Research Article A Study on Moyna Basin Water-Logged Areas ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/geography/2014/401324.pdfof climatic, geomorphic, hydrologic, vegetative, and anthro-pogenic

Research ArticleA Study on Moyna Basin Water-LoggedAreas (India) Using Remote Sensing and GIS Methods andTheir Contemporary Economic Significance

Abhay Sankar Sahu

Department of Geography University of Kalyani West Bengal Nadia 741235 India

Correspondence should be addressed to Abhay Sankar Sahu sahuabhaysankargmailcom

Received 15 January 2014 Revised 11 April 2014 Accepted 17 April 2014 Published 18 May 2014

Academic Editor Huayu Lu

Copyright copy 2014 Abhay Sankar SahuThis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution Licensewhich permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

The prime objective of this paper is to identify and map the water-logged areas within Moyna basin India and to explore theircontemporary economic significancesTheLandsat 5TMASTERdata and topographical sheets have been taken into considerationwith field observations Maps on relief slope canal density embankments a supervised classification of the study area and thenNDVI NDWI and modified NDWI or NDMI have been prepared here At Moyna the piezometric surface ranges from five toten metres below the ground level The percentage of clay particles is high throughout the surface soil The total rainfall is nearly1400mm and most of it happened during the monsoon period Two well-marked depressions are observed there within the basinand the nearly central one is wide and is clearly identified from the relief map also Problem of drainage congestion there acceleratesthe onset of water-logged situation In general water-logged areas are not suitable for humans People once were worried about thewater-logged environment due to underwater scenario of low-lying agricultural fields for a certain period but today local peopleare taking this environmental condition as an opportunity for fishing activity and thus they are becoming economically benefittedas well

1 Introduction

Water-logged condition is a quasinatural manifestation oflowlands and these are important in the study of man andenvironmentWater-logged areas an environmental problem[1] are observed throughout the world over China PakistanBangladesh India and so forth and therefore this problemof water-logging is regarded as a global issue [2] Withinthe wide range of environmental issues it is a hydro-morphological occurrence which needs spatial encountertowards economic management as well as development of anareaNormallywater-logged environment encompasses floodbasins with drainage problem

Water-logged environment is found in the areas wheresoil remains saturated with water [3] The word ldquowater-loggedrdquo is used as an adjective referring to soil that issaturated with water and thus cannot keep oxygen between

its particles [4] The water-logged condition is a result ofblockage ofwater on the land surface especially in a low-lyingarea This blocking of water is controlled by local geologytopography drainage and the amount of water supplied tothe site [5] It is also the result of changing landuse within thehuman environment Sometimes the water-logged situationof an area is the outcome of all-round embanking with poordrainage systemMoyna basin is a classic example of this typeof blocking [6] Water-logging happens due to unscientificmanagement of water and obstruction of natural drainagesystems by the haphazard embankment construction throughdisrupting the balance of inflow and outflow of water Water-logging like flooding causes damage to agricultural landsaffecting the crops and thus the livelihood and the economyof the country [7] Sometimes excessive rainfall within avery short span of time creates water-logged situation in boththe rural and urban areas In India water-logging problem

Hindawi Publishing CorporationGeography JournalVolume 2014 Article ID 401324 9 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552014401324

2 Geography Journal

is one of the main reasons for land degradation [8] Thusdifferent factors like geological structure excessive rain-fall drainage congestion dense haphazard embankmentscyclones flooding river basin encroachment through silta-tion and finally human activities have resulted into water-logged situation Furthermore water-logging may be causeddue to overirrigation Water-logging is also regarded as theconsequence of rising water table within the subsurface soilIt is the consequence of all round intra- and interrelationshipof climatic geomorphic hydrologic vegetative and anthro-pogenic factors in our planetary environment In the coastalareas of Bangladesh sea level rising leads to the onset ofwater-logged environment [9] Water-logging often occursin summer at the north of the Yellow river of the NorthChina plain [10] and it is a serious problem in Bangladeshalong with coastal flooding [9] Water-logging is found inPakistan due to construction of a large number of unlinedcanals in the Indus Basin System [11] Thus there are naturalquasinatural and man-made factors behind the onset ofwater-logging hazards Some of the water-logging scenariosare permanent and others are manifested as seasonal Thuswater-logging is time and place specific as well Water-loggedareas are not wetlands but sometimes they are manifested aswetlands When the incidence like water-logging is createdit can be observed as well as studied from the environmentperspective Now the question is that how are water-loggedareas identified Then nowadays is water-logging conditionof a region a problem or helpful or not much remarkable forthe regionrsquos economic development It is also a task to knowthe opinions of the local people on this phenomenon in theproblem areas

Therefore the prime objective of this paper is to identifyand map the water-logged areas within Moyna basin and toexplore their contemporary economic significances

2 Study Area

Moyna basin (Figure 1) on the north-west part of the districtof Purba Medinipur in the state of West Bengal in India hasbeen selected for empirical observations It is extended from22∘ 091015840 3710158401015840 N to 22∘ 181015840 5810158401015840 N latitude and 87∘ 421015840 1710158401015840 Eto 87∘ 491015840 5310158401015840 E longitude Moyna is bounded by the riversKasai and Chandia from the east and west respectively RiverChandia and Keleghai are on the south and the Baksi canal ison the north The total geographical area of the Moyna basinis about 131 km2

Moyna block is a remnant of paleo-coast and it is treatedunder Kasai plain [12] In the historic past Moyna was aMohana region that is a place where different water-bodiesmeet and fall into the ocean Lithologically Moyna basinis characterised by recent alluvium of the Quaternary toupper Tertiary period There is Holocene alluvial lowlanda physiographic division of the Bengal basin of the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system [13] Moyna block a drainagebasin looks like a trough [14] The physical setup of Moynais characterised by uneven geomorphological changes par-ticularly in the fields of siltation soil formation structure oflands and drainage system [6]

3 Materials and Methods

It is the systematic analysis of the water-logged areas tounderstand the linkages betweenman and environment fromthe spatial as well as environmental perspective Figure 2shows a flow chart to understand the methods and materialsused here to fulfil our objective Here the US GeologicalSurvey (USGS) Landsat 5ThermalMapper (TM) data (2009)the USGS Global Visualisation Viewer (GLOVIS) AdvancedSpaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection (ASTER) data(2009) and topographical sheets 73N11 73N12 73N15 and73N16 (scale 1 50000 year 1970) have been used for thisstudy From the topographical sheets processing throughArcGIS 93 software considering spot elevations haphazardlyspreading all over the study area and its surroundings arelief map representing elevation variations and contourlines within the study area a slope map to depict the slopevariations a canal density map and a map for embankmentsdistribution have been prepared Again another relief maphas also been prepared from the GLOVIS ASTER data whichautomatically creates DEM with the help of Arc GIS 93software Then from the Landsat 5 TM imagery of the datedof December 11 2009 with the help of Arc GIS 93 andERDAS Imagine 91 software after bandwise conversion ofthe quantised and calibrated scaled digital number (DN)known as DN value of the bands to top of atmosphere(TOA) radiance value a supervised classification of the studyarea has been made to crop out and then map the water-logged areas Then with the help of Arc GIS 93 usingcertain formula of raster calculation for the TM bands mapson the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) and modifiedNDWI or Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI)have been prepared Above all the study area has beensurveyed for several times in rainy season and also after rainyseason towards field checking

4 Results and Discussion

41 Elevation and Slope Positional water-logged situationdepends on two topographic factors and these factors controlthe probability of water-logging where it increases with thecontributing drainage area and decreases with increasinglocal slope angle [15] Figure 3 shows the relief variationscontour lines and slope characteristics of land surfaceswithin Moyna basin based on topographical maps andASTER data Mukhopadhyay [16] presented a detailed con-tour network of the Moyna basin He highlighted the twodepressions one in the centre and the other in the south-east corner From Figures 3(a) and 3(b) it is found that thereare two depressions within the Moyna basin and the near-middle one is much larger as well as wide extended WithinMoyna basin relief varies from one to 15m (Figure 3(a))Maximum areas have elevation within three m (Figure 3(b))From the outer riverine embankments toward centre thebasin gets deep gradually it is marked as negative slope forthe purpose of water discharging from the basin The cen-tral part is extended covering Balbhadrachak Kripananda-pur Baitalchak Kiarana Kalagachia Charandaschak Uttar

Geography Journal 3

90∘00

99840000

998400998400E

26∘00

99840000

998400998400N

22∘00

99840000

998400998400N

87∘30

99840000

998400998400E 88∘00

99840000

998400998400E

21∘30

998400N

22∘30

998400N

22∘N

86∘00

99840000

998400998400E

Purba MedinipurMoyna basin

West Bengal

60 0 60 120

(km)

(km)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

N

(k )

Moyna basin

Purba Medinipur

N

Figure 1 Study area

Topographical sheets GLOVIS ASTER data (2009) USGS Landsat 5TM (2009)

Arc GIS 93 software Arc GIS 93 softwareArc GIS 93 and

ERDAS Imagine 91 software

Canal density map Relief map andslope map

Relief map Conversion of digital number (DN)to top of atmosphere (TOA)

radiance value

Supervised classificationNDVI NDWI and modified NDWI or NDMI

Low-lying areas

Water-logged areas

73N11 73N12 73N15 73N16 (1970)

Figure 2 Methods and materials

4 Geography Journal

Low-lying areas

N

(km)

Relief (m)High 149559

Low 100011

0 5 10

(a)

(km)

Relief (m)

Moyna basin

Low-lying areas

0 25 5 10

gt5

3ndash51-2

(b)

(km)0 5 10

Low-lying areas

Slope (deg)

gt10

0ndash0505ndash10

(c)

Figure 3 Surface characteristics of Moyna basin (a) relief based on topographical sheets (73N11 73N12 73N15 73N16 1970) (b) reliefbased on GLOVIS ASTERData (2009) projection system UTM-WGS-1984 (c) slope based on topographical sheets (73N11 73N12 73N1573N16 1970)

Anukha and so forth definitely over the low elevated areasless than three m Moderate elevated lands are found inthe areas of Paramanandapur Garmoyna Deuli DakshinHarkuli and so forth Towards south of the Moyna basinelevation is varying from five to ten m And in other partsof the Moyna basin elevation ranges from three m to five mFrom the ASTER data it is found that the slope is varyingfrom zero to 098∘degrees Figure 3(c) depicts that the slopeis 05∘ for maximum areas and then 05∘ to 1∘ and lastly verynegligible areas have more than 1∘ It is a fact that in theareas where slope is very low and the areas are low-lying alsothan the surrounding areas the chance for creation of water-logging is high as well

42 Rainfall Soil and Ground Water Extreme rainfall leadsto water-logging of lands the duration of water-loggingchanges in relation to the amount of rain evapotranspirationand soil structure [17]Throughout the PurbaMedinipur dis-trict annual average rainfall is 17466mm [18] and atMoynait is 1500mm of which nearly 80 percentage occurred duringthe monsoon (JunendashSeptember) period [19] Water-logginginfluenced the soil properties of an area [20] Sahu [21] pre-sented particle distribution of soil of the Moyna basin wherethe clay (483 percentage) takes higher position remainingbehind the silt (43 percentage) and the sand covered verynegligible portion of 87 percentage Higher percentage ofclay indicates slower rate of vertical accretion under standingwater Disturbance in the hydrological balance finally leadsto the water-logging [22] Basack and Bhattacharya [23]mentioned that in the Purba Medinipur district water level

below the ground surface ranges between three and 15 metresduring premonsoon and in the postmonsoon period it is fourto 12 metres From the ground water table contouring it isfound that in the premonsoon and postmonsoon periodsat Moyna basin ground water remains within four to sevenmetres depth From the study in[24] it is observed that inthe premonsoon period of 2007 at Moyna basin piezometricsurface was laid between five and ten metres below theground level particularly in the very negligible eastern partsand it was between ten and 20 metres below the ground levelon the western sides as well Again on a separate map theyshowed that in the postmonsoon period of 2007 piezometricsurface was laid between five and ten metres below theground level throughout the Moyna basin

43 Drainage and Embankments In the nearly central posi-tion of the Moyna basin the density of khals (canals) ishigh as shown in Figure 4(a) Drainage system of the Moynabasin presents the sewerage condition therein and maximumwater drained throughout the study area by khals During therainy season water is not clearly drained out from the basindue to negative slop towards the outer side of the Moynabasin Therefore water-logging is generated in the drainagecongested areas

At Moyna various types of embankments are observedlike high elevated river-front embankments (three to fourm)medium elevated canal-front embankments (two to 250m)and low elevated embankments (less than two m) within theagricultural fields and fisheries It is also observed that theseembankments with different heights from the ground level

Geography Journal 5

High 474149

Low 0

Central low-lying areas

Moyna basin

0 25 5 10

(km)

N

Canal density (valuekm2)

(a)

0 25 5 10

(km)

Embankment

(b)

Figure 4 (a) Canal density and (b) embankments based on topographical sheets (73N11 73N12 73N15 73N16 1970)

take a vital role to initiate water-logging condition throughinterrupting the natural surface-water flow particularly inthe areas where two or more embankments intersected witheach other Figure 4(b) shows the embankments net of thestudy area and that creates surface blocking of the monsoonrainwaterThus construction of the haphazard embankmentsis also a factor behind drainage congestion which leads to theonset of water-logging hazard

44 Imagery Data Analysis For a better understanding andvisualising of the studied USGS Landsat 5 TM image datedback to December 11 2009 it is important to convert theDN values to the TOA spectral radiance The equation is asfollows [25 26] 119871

120582= ((119871MAX

120582minus 119871MIN

120582)(QCALMAX minus

QCALMIN)) lowast (QCAL minus QCALMIN) + 119871MIN120582 where

119871120582is spectral radiance (wattm2lowaststerlowast120583m) QCAL is the

quantised calibrated pixel value inDN119871MAX120582is the spectral

radiance that is scaled to QCALMAX (wattm2lowaststerlowast120583m)119871MIN

120582is the spectral radiance that is scaled to QCALMIN

(wattm2lowaststerlowast120583m) QCALMAX is the maximum quantisedcalibrated pixel value (corresponding to LMAX

120582) in DN and

QCALMIN is the minimum quantised calibrated pixel value(corresponding to LMIN

120582) in DN

Now after the atmospheric rectification of the image asupervised classification of that has been prepared whichillustrates three major landuse features just after com-pletion of monsoon rainfall in the study area with the

help of Arc GIS 93 software (Figure 5) It shows that thewater-logged areas are situated in the near middle zonewith a large extension and haphazardly in other partsalso Here it is observed that the total area under water-logging in the Moyna basin is around 59 sq km After asmooth field survey it has been observed that at Moynahighly affected water-logged mouzas (villages) are Math-urichak Harakhulibandarchak Balbhadrachak KalagechiaPanch Pukuria Gourangachak Mathurapur Baitalchak Kri-panandapurDaksin AnkhaUttar Ankha LaluageriaDaksinMoyna Charandaschak and so forth Low affected areas areSrikantha ParamanandapurNarkeldaDakhin ChongrachakChongra Chandiberia Kiarana and so forth And othermouzas are medium-affected water-logged areas as well

In support of this classification for water-logged areas(Figure 5) here NDVI NDWI and modified NDWI orNDMI have been preparedTheNormalizedDifferenceVege-tation Index (NDVI) has been developed byTucker [27] usingred and near-infrared bands of the light Here to calculate theNDVI with the help of Arc GIS 93 software the formula forthe TM bands is as follows NDVI = (Near-infrared [NIR]ie Band 4 minus Red ie Band 3)(Near-infrared [NIR] ieBand 4 + Red ie Band 3) This method is found to be usedto measure the vegetation cover and also the water bodies[28 29] The NDVI value ranges from minus1 to +1 [27] Here+1 denotes the dense vegetation and minus1 signifies the presenceof extensive deep water bodies In the study area the NDVIvalue ranges from +0394737 to minus0387755 (Figure 6(a)) The

6 Geography Journal

areas of the lowest values marked in Figure 6(a) within acircle are same with the water-logged areas mentioned inFigure 5

Xu [30] developed the Normalized Difference WaterIndex (NDWI) and it is used to delineate land from openwater The formula for NDWI based on TM bands appliedthrough Arc GIS 93 software is as follows NDWI = (Greenie Band 2 minus Near-infrared [NIR] ie Band 4)(Green ieBand 2 + Near-infrared [NIR] ie Band 4) NDWI showsthe opposite result of NDVI It ranges from minus1 to +1 [30]To understand the water-logged areas NDWI values rangesfrom zero to +1 [31] Chowdary et al [31] made a study usingNDWI values to search the water-logged areas in the stateof Bihar India The upper limit +1 signifies the presence ofextensive deep water bodies and the lower limit minus1 denotesthe vegetation covers In Moyna basin NDWI values rangefrom +0516129 to minus0184456 (Figure 6(b)) The areas of thehighest valuesmarked in Figure 6(b)within a circle are samewith the already classified areas as water-logged in Figures 5and 6(a)

The modified Normalized Difference Water Index (mod-ified NDWI) is developed by Huang et al [32] using near-infrared (NIR) and changing the earlier green band of NDWIby middle-infrared (MIR) of the TM data This method isused to identify soil moisture in a better way It is alsoknown as NDWIGAO For the Landsat 5 TM imagery NIRis presented by band 4 and MIR by band 5 The NormalizedDifference Moisture Index (NDMI) is developed by Wil-son and Sader [33] to investigate soil moisture using thesame band composites like NDWIGAO Modified NDWI andNDMI are theoretically similar to each other to detect spatialvariations of surface wetness [33 34] The formula for TMbands to calculate modified NDWI or NDWIGAO or NDMIis as follows NDWIGAO or NDMI = (Near-infrared [NIR]ie Band 4 minus Middle-infrared [MIR] ie Band 5)(Near-infrared [NIR] ie Band 4 + Middle-infrared [MIR] ieBand 5) Here the high NDMI value indicates the existenceof much more soil moisture as well as water bodies and lowvalue denotes the less existence of soil moisture In the studyarea modified NDWI or NDMI values ranges between +1and +0545455 (Figure 6(c)) This NDMI range indicates agood presence of soil moisture and that is found to trulyhappen when the area remained under prolonged water-logged condition The areas of the highest values markedin Figure 6(c) within a circle are same with the alreadyclassified areas as water-logged in Figure 5 and Figures 6(a)and 6(b) as well Thus from the supervised classification ofthe image and maps using the methods of NDVI NDWIand modified NDWI or NDMI water-logged areas can beassessed automatically

5 Contemporary Uses and Management

Particularly in the critical periods it is a priority that theuse of water of a water-logged area meet peoplersquos basic needsand there water management shall comprise and inducemultiple uses [35] Managementmay be spatial environmen-tal economic socioeconomic and so forth Here the word

Water-logged areasNatural vegetationAgriculture

N

Moyna basin

(km)0 25 5 10

87∘45

99840000

998400998400E 87∘49

99840030

998400998400E

22∘16

99840030

998400998400N

22∘12

99840000

998400998400N

87∘45

99840000

998400998400E 87∘49

99840030

998400998400E

22∘16

99840030

998400998400N

22∘12

99840000

998400998400N

Figure 5 Supervised classification of USGS Landsat 5 TM bands(2009)

ldquomanagementrdquo aims to describe economic transformationcontrolled through spatial relations Every year due toheavy rainfall in the rainy season Moyna basin experiencesdrainage congestion and water-logged hazard from August-September to December-January [19] This drainage conges-tion and resulted standing water in the low-lying agriculturalfields has negative effects on agriculture and positive onfishing activity as well At present paddy cultivation specif-ically boro is continuously diminishing as agricultural fieldsremained under water at the time of paddy cultivation for thepurpose of fishing activity Before the construction of Moynadrainage basin scheme canal in 1985-1986 on the south-east part the study area experienced water-logged problemslike failure of rice and other crop cultivations diseases liketyphoid malaria and so forth transport-communicationproblems among others After the construction of this canalsince it was a general demand of local people to drain outthe excess rain andor flood water from the agriculturalfields practise of boro cultivation has increased But fromthe last half of the nineteenth decade of the twentiethcentury whence price of prawns continuously goes upwardwith other fishes also general people transferred low-lyingagricultural fields into fishing grounds feeling interest to earnmuch more money and for the betterment of their eco-nomic condition Humans taking the natural environmentalsupport of low-lying water-logged areas restricted lowlandsto hold rainwater except its drain-out Thus throughoutthe year areas of paddy cultivation remained captured bythe fresh-water fisheries Sahu [19] shows that almost 50 to60 villages like Charandaschak Baitalchak Arong KiaranaIsmalichakKripanandapurKiarana Bakcha Purba-Dakshin

Geography Journal 7

(km)0 25 5 10

NDVIMoyna basin

N

Water-logged areas

High 0394737

Low minus0387755(a)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDWIHigh 0516129

Low minus0184466

Water-logged areas

(b)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDMIHigh 1

Low 0545455

Water-logged areas

(c)

Figure 6 (a) NDVI (b) NDWI (c) modified NDWI or NDMI based on USGS Landsat 5 TM (2009)

Moyna Paramanandapur and so forth are now engagedto culture Labio rohita Katla katla and so forth in theirpaddy fields Galda prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) inthe water-logged areas of Bakcha Arong Kiarana KiaranaIsmalichak Baitalchak RamchakNarikelda and so forth arealso cultured intensively It is obvious that prawn culture ismore profitable than aus or boro paddy cultivation

6 Conclusion

Water-logging is the resultant function of relationshipsbetween geological structure soil types surface elevationslope drainage density haphazard embankments depth ofground water human activities and so forth from the spatialas well as environmental perspective In the Moyna basinthere are many hydromorphological favourable conditionsfor the onset ofwater-logged situation Extensive near-middlelow-lying area with low relief low and negative slope heavyrainfall within a short span of time favourable soil to holdwater on the land surface presence of ground water withina very short depth from the ground level and a numberof canals with haphazard embankments create water-loggedcondition It is a place of water-logging from August toNovember in a year remaining surrounded by differentrivers like Kasai Chandia and Kangsabati river From thesatellite images these water-logged areas can be identifiedas well as mapped using supervised classification methodNDVI NDWI and modified NDWI or NDMI With theadvancement of science and technology it is experienced that

humans switched off as well as modified the consequences ofdifferent problems of natural origin It is well recognized to allthat within our human society while something is hazardousto someone it is beneficiary to another In abroad and inIndia also water-logging has been taken into considerationas an issue for agriculture in the rural areas due to low-lyingtrough like basin structure drainage congestion and floodingafter heavy rainfall Here at Moyna basin water-logging isquasinatural and seasonal in nature Hydromorphologicalnatures of water-logging issues and their environmentalconsequences are significant physically economically andsocially also With time since population increases contin-uously with a sharp growth rate environmentally backwardareas like water-logged places are also not stepped behindto be occupied for the purposes of inhabitation and eco-nomic activity Using different methods aiming to changethe traditional landuse pattern people transferred water-logged problem into economically benefitted instrumentOnce where water-logged environment was treated only as aproblem for livelihood of humans today there it is helpful toearnmuchmoremoney than any other agricultural practisesPeople of thewater-logged areas transferred the physical issueof water-logging and drainage congestion into economicallybenefitted fishing activity

Conflict of Interests

The author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

8 Geography Journal

Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges the University Grants Commission(UGC) New Delhi India for financial assistance This paperis a part of study under UGC-BSR Start-Up Grant Scheme(Ref UGC Letter no F20-3(17)2012(BSR) Date February2013 (March 8 2013)) on ldquoEnvironmental Consequences ofWater-Logging Problem in Purba Medinipur District WestBengal Evaluation Mapping and Managementrdquo

References

[1] B Bowonder K V Ramana and R Rajagopal ldquoWaterloggingin irrigation projectsrdquo Sadhana vol 9 no 3 pp 177ndash190 1986

[2] M E Bastawesy and R R Ali ldquoThe use of GIS and remotesensing for the assessment of waterlogging in the drylandirrigated catchments of Farafra Oasis Egyptrdquo HydrologicalProcesses 2012

[3] Wikipedia 2013 httpenwikipediaorgwikiWaterlogging(agriculture)

[4] P H Collin Dictionary of Environment and Ecology vol 223Bloomsbury London UK 2004

[5] J Holden A J Howard L J West E Maxfield I Panter andJ Oxley ldquoA critical review of hydrological data collection forassessing preservation risk for urban waterlogged archaeologya case study from the City of York UKrdquo Journal of Environmen-tal Management vol 90 no 11 pp 3197ndash3204 2009

[6] A S Sahu ldquoEmbankment system and sustainable developmentin theMoyna FloodBasinrdquoMSAcademic vol 2 no 1 pp 85ndash932012

[7] A A Kumar and P D Kunte ldquoCoastal vulnerability assessmentfor Chennai East Coast of India using geospatial techniquesrdquoNatural Hazards vol 64 pp 853ndash872 2012

[8] WRMIN 2013 httpwrminnicinindex3aspsslid=345ampsub-sublinkid=354amplangid=1

[9] M H Minar M B Hossain and M D Shamsuddin ldquoClimatechange and coastal zone of Bangladesh vulnerability resilienceand adaptabilityrdquoMiddle-East Journal of Scientific Research vol13 no 1 pp 114ndash120 2013

[10] F Sheng and C Xiuling ldquoDeveloping drainage as the basis ofcomprehensive control of drought waterlogging salinity andsaline groundwaterrdquo Irrigation and Drainage vol 56 no 1 ppS227ndashS244 2007

[11] A R Ghumman Y M Ghazaw M F Niazi and H N HashmildquoImpact assessment of subsurface drainage on waterlogged andsaline landsrdquo Environmental Monitoring and Assessment vol172 no 1ndash4 pp 189ndash197 2011

[12] R Pal ldquoSadhinata sangrame medinipur (1905ndash1947)rdquo inPaschimbangya Medinipur Zela Sankha T O S Bibhag Edpp 167ndash174 Paschimbangya Sarkar Kolkata India 2004

[13] A Mukherjee A E Fryar and W A Thomas ldquoGeologicgeomorphic and hydrologic framework and evolution of theBengal basin India and Bangladeshrdquo Journal of Asian EarthSciences vol 34 no 3 pp 227ndash244 2009

[14] A B Biswas I Chakraborty D K Das A Chakraborty DRay andKMitra ldquoElimination of iodine deficiency disordersmdashcurrent status in Purba Medinipur district of West BengalIndiardquo Indian Journal of Public Health vol 52 no 3 pp 130ndash135 2008

[15] P Merot B Ezzahar C Walter and P Aurousseau ldquoMappingwaterlogging of soils using digital terrain modelsrdquoHydrologicalProcesses vol 9 no 1 pp 27ndash34 1995

[16] S Mukhopadhyay ldquoDevelopment of aMarshy area a case studyofMayna BasinrdquoGeographical Review of India vol 49 no 3 pp54ndash59 1987

[17] A I Malik T D Colmer H Lambers T L Setter and MSchortemeyer ldquoShort-term waterlogging has long-term effectson the growth and physiology of wheatrdquo The New Phytologistvol 153 no 2 pp 225ndash236 2002

[18] Agricoopnicin 2011 httpagricoopnicinAgriculture20contingency20PlanWest20BengalWestBengal2015-Pur-ba20Medinipur-31122011pdf

[19] A S Sahu ldquoEmbankments in relation to the physical andeconomic systems in the Moyna Drainage Basinrdquo WB Geo-graphical Review of India vol 71 no 1 pp 61ndash68 2009

[20] D G Weston ldquoThe Influence of waterlogging and variations inpedology and ignition upon resultant susceptibilities a series oflaboratory reconstructionsrdquo Archaeological Prospection vol 11no 2 pp 107ndash120 2004

[21] N C Sahu Potassium dynamics of some soils of West Bengalin relation to clay mineralogy [PhD thesis] Bidhan ChandraKrishi Nadia India 1993

[22] J M Bradd W A Milnehome and G Gates ldquoOverview offactors leading to Dryland salinity and its potential hazard inNew South Wales Australiardquo Hydrogeology Journal vol 5 pp51ndash67 1997

[23] S Basack and A K Bhattacharya ldquoSignificance of hydro-geological and hydro chemical analysis in the evaluation ofgroundwater resources a case study from the East Coast ofIndiardquo IOSR Journal of Engineering vol 2 no 9 pp 61ndash71 2012

[24] A Ray and S Shekhar ldquoGround water issues and developmentstrategies in West Bengalrdquo Bhu-Jal News vol 24 no 1 pp 1ndash172009

[25] NASA Landsat 7 Science Data Users Handbook chapter 11NASA 2009

[26] A D Prasad K Jain and A Gairola ldquoSurface temperatureestimation using landsat data for part of the Godavari and TapiBasins India a case studyrdquo International Journal of Engineeringand Advanced Technology vol 2 no 3 pp 320ndash322 2013

[27] C J Tucker ldquoRed and photographic infrared linear combina-tions for monitoring vegetationrdquo Remote Sensing of Environ-ment vol 8 no 2 pp 127ndash150 1979

[28] C J Tucker and B J Choudhury ldquoSatellite remote sensing ofdrought conditionsrdquoRemote Sensing of Environment vol 23 no2 pp 243ndash251 1987

[29] R D Jackson andA R Huete ldquoInterpreting vegetation indicesrdquoPreventive Veterinary Medicine vol 11 no 3-4 pp 185ndash2001991

[30] H Xu ldquoModification of normalised difference water index(NDWI) to enhance open water features in remotely sensedimageryrdquo International Journal of Remote Sensing vol 27 no14 pp 3025ndash3033 2006

[31] V M Chowdary R V Chandran N Neeti et al ldquoAssessmentof surface and sub-surface waterlogged areas in irrigationcommand areas of Bihar state using remote sensing and GISrdquoAgricultural Water Management vol 95 no 7 pp 754ndash7662008

[32] J Huang D Chen and M H Cosh ldquoSub-pixel reflectanceunmixing in estimating vegetation water content and drybiomass of corn and soybeans cropland using normalized

Geography Journal 9

difference water index (NDWI) from satellitesrdquo InternationalJournal of Remote Sensing vol 30 no 8 pp 2075ndash2104 2009

[33] E H Wilson and S A Sader ldquoDetection of forest harvest typeusing multiple dates of Landsat TM imageryrdquo Remote Sensing ofEnvironment vol 80 no 3 pp 385ndash396 2002

[34] E P Crist and R C Cicone ldquoA physically based transformationofThematic Mapper datamdashthe TM tasseled caprdquo IEEE Transac-tions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing vol GE-22 no 3 pp256ndash263 1984

[35] A M Omer ldquoSustainable water resources management futuredemands and adaptation strategies in Sudanrdquo Journal of Envi-ronmental Science andWater Resources vol 1 no 7 pp 151ndash1682012

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Child Development Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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Research and TreatmentSchizophrenia


Urban Studies Research

Population ResearchInternational Journal of


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Aging ResearchJournal of



NursingResearch and Practice

Current Gerontologyamp Geriatrics Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Volume 2014

Sleep DisordersHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

AddictionJournal of


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Geography Journal


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Economics Research International

2 Geography Journal

is one of the main reasons for land degradation [8] Thusdifferent factors like geological structure excessive rain-fall drainage congestion dense haphazard embankmentscyclones flooding river basin encroachment through silta-tion and finally human activities have resulted into water-logged situation Furthermore water-logging may be causeddue to overirrigation Water-logging is also regarded as theconsequence of rising water table within the subsurface soilIt is the consequence of all round intra- and interrelationshipof climatic geomorphic hydrologic vegetative and anthro-pogenic factors in our planetary environment In the coastalareas of Bangladesh sea level rising leads to the onset ofwater-logged environment [9] Water-logging often occursin summer at the north of the Yellow river of the NorthChina plain [10] and it is a serious problem in Bangladeshalong with coastal flooding [9] Water-logging is found inPakistan due to construction of a large number of unlinedcanals in the Indus Basin System [11] Thus there are naturalquasinatural and man-made factors behind the onset ofwater-logging hazards Some of the water-logging scenariosare permanent and others are manifested as seasonal Thuswater-logging is time and place specific as well Water-loggedareas are not wetlands but sometimes they are manifested aswetlands When the incidence like water-logging is createdit can be observed as well as studied from the environmentperspective Now the question is that how are water-loggedareas identified Then nowadays is water-logging conditionof a region a problem or helpful or not much remarkable forthe regionrsquos economic development It is also a task to knowthe opinions of the local people on this phenomenon in theproblem areas

Therefore the prime objective of this paper is to identifyand map the water-logged areas within Moyna basin and toexplore their contemporary economic significances

2 Study Area

Moyna basin (Figure 1) on the north-west part of the districtof Purba Medinipur in the state of West Bengal in India hasbeen selected for empirical observations It is extended from22∘ 091015840 3710158401015840 N to 22∘ 181015840 5810158401015840 N latitude and 87∘ 421015840 1710158401015840 Eto 87∘ 491015840 5310158401015840 E longitude Moyna is bounded by the riversKasai and Chandia from the east and west respectively RiverChandia and Keleghai are on the south and the Baksi canal ison the north The total geographical area of the Moyna basinis about 131 km2

Moyna block is a remnant of paleo-coast and it is treatedunder Kasai plain [12] In the historic past Moyna was aMohana region that is a place where different water-bodiesmeet and fall into the ocean Lithologically Moyna basinis characterised by recent alluvium of the Quaternary toupper Tertiary period There is Holocene alluvial lowlanda physiographic division of the Bengal basin of the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system [13] Moyna block a drainagebasin looks like a trough [14] The physical setup of Moynais characterised by uneven geomorphological changes par-ticularly in the fields of siltation soil formation structure oflands and drainage system [6]

3 Materials and Methods

It is the systematic analysis of the water-logged areas tounderstand the linkages betweenman and environment fromthe spatial as well as environmental perspective Figure 2shows a flow chart to understand the methods and materialsused here to fulfil our objective Here the US GeologicalSurvey (USGS) Landsat 5ThermalMapper (TM) data (2009)the USGS Global Visualisation Viewer (GLOVIS) AdvancedSpaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection (ASTER) data(2009) and topographical sheets 73N11 73N12 73N15 and73N16 (scale 1 50000 year 1970) have been used for thisstudy From the topographical sheets processing throughArcGIS 93 software considering spot elevations haphazardlyspreading all over the study area and its surroundings arelief map representing elevation variations and contourlines within the study area a slope map to depict the slopevariations a canal density map and a map for embankmentsdistribution have been prepared Again another relief maphas also been prepared from the GLOVIS ASTER data whichautomatically creates DEM with the help of Arc GIS 93software Then from the Landsat 5 TM imagery of the datedof December 11 2009 with the help of Arc GIS 93 andERDAS Imagine 91 software after bandwise conversion ofthe quantised and calibrated scaled digital number (DN)known as DN value of the bands to top of atmosphere(TOA) radiance value a supervised classification of the studyarea has been made to crop out and then map the water-logged areas Then with the help of Arc GIS 93 usingcertain formula of raster calculation for the TM bands mapson the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) and modifiedNDWI or Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI)have been prepared Above all the study area has beensurveyed for several times in rainy season and also after rainyseason towards field checking

4 Results and Discussion

41 Elevation and Slope Positional water-logged situationdepends on two topographic factors and these factors controlthe probability of water-logging where it increases with thecontributing drainage area and decreases with increasinglocal slope angle [15] Figure 3 shows the relief variationscontour lines and slope characteristics of land surfaceswithin Moyna basin based on topographical maps andASTER data Mukhopadhyay [16] presented a detailed con-tour network of the Moyna basin He highlighted the twodepressions one in the centre and the other in the south-east corner From Figures 3(a) and 3(b) it is found that thereare two depressions within the Moyna basin and the near-middle one is much larger as well as wide extended WithinMoyna basin relief varies from one to 15m (Figure 3(a))Maximum areas have elevation within three m (Figure 3(b))From the outer riverine embankments toward centre thebasin gets deep gradually it is marked as negative slope forthe purpose of water discharging from the basin The cen-tral part is extended covering Balbhadrachak Kripananda-pur Baitalchak Kiarana Kalagachia Charandaschak Uttar

Geography Journal 3

90∘00

99840000

998400998400E

26∘00

99840000

998400998400N

22∘00

99840000

998400998400N

87∘30

99840000

998400998400E 88∘00

99840000

998400998400E

21∘30

998400N

22∘30

998400N

22∘N

86∘00

99840000

998400998400E


West Bengal

60 0 60 120

(km)

(km)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

N

(k )

Moyna basin

Purba Medinipur

N

Figure 1 Study area






radiance value


Low-lying areas

Water-logged areas

73N11 73N12 73N15 73N16 (1970)


4 Geography Journal

Low-lying areas

N

(km)


Low 100011

0 5 10

(a)

(km)

Relief (m)

Moyna basin

Low-lying areas

0 25 5 10

gt5

3ndash51-2

(b)

(km)0 5 10

Low-lying areas

Slope (deg)

gt10

0ndash0505ndash10

(c)







Geography Journal 5

High 474149

Low 0


Moyna basin

0 25 5 10

(km)

N


(a)

0 25 5 10

(km)

Embankment

(b)




120582= ((119871MAX

120582minus 119871MIN








120582) in DN and


120582) in DN




6 Geography Journal







N

Moyna basin

(km)0 25 5 10

87∘45

99840000

998400998400E 87∘49

99840030

998400998400E

22∘16

99840030

998400998400N

22∘12

99840000

998400998400N

87∘45

99840000

998400998400E 87∘49

99840030

998400998400E

22∘16

99840030

998400998400N

22∘12

99840000

998400998400N



Geography Journal 7

(km)0 25 5 10

NDVIMoyna basin

N

Water-logged areas

High 0394737

Low minus0387755(a)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDWIHigh 0516129

Low minus0184466

Water-logged areas

(b)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDMIHigh 1

Low 0545455

Water-logged areas

(c)



6 Conclusion





8 Geography Journal

Acknowledgments


References

































Geography Journal 9













Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





Geography Journal 3

90∘00

99840000

998400998400E

26∘00

99840000

998400998400N

22∘00

99840000

998400998400N

87∘30

99840000

998400998400E 88∘00

99840000

998400998400E

21∘30

998400N

22∘30

998400N

22∘N

86∘00

99840000

998400998400E


West Bengal

60 0 60 120

(km)

(km)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

N

(k )

Moyna basin

Purba Medinipur

N

Figure 1 Study area






radiance value


Low-lying areas

Water-logged areas

73N11 73N12 73N15 73N16 (1970)


4 Geography Journal

Low-lying areas

N

(km)


Low 100011

0 5 10

(a)

(km)

Relief (m)

Moyna basin

Low-lying areas

0 25 5 10

gt5

3ndash51-2

(b)

(km)0 5 10

Low-lying areas

Slope (deg)

gt10

0ndash0505ndash10

(c)







Geography Journal 5

High 474149

Low 0


Moyna basin

0 25 5 10

(km)

N


(a)

0 25 5 10

(km)

Embankment

(b)




120582= ((119871MAX

120582minus 119871MIN








120582) in DN and


120582) in DN




6 Geography Journal







N

Moyna basin

(km)0 25 5 10

87∘45

99840000

998400998400E 87∘49

99840030

998400998400E

22∘16

99840030

998400998400N

22∘12

99840000

998400998400N

87∘45

99840000

998400998400E 87∘49

99840030

998400998400E

22∘16

99840030

998400998400N

22∘12

99840000

998400998400N



Geography Journal 7

(km)0 25 5 10

NDVIMoyna basin

N

Water-logged areas

High 0394737

Low minus0387755(a)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDWIHigh 0516129

Low minus0184466

Water-logged areas

(b)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDMIHigh 1

Low 0545455

Water-logged areas

(c)



6 Conclusion





8 Geography Journal

Acknowledgments


References

































Geography Journal 9













Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





4 Geography Journal

Low-lying areas

N

(km)


Low 100011

0 5 10

(a)

(km)

Relief (m)

Moyna basin

Low-lying areas

0 25 5 10

gt5

3ndash51-2

(b)

(km)0 5 10

Low-lying areas

Slope (deg)

gt10

0ndash0505ndash10

(c)







Geography Journal 5

High 474149

Low 0


Moyna basin

0 25 5 10

(km)

N


(a)

0 25 5 10

(km)

Embankment

(b)




120582= ((119871MAX

120582minus 119871MIN








120582) in DN and


120582) in DN




6 Geography Journal







N

Moyna basin

(km)0 25 5 10

87∘45

99840000

998400998400E 87∘49

99840030

998400998400E

22∘16

99840030

998400998400N

22∘12

99840000

998400998400N

87∘45

99840000

998400998400E 87∘49

99840030

998400998400E

22∘16

99840030

998400998400N

22∘12

99840000

998400998400N



Geography Journal 7

(km)0 25 5 10

NDVIMoyna basin

N

Water-logged areas

High 0394737

Low minus0387755(a)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDWIHigh 0516129

Low minus0184466

Water-logged areas

(b)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDMIHigh 1

Low 0545455

Water-logged areas

(c)



6 Conclusion





8 Geography Journal

Acknowledgments


References

































Geography Journal 9













Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





Geography Journal 5

High 474149

Low 0


Moyna basin

0 25 5 10

(km)

N


(a)

0 25 5 10

(km)

Embankment

(b)




120582= ((119871MAX

120582minus 119871MIN








120582) in DN and


120582) in DN




6 Geography Journal







N

Moyna basin

(km)0 25 5 10

87∘45

99840000

998400998400E 87∘49

99840030

998400998400E

22∘16

99840030

998400998400N

22∘12

99840000

998400998400N

87∘45

99840000

998400998400E 87∘49

99840030

998400998400E

22∘16

99840030

998400998400N

22∘12

99840000

998400998400N



Geography Journal 7

(km)0 25 5 10

NDVIMoyna basin

N

Water-logged areas

High 0394737

Low minus0387755(a)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDWIHigh 0516129

Low minus0184466

Water-logged areas

(b)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDMIHigh 1

Low 0545455

Water-logged areas

(c)



6 Conclusion





8 Geography Journal

Acknowledgments


References

































Geography Journal 9













Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





6 Geography Journal







N

Moyna basin

(km)0 25 5 10

87∘45

99840000

998400998400E 87∘49

99840030

998400998400E

22∘16

99840030

998400998400N

22∘12

99840000

998400998400N

87∘45

99840000

998400998400E 87∘49

99840030

998400998400E

22∘16

99840030

998400998400N

22∘12

99840000

998400998400N



Geography Journal 7

(km)0 25 5 10

NDVIMoyna basin

N

Water-logged areas

High 0394737

Low minus0387755(a)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDWIHigh 0516129

Low minus0184466

Water-logged areas

(b)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDMIHigh 1

Low 0545455

Water-logged areas

(c)



6 Conclusion





8 Geography Journal

Acknowledgments


References

































Geography Journal 9













Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





Geography Journal 7

(km)0 25 5 10

NDVIMoyna basin

N

Water-logged areas

High 0394737

Low minus0387755(a)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDWIHigh 0516129

Low minus0184466

Water-logged areas

(b)

(km)0 25 5 10

NDMIHigh 1

Low 0545455

Water-logged areas

(c)



6 Conclusion





8 Geography Journal

Acknowledgments


References

































Geography Journal 9













Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





8 Geography Journal

Acknowledgments


References

































Geography Journal 9













Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





Geography Journal 9













Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal













Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





Documents

Research Article A Study on Moyna Basin Water-Logged Areas ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/geography/2014/401324.pdfof climatic, geomorphic, hydrologic, vegetative, and anthro-pogenic