Research findings on Research findings on language acquisition: language acquisition:

Application to MLE Application to MLE programs programs

Seminar on MLESeminar on MLEKabul, 13-18 March 2010Kabul, 13-18 March 2010

Susan MaloneSusan MaloneFrom presentation in Hanoi, January, 2010From presentation in Hanoi, January, 2010

Here are some things Here are some things that researchers have that researchers have learned about learned about language acquisition:language acquisition:

1. Children who are raised in 1. Children who are raised in bilingual households seem to bilingual households seem to have a cognitive advantage have a cognitive advantage over children raised in over children raised in monolingual households. monolingual households. BUT, children who are taken BUT, children who are taken out of their L1 too soon are out of their L1 too soon are likely to have problems likely to have problems learning learning anyany language well. language well.

2. Children between ages 2. Children between ages 11 and 14 consistently do 11 and 14 consistently do better than younger better than younger children in tests that children in tests that measure their ability to measure their ability to use a new language (L2) use a new language (L2) meaningfully. meaningfully.

3. Students who have 3. Students who have developed fluency in oral developed fluency in oral and written L1 before and written L1 before they begin learning oral they begin learning oral and written L2 do as well and written L2 do as well or better in the L2 than or better in the L2 than students who are taught students who are taught L2 from the beginning of L2 from the beginning of school.school.

4. Learning an L2 requires 4. Learning an L2 requires (1) learning “everyday” (1) learning “everyday” language for language for communication and (2) communication and (2) learning “academic” learning “academic” language (for learning language (for learning abstract concepts). abstract concepts).

What do the experts What do the experts say about the situation say about the situation for children who do not for children who do not speak the school speak the school language when they language when they begin their education?begin their education?

“The choice of the language…is a recurrent challenge in the development of quality education...

Speakers of mother tongues, which are not the same as the national…language, are often at a considerable disadvantage in the educational system…” (UNESCO 2003).

WhyWhy do the experts do the experts say that children are say that children are disadvantaged when disadvantaged when they start school in a they start school in a language that they do language that they do not understand or not understand or speak?speak?

It is obvious…that learning It is obvious…that learning in a language which is not in a language which is not one’s own provides a double one’s own provides a double set of challenges. set of challenges.

Not only is there the Not only is there the challenge of learning the challenge of learning the new language but also that new language but also that of learning new knowledge of learning new knowledge contained in that contained in that language…language…((UNESCO. 2003).UNESCO. 2003).

……it has been demonstrated it has been demonstrated that classroom use of a that classroom use of a language which is not the language which is not the language already spoken language already spoken by the child, results in by the child, results in cognitive and pedagogical cognitive and pedagogical difficultiesdifficulties (Association for the Development of Education in Africa, 2001. (Association for the Development of Education in Africa, 2001. http://www.adeanet.org/newsletter/Vol8No4/en_n8v4_3.html

Why do the experts Why do the experts say it’s best for say it’s best for children to begin children to begin learning in their L1? learning in their L1?

Children learn a second Children learn a second language better when they language better when they begin with a language they begin with a language they already know. already know.

Researchers have found Researchers have found convincing evidence that convincing evidence that second language learning is second language learning is helped, not hindered, by first helped, not hindered, by first building fluency and confidence building fluency and confidence in the first language…in the first language…

……This leads to a simple This leads to a simple [principle]: the first language is [principle]: the first language is the language of learning. It is by the language of learning. It is by far the easiest way for children to far the easiest way for children to interact with the world.interact with the world.

And when the language of And when the language of learning and the language of learning and the language of instruction do instruction do notnot match, match, learning difficulties are bound to learning difficulties are bound to followfollow (World Bank, 2006, page 4).(World Bank, 2006, page 4).

A basic principle of good A basic principle of good language education also language education also guides good guides good languagelanguage educationeducation: :

The most important single The most important single factor influencing learning is factor influencing learning is our prior knowledge and our prior knowledge and experience. Good education experience. Good education starts with what the students starts with what the students already know to help them already know to help them learn what is new learn what is new (based on Ausubel, D. (based on Ausubel, D. P. 1968. Page 235.)P. 1968. Page 235.)

Linguists and educational Linguists and educational psychologists agree that the use psychologists agree that the use of the mother tongue as the of the mother tongue as the language of instruction in the language of instruction in the early years of education has early years of education has proven advantages, especially proven advantages, especially where the development of where the development of cognitive faculties is concerned. cognitive faculties is concerned. (Association for the Development of Education in Africa, 2001. (Association for the Development of Education in Africa, 2001. http://www.adeanet.org/

newsletter/Vol8No4/en_n8v4_3en_n8v4_3..html html

Researchers have also found that…Researchers have also found that…

Students learn better through Students learn better through interactive learning methodsinteractive learning methods using L1; using L1;

They are also more They are also more interested interested in in learning;learning;

Parents consider their children more Parents consider their children more respectful, more likely to be respectful, more likely to be community leaders in the future; andcommunity leaders in the future; and

Teachers gain in motivation and Teachers gain in motivation and respect for themselves as teachers respect for themselves as teachers (from a research study of MTB MLE in Mali, West Africa).(from a research study of MTB MLE in Mali, West Africa).

What does the What does the research tell us about research tell us about the best process for the best process for learning L2?learning L2?

Minority language learners’ Minority language learners’ oral proficiency and oral proficiency and knowledge of the L2 knowledge of the L2 vocabulary were major vocabulary were major factors in their L2 reading factors in their L2 reading comprehensioncomprehension (Droop and Verhoeven, (Droop and Verhoeven,

2003).2003).

And again, from the research…And again, from the research…

It takes It takes 1-2 years to gain 1-2 years to gain proficiency in using a new proficiency in using a new language for language for everyday everyday communicationcommunication;;

It takes 4-7 years to gain It takes 4-7 years to gain academic academic proficiency proficiency in a new language.in a new language.

(Thomas and Collier, 1997, 2002, 2004; Cummins, 2001, (Thomas and Collier, 1997, 2002, 2004; Cummins, 2001, Hakuta, Butler & Witt, 2000).Hakuta, Butler & Witt, 2000).

What do researchers What do researchers say about the say about the importance of importance of meaningfumeaningful learning of l learning of L2 (rather than copying L2 (rather than copying and memorizing words and memorizing words and phrases)?and phrases)?

The best language learning methods…

1) Encourage students to listen and respond to meaningful L2.

2) Allow them to speak in the L2 when they are ready. The teacher does not force them to talk and correct them when they make mistakes. (Krashan, 2001).

Why do researchers Why do researchers say that schools should say that schools should continue to use the continue to use the children’s L1, along children’s L1, along with L2, as long as with L2, as long as possible?possible?

When children continue to develop their abilities in two or more languages throughout their primary school years, they gain a deeper understanding of language and how to use it effectively.

They have more practice in processing language, especially when they develop literacy in both, and they are able to compare and contrast the ways in which their two languages are used to talk about the world (Cummins, internet).

The most powerful The most powerful factor in predicting factor in predicting educational success for educational success for minority learners was minority learners was the amount of formal the amount of formal schooling they received schooling they received in their L1in their L1 (Thomas and Collier, 1997, 2002, (Thomas and Collier, 1997, 2002,

2004).2004).

Bilingual Programs - Comparison of Achievement on Standardized Tests

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Grade Level

NC

E (P

erce

ntile

)

1 - Two-way developmental

2 - One-way developmental

3 - Transitional + content ESL

4 - Transition + standard ESL

5 - ESL through academic content

6 - Traditional ESL Pullout

61

52

40

35

34

24

Final NCE

Average performance of native-English speakers

from Thomas and Collier 1997, p. 53

ReferencesReferences Ausubel, D. P. (1968) . Educational psychology: A cognitive view . London: Holt, Reinehart and Winsto

n. Page 2 3 5

Bender , Penel ope (2002) . Language of Instruction Seminar Series: Notes from the Presentation onMALI . Unpublished Seminar report.

Cummi ns, J i m. ( n.d. ) . Bi l i ngual Chi l dr en' s Mot her Tongue: Why I s I t I mpor t ant f or Educat i on? http://www.iteachilearn.com/cummins/bicscalp.html Cummins, Jim. (2008). Fundamental Psycholinguistic and Sociological Principles Underlying Educational Success for Linguistic Minority Students. Video conference Presentation at the at the International Conference on " Multilingual Education: Challenges, Perspectives and Opportunities" International Conference on " Multilingual Education: Challenges, Perspectives and Opportunities" New Delhi- India , February 05 - 08.New Delhi- India , February 05 - 08.

Droop, Meinke and Ludo Verhoeven (2003) . “Language proficiency and reading ability in fi r st and s- econd language students.” Reading Research Quarterly 28(1) -. January March (2003) . Pages 78-103.

Hakut a, Kenj i , Yuko Got o But l er and Dar i a Wi t t . 2000 . “How long does it take English learners to attain proficiency?” University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute Policy Report 200-1

.

Hamel, R. E. (2008). “ Bilingual education for indigenous communities in Mexico.” In J. Cummins & N. H. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Language and Education, 2nd Edition, Volume 5: Bilingual Edu

cation - . (pp. 3 1 1 3 2 1 ). New York: Springer Science + Business Media LLC.

Krashan, Stephen (1997) . Why Bilingual Education? -http://www.ericdigests.org/1997 3/bilingual.html Thomas, Wayne P. & Virginia Collier, (1997) . School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students. N

CBE Resource Collection Series. http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/ncbepubs/resource/effectiveness/

Thomas, Wayne and Virginia Collier. (2002) . A National Study of School Effectiveness for Language - Minority Students’ Long Term Academic Achievement Final Report Executive Summary. http://crede.

11berkeley.edu/research/llaa/ . _final.htmlUNESCO. 2003 . Education in a Multilingual World. Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0 0 1 2 /0 0 1 2 9 7 /1 2 9 7 2 8 e.pdf

Human Development Network, The World Bank. (2006). Language of l ear ni ng, l anguage of instruc tion: Implications for achieving Education for All. Page 4 http://www.seameo.org/images/stories/Proje

cts/2 0 0 8 _MotherTongueBridgeLang/Other_ references/WorldBank_Papers/WBpaperNov0 6 .pdf