Research Lecture 1 by Ma'am Jasmen Pasia

8/13/2019 Research Lecture 1 by Ma'am Jasmen Pasia

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What is research?

Research starts with a question.


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RESEARCH often defined as systematicinquiry about asubject

(systematic - points to the need to examinetopics methodically in a step-by-step

procedure )

the application of the scientific method

a systematic process of collecting andlogically analyzing information (data)

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The systematic collection, analysis andinterpretation of data to answer a certainquestion or solve a problem

HEALTH RESEARCHThe process of obtaining systematic knowledge

and technology which can be used for theimprovement of the health of individual groups(Davies 1991)


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The generation ofinformation

and understanding

(perhaps)

consisting of

as opposed to

unsupported

opinion

New concepts

New models

New theories

So we need evidence

as opposed to

anecdote

Determinants arevalidity

reliability

generalisability

What is research?


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Why is research important? Searching for useful medical knowledge

Determine magnitude of a health

problem

Factors associated with a health

problem

Determining appropriate intervention

EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE

Evaluating a health intervention

Effectiveness of a treatment regimen


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CHARACTERISTICS OFRESEARCH

Systematic

Objective

Reproducible


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FREQUENTLY USED TYPES OF

RESEARCH

1. Descriptive research

2. Analytical research

3. Applied research

4. Basic research

5. Quantitative research6. Qualitative research

7. Conceptual research


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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Surveys & fact finding inquiries of

different kinds

Purpose is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.

Researcher has no control over the

variables; he can only report what hashappened or what is happening.


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SUBIVISIONS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Survey research

The case study

Job analysis Observational research

Correlation study

Comparative study

Epidemiological research


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ANALYTICAL RESEARCH

Involves in-depth study and evaluation ofavailable information in an attempt to explain

complex phenomenon.

The researcher has to use facts or informationalready available and analyze these to make a

critical evaluation of the material.


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SUBDIVISIONS OF ANALYTICAL RESEARCH

Historical research

Philosophical research

Review Research synthesis ( meta analysis i.e.

analysis the review that already

published)


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APPLIED / ACTION RESEARCH

Finding a solution an immediate problem

Say a solution

SUBTYPES

Marketing research

Evaluation research


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BASIC /PURE/ FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH

generalization and with the formulation of

theory

Natural phenomenon and mathematics are

the examples of basic research

Finding information in broad base.


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Quantitative Research

Burns & Grove (1987)

... a formal, objective, systematic process in

which numerical data are utilized to obtain

information about the world" and "a

research method which is used to describe

and test relationships and to examine cause-

and-effect relationships".


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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Based on measurement of quantity

or amount

Weighing, measuring are theexamples of quantitative research


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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Phenomena relating quality or kind

Character, personality and man kind are the

examples of variable used to measure the

qualitative research

Word association test, Sentence completion

test are the examples of qualitative research


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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Not measurements, but WORDS!

Instead of asking how many times

someone purchased an item, you ask

"WHY...?"

Typically the samples are small, and not"random"


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Strengths

Cant extrapolate to the whole population

Volume of data

Complexity of analysis

Time-consuming nature of the clerical efforts require

Good for examining feelings and motivations

Allows for complexity and depth of issues

Provides insights

Weaknesses


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Experimental Research

Experimental research is an attempt by

the researcher to maintain control overall factors that may affect the result of an

experiment. In doing this, the researcher

attempts to determine or predict whatmay occur.

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CONCEPTUAL / EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCH

Related to some abstract ideas /

theory experiment

Attempt to establish cause and effectrelationship


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Experimental Design

Experimental design is a blueprint

of the procedure that enables theresearcher to test his hypothesis

by reaching valid conclusions

about relationships betweenindependent and dependent

variables.


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Experimental Research Essentials

Manipulation of an independent

variable.

All variables except the dependentvariable are held constant

(control).

Manipulation of the dependent

variable by the independent

variable is observed (observation).


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UNSCIENTIFIC METHODS OF PROBLEM

SOLVING

Tenacity

Intuition

Authority

The Rationalistic method

The Empirical method


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TENACITY

Sometime cling to certain beliefs

despite lack of supporting evidence

Superstitions are good examples ofthis method called tenacity.

Coaches and athletes wearing samedress

Black cat brought bad luck


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INTUITION

Intuitive knowledge is sometimes

considered to be common sense or

self evident Factual evidence

Self evident truth sometime mayfound to be false


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AUTHORITY

Reference to some authority has

long been used as a source of

knowledge.Galileos telescope

Ptolemys explanation about worldand heaven


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THE RATIONALISTIC METHOD

Derive knowledge through reasoning

Basket ball players are tall.

Tony is a basket ball playerTherefore, tony is tall


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THE EMPIRICAL METHOD

Describes data or a study that is

based on objective observation

Gathering data is scientific method

but here experience plays major role.


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2. Conduct a Review of Related Literature

1. Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

3. Define the Actual Problem and Objectives in Clear Specific Terms

4. Formulate the Hypothesis and Define the Study Variables

5. Construct the Research Design

6. Design the Tools for Data Collection

7. Design the Plan for Data Analysis


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8. Collect the Data

9. Process the Data

10. Analyze the Data

11. Write the Research Report

12. Disseminate and Utilize the Result


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Identify the Research Problem

and Objectives

A. Select topics for research

Criteria for selection

1. Researcher characteristics

personal interest and inclination

training previous experience

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and Objectives


2. Nature of topic

timeliness: internet, literature

relevance

duplication

applicability/utilizability

cost- effectiveness

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and Objectives


3. Feasibility

availability of subjects

availability of specific equipment

necessity for special working

conditions

degree of sponsorship /

administrative cooperation

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and Objectives


3. Feasibility (cont)

hazards, handicaps to beencountered

time requirements / duration

availability of research fund

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and Objectives


3. Ethical considerations

risks involved to investigator and

subjects

4. Significance of the study

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and Objectives

Sources of research problems

own experiences, communication with

other people assessment of needs and practices

patterns and trends

somebody elses completed research

investigators intellectual and

scientific interests

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and Objectives

Sources of research problems (contn)

critical reading of literature

intellectual curiosity, intuitive hunch

serendipity

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and Objectives

Characteristics of a good research

question

FI

N

E

R

easiblenteresting

ovel

thical

elevant

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and Objectives

F easible - # of subjects, technical expertise,resources, manageable

I nteresting

N ovel - confirms and refutes previous

findings, extends previous research, provides

new findings

E thical

R elevant - to scientific knowledge, clinical and

health policies, future research direction

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and Objectives

B. Formulate research objectives

A question well-phrased is a

question half-answered

indicates the direction of theresearch

- clearly reflects the question that

the researcher wants to answer

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and Objectives

can be expressed in the form of a

statement or a question

> To determine the relationship of

smoking and Lung Cancer.

> What is the relationship of smoking

and Lung Cancer?

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and Objectives

PROGRAM vs. RESEARCH Objective

> A Prog ram ob ject ivereflects the

purpose or desired output of the

intervention being considered.

> A Research ob ject ivereflectsquestions which need to be answered

in order to know if the program

objective was attained.

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and Objectives

> To decrease the prevalence of severe

malnutrition among preschoolers by

80% within a 2 year period

> To determine and compare the

baseline level of the prevalence of

severe malnutrition amongpreschoolers with the corresponding

value 2 years after program

implementation

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Id if h R h P bl


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and Objectives

Formulating objectives

use action verbs specific enough to

be measuredto determine

to compare

to calculateto describe

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Id tif th R h P bl


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and Objectives

Formulating objectives

Dont use vague non-action verbs

to appreciate

to understand

to explore

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Id tif th R h P bl


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and Objectives

General objective

identifies in general terms what is to

be accomplished by the study

Specific objective

identifies in specific details on how toaccomplish the research by using

measurable parameters

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Id tif th R h P bl


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and Objectives

General Objective

To determine the effectiveness of a nutrition

education program for schoolchildren

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Specific Objectives

To determine and compare the prevalence of

malnutrition among schoolchildren before and

after the nutrition program

To determine and compare the level of

nutrition knowledge among schoolchildren

before and after the nutrition program

Id tif th R h P bl


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and Objectives

Characteristic of Research Objectives

Phrased clearly, unambiguously andspecifically

Stated in measurable and operational

terms

S.M.A.R.T.

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Id tif th R h P bl


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and Objectives

Examples of Objectives:

To study diarrhea To determine the role of infant

feeding in diarrhea

To compare the incidence of diarrhea

between bottle, breast and mixed-fed

infants

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Not a patchwork

Critical assessment

What is known?

What is not known?

How strong is the evidence?

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Conduct a Review of Related

Literature2

C d t R i f R l t d


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Literature

Activities undertaken in review of lit

1. Research about previous studies done

related to the topic of interest

Who have conducted similar researches

Research designs utilized

Study results

Gaps in the knowledge

Problems encountered

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C d t R i f R l t d2


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Literature

Activities undertaken in review of lit

2. To establish theoretical or conceptual

framework for the research based on

results of previous studies

3. Integration / critique of previous

researches done

4. Build bridges between related topics

5. Draw overall conclusions

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C d t R i f R l t d2


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Literature

SOURCES of Review of Related Literature

Medical and public health journalsStatistical reports (Phil Health Stat,

Demographic Yearbook)

Indexes (Index Medicus)

Publications of Abstracts (Excerpta Medica)Databases (Medline, Ovid, Herdin)

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D fi th A t l P bl d3


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Define the Actual Problem and

Objectives in Clear Specific Terms

Make them more specific or limit the scope!!

To determine the impact of continuing education

for health workers

To determine the effect of continuing education activities

conducted by the DOH for its staff on their performance

To determine the effect of the Master Trainers Course

conducted by the DOH on the capabilities of the

participants to plan, implement and evaluate training

programs they conduct in the field

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Form late the H pothesis and4


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Hypothesis a proposition or statement about

the relationship of variables being investigated

Variables independent,dependent,control

Independent variable- Presumed to cause, influence or stimulate the

outcome

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Formulate the Hypothesis and

Define the Study Variables4

Formulate the Hypothesis and4


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Dependent variable

- the output, outcome or response variable

Control Variable

- produces changes which may be mistaken to be

the effect of the independent variables being

considered- controlled, held constant or randomized so the

effects are neutralized, cancelled out or equated

for all conditions

- also called confounders or covariates 62



Formulate the Hypothesis and4


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Conceptual Framework shows the

relationships of the different variables

being studied

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Example:

obesity hypertension

age



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Plan of attack

Includes subject selection, sample size,control and manipulation of variables,

outcome evaluation, instrumentation,plan of analysis

Consider the objectives, feasibility,

economy and efficiency, ethics Important to achieve internal and

external validity

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Construct the Research Design5

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INTERNAL validity

- extent to which the investigator is able tocontrol the different biases that may affectthe study to be able to measure what hereally intends to measure

EXTERNAL validity- extent to which the investigator is able togeneralize the results of the study

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Construct the Research Design5

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Construct the Research Design

1. Non-intervention studies

Exploratory study Descriptive study

Analytical Study (cross-sectional,

case-control, cohort)

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C5


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Construct the Research Design

2. Intervention studies

Experimental

Quasi-experimental Before-After study

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Design the Data Collection Tools

Data Collection Techniques Data-collection Tools

Using available

information

Checklist, data-compilation forms

Observing Eyes and other senses, pen andpaper, watch, scales, microscopes

Interviewing Interview schedule, checklist,

questionnaire, tape recorderAdministering written

questionnaires

Questionnaire

, data colln form

/ abstraction form

*Pre-testing of Questionnaire

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Design the Plan for7


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Design the Plan forData Analysis

should be done before data

collection

construct dummy tables to help you

conceptualize how data is going to

be organized and presented aftercollection

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Collect the Data

Use of tools earlier developed

Permission to collect data

Administrative concernsMeeting with community leaders

Social preparation: proper orientation

of population to the study prior to datacollection

Training of data collectors

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Data Processing

Phases of Data Processing

1. Editing of data collection forms

for completeness

legibility of entries

consistency of

responses

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Data Processing

Phases of Data Processing

2. Coding and encoding of responses

precoding of difficult information

coding the data in analyzable form

encoding the data in the computer

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Analyze the Data

Involves quantification,

description and determination

of relationships of variables

Statistics play an importantrole

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Analyze the Data

1. Descriptive statistics

Frequency distributions

Mean, median, std deviation, range

graphical presentations

Two methods of statistical data analysis

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Analyze the Data

2. Inferential statisticsa. estimation of parameters

b. hypothesis testing

tests for means (t-test, ANOVA) tests for proportions (chi-square)

tests for associations (Prevalenceratios, Odds Ratios, Relative Risks)

Regression (linear, logistic, Coxsurvival, poisson)

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Write the Research Report

organized presentation ofactivities and findings

make conclusions: answer theresearch question and objectives

follow basic principles oftechnical

report writing (form and style)

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Di i t & Utili th R lt12


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Disseminate & Utilize the Results

publication in scientific journals

news releases

presentation in scientific meetings

Dissemination

basis for determining changes as a

result of intervention

information-based decision-making

clinical trial therapeutic intervention

Utilization

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Research and Cooking

Menu planningResearch planning

Marketing

Data Collection

Cooking

Data processing and analysis, conclusion

Table setting and eating

Report writing and utilization

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References


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References

Balaccua, G.P. 2002. Lecture notes in research methods.

Mendoza,O.M., et al. Foundations of Statistical Analysis for theHealth Sciences. College of Public Health, U.P. Manila. 2000.

Good, C.V., A.S. Barr and D.E. Scates. 1941. The methodology of

educational research. D. Appleton-Century Company, New York.890p.

Lozano, J.P. 1999. Lecture notes in research methods.

Rubbin, R. B. A.M. Rubin and L.J. Piele. 1986. Communicationresearch: strategies and sources. Wadsworth, Inc. BelmontCalifornia.233p.

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Research Lecture 1 by Ma'am Jasmen Pasia