrigation Projectthreatens Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge.Now cut off from the Klamath River's naturalflows, the refuge is dependent upon the Bureau ofReclamation for water. Unfortunately its marsh-

Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge

Established: 1908Size: 53,600 acresLandscape: Shallow freshwater marshes, open water, grassyuplands, and approximately 6,000 acres of land leased forcommercial agriculture

Threats: Lack of secure and independent source of water,commercial agricultural operations on refuge lands, poorwater quality, and lost productivity due to loss of wetlands

Lower Klamath NWR is important forbirds like great blue herons (Don Getty).

Wildlife suffer greatly as agricultural water interests receive top pri-ority (USFWS).

Commercial agriculture on refuge lands often requires heavymachinery that can destroy nests and harm wildlife (ONRC).

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USFWS


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In 1911, Clear Lake National Wildlife Refuge wascreated from lands in the Klamath IrrigationProject. The natural habitat of Clear Lake wasaltered in 1910 when the Bureau of ReclamationDam completed a dam to enlarge the desert lakeand to increase the evaporation of water from itssurface. The goal of this effort was to block water

from flow-ing downthrough theLost Riversystem tomassiveTule Lake,so that itcould bedrained tomake wayfor irrigat-ed agricul-

ture. Ironically, while the dam was first built to turnClear Lake into a large "evaporation pond," today itis instead managed as a reservoir for irrigation ofsome Klamath Irrigation Project lands.

Clear Lake National Wildlife Refuge encompassessome 20,000 acres of open water. Endangered

Qapdo and C'wam still survive in Clear Lake,despite the Bureau of Reclamation's dam and exten-sive re-plumbing of the Lost River area. The sage-brush and juniper uplands provide habitat forpronghorn antelope, mule deer, and sage grouse.Several small islands in Clear Lake provide criticalnesting areas for rare white pelicans and cor-morants. While white pelicans once thrivedthroughout the Klamath Basin and much of theWest, today only a handful of these colonies remain.

The most serious problem facing Clear LakeNational Wildlife Refuge is the lake's wildly fluctuat-

ing level. When Clear Lake fallsbelow 4,522.5 feet elevation, allwhite pelican nesting islands onthe refuge are connected to themainland. If this occurs duringthe egg laying, incubation or earlybrooding period, predators such ascoyotes can invade the island,destroying nests and killing youngbirds. Cattle grazing on andaround Clear Lake NWR is anoth-er serious issue, greatly harmingsage grouse and other wildlife therefuge is intended to protect.

Clear LakeNational Wildlife RefugeEstablished: 1911Size: 46,460 acresLandscape: Large open water surrounded by upland habitat ofbunchgrass, low sagebrush, and juniper. Small rocky islands in thelake provide nesting sites for white pelicans.

Threats: Water diversions from Clear Lake, destruction of NativeAmerican cultural sites and artifacts, cattle grazing

Sage grouse are one of the signature species of Clear Lake NWR(USFWS).

Cattle grazing on Clear Lake NWR destroys habitat and disrupts native wildlife (MaryPaetzel).

Clear Lake provides habitat for species likemule deer (USFWS).

USFWS


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Tule Lake National Wildlife Refuge protects remnantsof Tule Lake, which once was a massive body ofopen waterand marsh,varying insizebetween50,000 and100,000acres beforebeing dikedand drainedto makeway for theKlamathIrrigationProject.Today all that is left of the giant lake are two managedwastewater sumps covering roughly 13,000 acres.

The refuge was created in 1928 to protect the millionsof waterfowl that utilized what was left of the lake'swetlands. Migratory waterfowl numbers at Tule Lake,once the flagship of the entire NWR system, havedeclined since the passage of the 1964 Kuchel Act.These losses have been exacerbated by the loss ofhabitat throughout the Pacific Flyway.

The greatest threat facing Tule Lake NationalWildlife Refuge is its exploitation for commercialagriculture. Most of the refuge's land base, some15,500 acres, is leased for commercial farmingrather than being managed for badly needed wet-land habitat. The presence of commercial agricul-ture on Tule Lake National Wildlife Refuge requiresrefuge managers to keep water levels static, whichprevents them from managing much of the landthey do have as wetlands. The lease land programalso diverts scarce water to grow crops such aspotatoes and onions that have little or no wildlifebenefit and use pesticides known to be harmful tobirds and fish. During irrigation season farmmachinery, from combines to crop-dusters, furtherdisrupt wildlife.

Just like Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge,the Tule Lake refuge currently relies on theKlamath Project for water, and its marshes arealways last in line for this precious resource. Muchof the water the refuge does receive is contaminat-ed farm runoff. If current commercial farmingleases were phased out at the end of their leaseterms, some of theses refuge lands could be man-aged as a deep-water marsh, which could store mil-lions of gallons of water for both Tule Lake andLower Klamath refuges.

Tule Lake National Wildlife RefugeEstablished: 1928Size: 39,116 acresLandscape: Two managed open water sumps, small wetlands area,and 15,500 acres of land leased for commercial agriculture

Threats: Commercial agricultural operations on refuge lands, uncer-tain water supply, poor water quality, pesticide use, static water lev-els and the loss of wetlands

Wildlife watching is a popular recreationalactivity throughout the Klamath refuges(USFWS).

Great egrets visit Tule Lake NWR (Lloyd Glenn Ingles, CaliforniaAcademy of Sciences).

Pesticide spraying causes serious problems for wildlifewithin Tule Lake NWR (USFWS).

ONRC


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Established in 1928, Upper Klamath NationalWildlife Refuge protects approximately 14,000 acresof the wetlands along the shore of Oregon's largestfreshwater lake, Upper Klamath Lake.

The refuge's marshes provide excellent nesting andrearing habitat for waterfowl, bitterns, herons, andcountless other birds. The refuge's American white

pelicanbreedingcolony isamong thefewremainingin theWest. Baldeagles andospreysnest nearbyand can be

seen fishing over refuge waters. Two species ofendangered fish, Qapdo and C'wam, also depend onthe lake and the marshes of the refuge. Marsh areasprovide critical habitat for young fish by offeringthem a place to escape predators.

The Bureau of Reclamation's operation of theKlamath Project causes tremendous harm to theUpper Klamath National Wildlife Refuge. Prior tothe construction of the Klamath Project, UpperKlamath Lake's natural water level fluctuated

between 4,140 and 4,143 feet in elevation. Afterblasting a hole in the natural reef that forms thelake, the Bureau of Reclamation was able to drainthe lake below natural levels. When water levelsdrop below 4,139 feet in elevation, all 14,000 acresof marshes in Upper Klamath National WildlifeRefuge are left completely dry. This has been a reg-ular occurrence in recent years.

Water diver-sions andpollutionfrom floodirrigation oflands aboveUpperKlamathLake alsocontributeto the prob-lems facingthe refuge.Responsibility for managing irrigation in the headwatersof the basin, above the Klamath Irrigation Project, fallsto the State of Oregon. Unfortunately the state hasfailed to do its job. Animal wastes and agriculturalrunoff from upper basin irrigation overloads the lakewith phosphorous that at times sparks severe algalblooms. In past years these blooms have killed tens ofthousands of endangered Qapdo and C'wam, as well asnative rainbow trout and other fish.

Upper Klamath National Wildlife RefugeEstablished: 1928Size: 14,400 acresLandscape: Hardstem bulrush and yellow water lily (wocus) marsh,and open water areas

Threats: Klamath Project water diversions from Upper KlamathLake, water pollution and reduced water inflows due to irrigation inthe upper basin

C�wam, endangered Lost River suckers, arefound in Upper Klamath NWR (USFWS).

Wocus lilies, which were once abundant in Upper Klamath Lake,were a staple food for the people of The Klamath Tribes (ONRC).

Algal blooms from poor water quality, exac-erbated by agricultural operations, threatenmany aquatic species in the refuges (ONRC).

Marshes along the shore of Upper Klamath Lake dry upwhen the lake is drained below 4139 feet in elevation(ONRC).

Ellen Morris Bishop


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The northernmost refuge in the Klamath Basin,Klamath Marsh National Wildlife Refuge preservesa diverse landscape of marshlands, ponderosaforests, and open meadowland. The refuge was cre-ated in 1958 from lands that were once part of theKlamath Indian Reservation. The refuge remains animportant cultural resource to the tribes.

The Klamath Marsh NWR provides critical nesting,feeding, and resting habitat for waterfowl. The openmeadows are important for sandhill cranes, with thesedge meadows supporting one of the West's largestpopulations of yellow rails. Bald eagles nest aroundthe refuge's forest periphery and on adjacent WinemaNational Forest lands. Two open water bays providehabitat for nesting eared grebes and a variety ofwaterfowl, terns, and various shorebirds. Oncethought to be extinct, Miller Lake lamprey have been

located here,and in the near-by WilliamsonRiver. The pon-derosa andlodge pole pineforests protectedwithin therefuge also sup-port diversewildlife popula-tions, includinggreat gray owlsand Rocky

Mountain elk. The marshes are also among the laststrongholds of the spotted frog, a candidate forfuture listing under the federal Endangered SpeciesAct.

Upstream water diversions are a serious problem forKlamath Marsh, particularly in dry years. Refugemanagement is another problem: years of misguidedfire suppression efforts have prevented the naturalfires vital to healthy forests and meadows. Todayland managers have turned to logging to reduce fuelloads, but these programs have resulted in projects

that have not only thinned undergrowth but also cutmature and old growth trees. Some logging opera-tions within the refuge have been conducted withoutany public notice or required environmental reviews.

Similar lack of public oversight and environmentalreview recently created controversy when commer-cial hay cutting operations on the refuge wereexpanded from 500 acres to nearly 3,000 and refugegrazing has, in many years, exceeded levels previous-ly approved. More troubling, refuge managers haveproposed extensive pesticide spraying to kill clearwinged grasshoppers, a native species that is valu-able as a food source for wildlife, but worrisome toranchers who graze cattle both inside and outsidethe refuge's boundaries.

Klamath Marsh National Wildlife RefugeEstablished: 1958Size: 40,646 acresLandscape: Hardstem bulrush and sedge marsh, open meadows,ponderosa pine forest, river areas

Threats: Upstream water diversions, commercial agricultural activi-ties, proposed logging operations.

Loss of marsh areas has taken a heavytoll on species like spotted frogs(William Leonard, California Academyof Sciences).

The wetlands and meadows of Klamath Marsh NWR are animportant haven for sandhill cranes (Don Getty).

Commercial agricultural operations, like hay cutting, areincreasingly dominating the management of KlamathMarsh NWR (ONRC).

Wendell Wood


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Bear Valley National Wildlife Refuge was createdin 1978 to preserve old growth and mature for-est for threatened bald eagles. These majesticbirds need tall, strong, old growth trees forroosting and nesting. The big trees also provideshelter from harsh winter winds. As many as300 bald eagles have roosted in the refuge on asingle winter night. They can be observed ontheir morning "fly out" to hunt ducks and otherwaterfowl on Lower Klamath and Tule Lakerefuges. Other raptors also depend on the habi-

tat provided by Bear Valley National WildlifeRefuge, including the great horned owl and theNorthern goshawk.

Only a handful of areas near the Tule Lake andLower Klamath refuges receive enough moistureto support large trees. Decades of logging havetaken a heavy toll on many such areas, and the oldgrowth trees favored by eagles for roosting andnesting are now rare. Misguided fire suppressionpolicies have made matters worse.

Fire is a natural part of healthy old growth forests,particularly for ponderosa pines. In recent years,conservation groups have supported a more respon-sible approach to fire reduction, focused on con-trolled burnsand careful,selectivethinning offire-proneyoungerforests inBear ValleyNationalWildlifeRefuge.However,wildlifeadvocateshave had toremain vigi-lant to seethat only thesmallerdiametertrees arelogged.

Bear Valley National Wildlife RefugeEstablished: 1978Size: 4,200 acresLandscape: Old growth ponderosa pine, incense cedar, white andDouglas fir

Threats: Decades of fire suppression, logging

Bear Valley NWR provides ideal habitat for bald eagles (USFWS).

Great horned owls are found in Bear Valley NWR (Otis Swisher).

Old, giant ponderosa pines are critical fornesting and roosting bald eagles (Gerardand Buff Corsi, California Academy ofSciences).

Otis Swisher


!! Balance the Demand for WaterThe central problem behind the water crisis in theKlamath Basin is that federal and state officials havesimply promised too much water to too many inter-ests. Even in good years there is not enough waterto go around. No initiative to end the conflict inthe Klamath Basin can succeed without reducingthe demand for water.

One sensible and fair solution advanced by analliance of conservation groups, commercial fisher-men, and farmers is a voluntary program to buyback land and/or water rights from irrigatorsthroughout the Klamath Basin. These water rightscould then be retired, freeing up water for fish andwildlife, while at the same time providing more cer-tainty over future water deliveries for the irrigatorswho choose not to sell.

!! Phase Out Commercial Agriculture Within the Refuges

The most logical place to reduce irrigation demandis on land already owned by the public. Nearly22,000 acres of Tule Lake and Lower KlamathNWRs is leased to commercial farming operations.Potatoes and onions occupy land that was set asidefor eagles and waterfowl. Ending this harmful pro-gram would improve conditions for fish and wildlifeand free up approximately 16 billion gallons ofwater

!! Restore Lower Klamath Lake and Portions of Tule Lake

The open water and marshes of Lower KlamathLake and Tule Lake National Wildlife Refuges rep-resent only a fragment of what existed prior to thedevelopment of the Klamath Project. By endingthe lease land farming program and purchasing landwithin the former lakebeds and restoring it tomarshland, critical habitat for wildlife can bereclaimed while the natural pollution filtering actionof the wetlands is restored. Flooding these areaswith seasonally abundant water may also offer anopportunity to store water that could be used tohelp sustain fish and wetlands in dry periods.

!! Keep Water in Upper KlamathNational Wildlife Refuge

Water for the marshes of the Upper KlamathNWR is tied directly to the level of UpperKlamath Lake. When the Bureau of Reclamationdrains this shallow lake down below 4,139 feet inelevation, all 14,000 acres of marsh within UpperKlamath NWR are left dry. Low lake levels alsoincrease the likelihood of fish-killing algal bloomsin the lake further endangering Qapdo and C'wam.The Bureau should end the practice of drainingthe lake to these dangerously low levels.

!! Bring Back Upper Basin WetlandsOver the course of the last century many of themarsh areas north of Upper Klamath Lake havebeen destroyed and replaced by cow pasture andirrigated agriculture. Water that once flowed downimportant streams like the Wood, Williamson,Sprague, and Sycan is now diverted onto fields ofalfalfa and other crops. Restoring upper basinmarshlands could increase natural water storage,improve water quality, and provide important habi-tat to fish and wildlife. An aggressive program tomeasure water use, conserve water, and purchaseand retire irrigation water rights could also restorewildlife and provide more water for all interests inthe basin.

Solving the Klamath CrisisIt has taken a century to create the water crisis facing the Klamath Basin andits wildlife refuges, and it will take time to solve it. The good news is that stepscan be taken today that will benefit fish and wildlife, while still preserving a sus-tainable agricultural economy in the basin.

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The future of the Klamath Basin National Wildlife Refugesdepends on our willingness to protect them (Otis Swisher).


Report written by Steve PederyDesign by Ray K. Wan

213 Ash Street, Suite 208 Portland, OR 97204(503) 295-4039 www.waterwatch.org

426 17th St. 6th FloorOakland, CA 94612(510) 550-6700www.earthjustice.org

5825 North Greeley Portland, OR 97217(503) 283-6343 www.onrc.org

1424 Fourth Ave. Suite 816Seattle, WA 98101(206) 624-6430www.wilderness.org

This report was made possible in part by the generous support of the Mountaineers Foundation.

Printed on 100% Recycled Paper

Front cover top photo by USFWSFront cover bottom photo by Ellen Morris BishopBack cover photo by Ellen Morris Bishop


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REFUGES N ERIL - WaterWatch of Oregonwaterwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Klamath_Report_2004.pdflions of migratory birds darken the sky ... salmon runs are a central part of