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Resolvinghomonymsincontext:understandingambiguityforautism
spectrumdisorder
August,2016
Nout(N.J.H.)[email protected]
4057724
Supervisors:Dr.P.N.Barkhuysen(Pashiera)
Dr.F.A.Grootjen(Franc)
RadboudUniversityNijmegenFacultyofSocialSciences
Bachelorthesis–ArtificialIntelligence
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Tableofcontents
Tableofcontents..............................................................................................................................................2
Foreword............................................................................................................................................................3
Abstract...............................................................................................................................................................4
1.Introduction..................................................................................................................................................5
2.Literature.......................................................................................................................................................72.1.Autismandsocialinteraction...........................................................................................................................7
2.1.1.History....................................................................................................................................................................................72.1.2.Characterisation.................................................................................................................................................................72.1.3.Prevalence.............................................................................................................................................................................8
2.2.Explanations...........................................................................................................................................................92.2.1.Researchandexplanatorystudies..............................................................................................................................92.2.2.CentralCoherence.............................................................................................................................................................92.2.3.FromCentralCoherenceonwards..............................................................................................................................92.2.4.Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................................................10
2.3.Languageandambiguity...................................................................................................................................112.3.1.Languagecomprehensionandtherepresentationofwordmeaning.......................................................112.3.2.Ambiguouswords............................................................................................................................................................122.3.3.Theadvantageofambiguity........................................................................................................................................122.3.4.Thedisadvantageofambiguity..................................................................................................................................13
2.4.Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................................142.4.1.Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................................................142.4.2.Discussion...........................................................................................................................................................................14
3.Experiment.................................................................................................................................................153.1.Methods..................................................................................................................................................................15
3.1.1.Participants........................................................................................................................................................................153.1.2.Materials..............................................................................................................................................................................163.1.3.Questionnaire....................................................................................................................................................................163.1.4.Task........................................................................................................................................................................................173.1.5.Procedure............................................................................................................................................................................172.1.6.Pre-processing..................................................................................................................................................................18
3.2Results.....................................................................................................................................................................193.2.1.Experimentaldesign.......................................................................................................................................................193.2.3.Descriptivestatistics......................................................................................................................................................193.2.4.Assumptions.......................................................................................................................................................................203.2.5.Statisticalanalysis...........................................................................................................................................................213.2.6.Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................................................23
4.Discussion...................................................................................................................................................244.1.Researchquestions............................................................................................................................................24
4.1.1.Sub-question1..................................................................................................................................................................244.1.1.Sub-question2..................................................................................................................................................................24
4.2.Applicationofresults.........................................................................................................................................264.2.1.Sub-question3..................................................................................................................................................................264.2.2Diagnosis..............................................................................................................................................................................264.2.3.Therapy................................................................................................................................................................................28
4.3Limitations.............................................................................................................................................................294.3.1.CriticsonCentralCoherencetheory........................................................................................................................294.3.3.Experiment.........................................................................................................................................................................29
4.4.Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................................304.4.1.Researchquestion...........................................................................................................................................................304.4.2.Futureresearch................................................................................................................................................................31
References.......................................................................................................................................................32
Appendices......................................................................................................................................................35AppendixA.Experimenttimeline..........................................................................................................................35AppendixB.Questionnaire(inDutch).................................................................................................................36AppendixC.SmallWorldofWordsdistributions(inDutch).......................................................................39AppendixD.Consentform(inDutch)..................................................................................................................41
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ForewordMakingthisthesiswas,forme,achallengeandajoy.IntheprocessI’veovercomemanyobstacles,bothinthisresearch,aswellaspersonal.IcametoadmirethewayguidedlivingisprovidedtoadolescentswithautisminTheNetherlands,andlearnedmuchaboutthepracticalside,andresearchofautism.I’velearnedahugeamountondoingresearchandcarryingoutanexperiment,whichIseeasgreatadditionstomyacademicandeducationalcareer.IamproudofwhatIcouldaccomplishindoingthisresearch,andIamhopefulthatIcaninterestanyonewhoreadsthis.Beforemovingontothecontentsofthisthesis,Iwouldliketothankmysupervisors,PashieraandFranc,fortheirsupportandguidance.Ilearnedgreatdeals,sharedenthusiasm,andgotinspired.Also,IwouldliketothankStumassEindhovenandStumassNijmegen,CapitoNijmegenandIVANijmegen,fortheiramazingsupportinhelpingoutwiththeparticipantsintheexperiment.Theynotonlyprovidedcontactsandresources,theywelcomedmewithgreatinterest.FurthermoreIwouldliketothankGuusforalwaysbeingthereandlettingmediscussanythingwithher,includingmanythingsinthisthesisthatwerechallengingforme.NoutvanDeijckAugust2016
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AbstractCurrentresearchsuggeststhatindividualswithautismspectrumdisorder(ASD)havealower strive for central coherence than Typically developing (TD) individuals. Theparticular issue of lexical ambiguity is outlined, as this seems to be a specific issue.Anovel experiment isdescribed, concerningdisambiguationofhomonyms in conditionswithoutcontext,andwithsentencecontextpresent.Participantswere30individuals,16withhigh-functioningASD,14typicallydevelopingcontrols,matchedonageandgender.Therewas a significant interaction effect between group (ASD/TD) and condition (nocontext/context) for the performance of choosing subordinates. Implications of thesefindingsarediscussed;resultsoflowerperformanceondisambiguationofhomonymsincontextcanbeusedfordiagnosis.
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1.Introduction
“Daarisdebankwaarwehetoverhadden!”ThisDutchsentenceisveryambiguous,theDutchword‘bank’canhavedifferentmeanings,liketheEnglishword‘bank’canhaveaswell.SointheDutchlanguage,thissentence(freelytranslated“Overthere,that’sthebankwediscussed!”)canmeaneither“Overthere,that’sthefinancialinstitutionwediscussed!”or“Overthere,that’sthebenchwediscussed!”.Whencommunicatingorreading,usinglanguageingeneral,wecomeacrossmanyambiguities.Forsuccessfullanguagecomprehensionwenotonlyusetheunderstandingofwordsinisolation,butalsotheabilitytointegratedifferentkindsofcontexttodisambiguatethesenseofaword,andtobuildacoherentmentalrepresentationofunderstanding(Bishop,2000).Thiscontextcanbetheenvironment,relatingwordsorsentences(discoursecontext),on-goingsyntacticanalysis(Tyler,L.K.,&Marslen-Wilson,1981),ormultipleotherinstances.Withsuchasentenceastheabove,oftenthesurroundingcontextwillhelpintheprocessofwordsensedisambiguation(WSD)(Kwong,2008;Simpson&Gernsbacher,1994),determiningthemeaningofanambiguousword.Ifonefocusesonlexicalambiguity,onecanexpectthatthereisadifferenceinunderstanding,ordisambiguating,thesenseofawordwithmultiplemeanings,whenpositionedinasentencethatprovideslittletonocontextfortheword,asopposedtotheambiguouswordbeingplacedinacontextthatgivesassociatedwordsorsentences,thataredirectlyrelatedtoonespecificmeaningoftheword.Thisthesiswilllookintothatexpectedshiftindistributionofmeanings.Ashiftisexpectedfromachanceorbiasrelateddistribution(thatcorrespondstothedistributionwhenaskingforwordmeaningofawordinabsenceofanyprecedingdiscoursecontext),toadistributionwithastrongpreferencedirectingtoonemeaningofaword,whenpresentedindirectlyrelatingcontext.(forexample;expecting50-50distributionamonganambiguouswordwithoutprecedingcontext,thatwouldshifttoa90-10distributionwhenaccompanying,directlyassociating,wordsarepreceding,relatingtoaspecificoneofthemeaningsofaword)Morespecifically,thisthesisdealswiththepossibledifferencesinshifts,whenconsideringthereadingofsentenceswithanambiguouswordbypeoplediagnosedwithAutismSpectrumDisorder(ASD),comparedtohowtypicallydevelopingpeoplehandlethesesentences.ASDisofinteresthere,becauseambiguitiesinlanguagemakesocialcommunicationharder.Asexplainedinchapter2,socialcommunicationisinsomewaysimpairedforindividualswithASD.Asisexplainedinmoredetaillateron,peoplewithautismexperiencedifficultieswithtasksofsentencecomprehensionandusingcontext.Apossibleoutcomeisthattheexpecteddescribedshifttakesplacefortypicallydevelopingpersons,butnotsomuchforpersonswithASD.Ontopoftheexistingtheoryfrompsychologyandpsycholinguistics,andtheexperimentthatlooksintothehypothesisdescribedabove,thisthesiswilloffersuggestionsfollowingfromtheresultsforfutureresearch.
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Theresearchquestionsthatflowfromtheabove,arestatedhere:Mainresearchquestion:“Doescontextualinformationresolvelexicalambiguityforindividualswithautismspectrumdisorder?”Thedifferentsub-questionsare:
1. IsambiguityaproblemthatisresolvedwithinASD,inthesamewayasitisfortypicaldevelopingindividuals?
2. DoestheuseofcontextresolveambiguityforpeoplewithASD,inataskformeaningofhomonyms?
3. CanresultsfrommeasurementsforminputforfutureArtificialIntelligence(AI)applications,tohelpindividualsbediagnosedwithASD?
Thesethreequestionswillbediscussedinthedifferentchaptersthatfollow.Onedealswiththetheory(chapter2.):theLiteraturethatexistsandwhatwecaninterpretfromthis,thefollowingdescribestheExperiment(3.)thatwascarriedout,ofwhichthemethodsandresultsareoutlined,andthelastquestiondealswiththepossibleApplicationoftheresults,whichareincludedintheDiscussion(4.).
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2.Literature2.1.AutismandsocialinteractionTounderstandthewholeofthisthesis,itisimportanttounderstandwhatautismis.InthisparagraphIwillbrieflydiscusshowautismmanifestsitselfandwhatkindofconsequencesthishasforthesociallifeofanindividual.2.1.1.HistoryIn1943LeoKannerpublishedanarticleinwhichhediscussedadevelopmentaldisorderthathecalledautism.Hedefinedthreepatternsofsymptoms,namely:
1. Theinabilitytouselanguageasameansofcommunication2. Theabnormaldevelopmentofsocialinteraction3. Thedesireforuniformity,reflectedinrepeatedlyperformingritualsand
obsessiveinterests(Kanner,1943)Healsosuggestedthatautisticchildrenareverywithdrawn,introvertedandnotincontactwithreality.Hestatedthatpeoplewithautismhavedifficultywithlearningfromexperienceandtheadaptingtounpredictablesituationsinsociallife.Overthepastdecadesmuchresearchinvolvingautismhasbeencarriedout,andmanyofthesymptoms,characterisationsanddiagnosticshavebeenrefined.Whenreferringtoautismhere,Iwillusethetermforthewholerangeofdisorders.AutismSpectrumDisorder,hereoftenreferredtoasASD,consistingofaspectrumofmanifestationsthatcantakeplaceinmultipleforms,andtodifferentdegrees(Jordan,2001).2.1.2.CharacterisationASDcanbeseenasadevelopmentaldisabilitythatisforlife,andaffectsthecommunicationofapatientandone’srelations.Nowadays,themaincharacteristicsofASDarestatedas(DSM-V299.00,2013):
1. impairedsocialcommunication,verbalaswellasinnon-verbalcommunication,includingdifficultieswithfacialexpressions,gestures,eye-contact,understandingmentalstateofothersetc.Maintainingrelationshipsbecomesadifficultyaswell,partlybecausetheyhavedifficultysharinginterests.(Orsmond,G.I.,Krauss,M.W.,&Seltzer,2004)
2. Restrictiveinterestsandrepetitivebehaviours,Beingoverlydependentonroutines,highlysensitivetochangeshereinorintheenvironment,orintenselyfocusedoninappropriateitems
ThisupdatedcharacterisationofimpairmentsissomewhatdifferentthanintheDSM-IV(1994).Thecoveragestayedthesame,butthesub-categorisationfordifferenttypesofASDsuchasAspergerandPDD-NOSwasremoved.Therefore,inthispaperthetermsautismandASDareusedalternately,andbothreferringtothecompletediagnosisofASD.Onaverage,moremalesarediagnosedwithASDthanfemales(APA,2013;Newschafferetal.,2007)(ThisisacharacteristicofASDthatiscontrolledforintheExperimentsection).Theabilitytoleadanindependentlifeisreducedandalsoforhigh-functioningindividualswithautism,everydaysocialpatternsandrulesposepuzzles.Understandinghumour,ambiguity,whitelies,metaphorsareamongdifficultiesthatpeoplewithASDcomeacross.
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PatientsofASDinadulthoodwhocantakecareofthemselvesfully,andhaveafull-timejobarerare.Often,theyaredependentonfamilyorauthorities(Kidd,2002).Earlydiagnosisisusefulinordertoallowapositivedevelopmentonthelong-term,butevenwithearlyintervention,peoplediagnosedwithASDneedhighlevelsofcareandsupportthroughouttheirlife(Christensen,2012).ItisestablishedthatautismcanoccuratanypointontheIQscale(Baron-Cohen,2004).Anexampletoillustrateimpairedsocialcommunicationisthelesserabilitytouseprosody(tone-of-voice).Thisisanon-verbaltrait,usedtogivecontext,likegesturesandfacialexpressionscandoaswell.Peoplewithhigh-functioningautismhavedifficultyusingprosodytodisambiguatesyntax,incomparisontotypicallydevelopingindividuals,evenwhenmatchedonchronologicalage,IQ,andreceptivelanguage.(Diehl,Bennetto,Watson,Gunlogson,&McDonough,2008)2.1.3.PrevalenceTherearemanystudiesreportingverydifferentstatisticsontheprevalencerates.Thenumberscontainthewholerangeofautismspectrumdisordersandrangefrom1in68Americanchildren(Christensen,2012)(1in42boys,1in189girls)to1in100inEurope(bothin2012)(Charman,T.etal2011;Elsabbaghetal.,2012;Kim,Y.S.etal2011;Saemundsen,E.etal2013).Aglobalreviewfoundamedianof62casesper10000people,±1in160,howeverthereisalackofevidenceforlow-andmiddle-incomecountries(Elsabbaghetal.,2012).Whatisclearlyvisible,isthatthediagnosisrateincreasedrapidlyinthelastdecades,butitisnotyetclearwhetherthisisduetoadjustmentsindiagnosticcriteria,increaseinprevalence,orbecauseofmoreawarenessofautism.Alsolikely,theincreasecanbeacombinationofthesefactors.
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2.2.Explanations2.2.1.ResearchandexplanatorystudiesAsmentionedearlier,oneofthekeydifficultiesforpeoplediagnosedwithASD,isinteractionandcommunication.Researchonthetopicofsocialskillsininteractionhasbeencarriedout,withrespecttovisualambiguity(Ropar,Mitchell,&Ackroyd,2003),prosody(tone-of-voice)processing(Diehletal.2008),anduseofcontext(López&Leekam,2003),amongstmanyotherthings.ImportanttonoteisthatinASD,theprocessingofphonology,semanticsandsyntaxseemtobeintactaccordingtowhatisexpectedofmatchingmentalage(Bartolucci,G.etal.1976;Frith,U.,&Snowling,1983;Tager-Flusberg,H.etal.1990).Oneofthemainissueswhenconsideringcognitiveskillsthatareusedforsocialinteractionseemstobeuseofcontext.Low-levelvisualprocessing(Happé,F.etal.1996;M.A.O’Riordanetal.2001;M.O’Riordan&Plaisted,2001;Plaisted,K.etal.1999;Ropar,D.,&Mitchell,1999),high-levelvisuo-spatialprocessing(Brian,J.A.,&Bryson,1996;Shah,A.,&Frith,1983,1993),semanticmemory(Tager-Flusberg,1991)andsentenceprocessing(Happé,1997;Hermelin,B.,&O’connor,1967;Jolliffe&Baron-Cohen,1999)havebeenresearchedregardingtheuseofcontext.Mostofthesestudiesinvolvetheuseofcontext,andconcludethatstrivingforintegrationofinformationisimpaired,manystudiesonASDrelyforthis,onthetheoryofweakcentralcoherence(CC),byUtaFrith(Frith,1989).Otherexplanatorytheoriesofautismincludethemindblindnesstheory/deficitinTheoryofmind(ToM)(Baron-cohen,Leslie,&Frith,1985),extreme-malebraintheoryasproposedbyBaron-Cohen(1999),andtheexecutivedysfunction(ED)theory(Ozonoff,S.,Pennington,B.F.,&Rogers,1991).AsBaron-Cohennotesextensively,alltheorieshaveprosandcons(Baron-Cohen,2008).2.2.2.CentralCoherenceFrithstatedthatautismcouldbecharacterizedbyaspecificunbalancedintegrationofinformationondifferentlevels.Thismeansthatatypicallydevelopingperson(TD)willhavethetendencytopulltogetherdifferentpiecesofinformation,tocreateacomprehensivemeaning(Frith,U.,&Happé,1994).Forexample,CentralCoherencemeansthatwiththehearingofastory,onewillmemorisetheglobalcontenttoformacorrectwhole.Manydetailsareleftout,becausetherememberingofthesedetailswouldbedetrimentaltomemorisationoftheglobalpicture.FrithassumedthatpeoplewithautismshowabnormalitieswithCC.ShepredictedthatindividualswithASDwouldperformrelativelywellfortaskswhereattentiontodetailismoreimportantthanattentiontothewhole,andthattheywouldhaverelativelybadperformanceontaskswherepickingouttheoverallmeaningwasimportant.ThetheoryofweakcentralcoherenceinASDisdebated(Baron-Cohen,2008;Jarrold&Russell,1997),andcorrectedin2006(F.Happé&Frith,2006).ThemostimportantchangehereinwastheadjustmentofthetheoryasanexplanatoryofASD,toaaspectofcognitioninASD.2.2.3.FromCentralCoherenceonwardsFocusingonambiguityandsentencecomprehension,therearestudiesreportingresultsconsistentwiththetheoryofweakcentralcoherenceforindividualswithASD,andstudiesthatseemtocontradictthetheory.
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Difficultiesinintegratingdifferentitemsandthusanimpairmenttoformmeaningfulcoherence(Baron-Cohen,S.,Lombardo,M.,&Tager-Flusberg,2013),aredemonstratedinastudybyDiehletal.(2008)whereadolescentswithhigh-functioningautismhaddifficultyusingprosodytodisambiguatesyntaxwhencomparedtotypicallydevelopingcontrols,matchedonage,IQ,andreceptivelanguage(Diehletal.,2008).Also,studiesbyHappé,Joliffe&Baron-CohenandLopez&LeekhamallshowedthatpeoplewithASDwerelesslikelytoprovidethecorrectpronunciationofhomographsincontext(Areoccurringexampleis‘‘Herdress/eyehadatearinit’’)(Happé,1997;Jolliffe&Baron-Cohen,1999;López&Leekam,2003).Studiesinvolvingverbaltaskslikeinferencing(Jolliffe,T.,&Baron-Cohen,2000;Jolliffe&Baron-cohen,2001;Ozonoff,S.,&Miller,1996)andresolvinglexicalandsyntacticalambiguity(Jolliffe&Baron-cohen,2001)showedsimilarresults;individualswithautismshowedimpairmentinstrivingforuseofcontexttoreachcoherence.IndividualshadverbalIQresultsinnormalrange(Jolliffe&Baron-cohen,2001).Thesestudieswereallinvolvingverbaltasks,withauditory-presentedstimuli.However,Lopez&Leekham(2003)notedthatthefailuretousecontextproperlyseemstoliewithintasksofverbalprocessingofambiguity.TheirexperimentsfoundthatindividualswithASDwereassistedusingvisualcontextinformation.Moreover,verbalprocessingtasksthatdidnotinvolveambiguity,butdidaskfortheuseofcontext,alsoshowedthattheindividualswithautismwerefacilitatedbytheprovidedcontext(López&Leekam,2003).Theystate:“Thesefindingsdemonstratethatchildrenwithautismdonothaveageneraldifficultyinconnectingcontextinformationanditeminformationaspredictedbyweakcentralcoherencetheory.Insteadtheresultssuggestthatthereisspecificdifficultywithcomplexverbalstimuliandinparticularwithusingsentencecontexttodisambiguatemeaning.”However,thestudybyDiehletal.(2008)showedthatnotonlysentencecontext,butalsotraitsliketone-of-voiceposedifficulties.2.2.4.ConclusionAssumingthattheproblemlieswithinthedistinctionofambiguity,itisimportanttodivedeeperinthatarea.Itisimportanttofocusonindividualsthathavehigh-functioningformsofASD,andhighverbalIQ,andnotalreadyhavelowercognitiveabilities(Vermeulen,2011),toseeifambiguityreallyisacharacterising,specificcognitiveproblemforautism,andnotjustacharacteristicoflearningdisability,whichcanalsobeacauseoflowcognitiveability.Asisclear,forhigh-functioningindividualswithASD,comprehensiondeficitsmayarisefromaspecificinefficiencyinintegratinglinguistic,ambiguousinformationincontext;anindicatorforalackinstrivingforcentralcoherence.Thisthesistriestoaddtotheknowledgeoflexicalambiguitybeinganindicatorofweakcentralcoherence,involvingthecomparisonsofindividualswithASDandtypicallydevelopingpersons.Inthesepages,Iaddressthepossibledifficultiespeoplewithautismcouldhavewithdisambiguationofmeaning,whenreadingsentencescontaininghomonyms.Thesearewordswithconsistentspelling,butdifferentmeanings,whereasstudiesinvolvinghomographsaddressambiguouspronunciation.Also,earlierdescribedpaststudies,concerningsentencecomprehensionandlexicalambiguity,usedauditorypresentedstimuli,whereasreadingisrequiredinthisexperiment.
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2.3.LanguageandambiguityNowwehaveestablishedaclearunderstandingofwhatautismspectrumdisorderencompasses,theskillsforsocialinteractionthatareimpairedandthespecificsofweakcentralcoherence.Particularly,weareinterestedintheweakcoherence,combiningcontexttoawhole,inlinguisticambiguity,asthisisanevidentissueforASDtobefurtherexplored.Inordertoresearchlinguisticambiguityitisimportanttogetapictureofhowlanguage,andambiguityinlanguage,works.Ihavesummarisedmyfindingsofthisintheseparagraphs.2.3.1.LanguagecomprehensionandtherepresentationofwordmeaningThecomprehensionofspokenorwrittenlanguageisaprocessthatcanbedividedinsteps,orlevelsoflanguageanalysis,seebelowfigure:
Figure1:Fivelevelsoflanguageanalysis(imagetakenfromAshcraft,2006;Fivelevelsoflanguageanalysis:Miller,1973)
Forthisthesis,thelexicalorsemanticlevelisthemostimportant:theanalysisofthemeaningofwords.Thisisthelevelwheremeaningisobtainedfrommemory.Thememoryofwordsiscalledthementallexicon,akindofdictionaryinthebrainthatlinkswordstotheirmeanings.Oneofthemostimportanttheoriesinpsycholinguistics1isthenetworktheoryofthesemanticmemory.Thismodelisbasedontwofundamentalassumptions:anassumptionaboutthestructureofthesemanticmemory,andanassumptionabouttheprocessoftheretrievalofwordmeaningsfromthesemanticmemory(Ashcraft,2006;Simpson&Gernsbacher,1994)Assumptionaboutstructure:asemanticnetworkThestructureofthesemanticmemoryisanetwork;thereforewespeakofasemanticnetwork.Theideaisbasedontheconceptofneuralnetworks.Thenodesinthenetworkstandforconceptsinthesemanticmemory(Ashcraft,2006).Everywordhasameaninganditisnotunusualtointerchangesuchawordmeaningandconceptwithinpsycholinguistics(Gaskell,2007,152).Thelinksthatconnectthenodesaredirectedassociationsbetweenconcepts.Thecollectionofmutuallylinkednodesformsthenetwork.Assumptionaboutprocess:spreadingactivation
1Psycholinguistics;thestudyoflanguageasitislearnedandusedbyhumans(Ashcraft,2006)Inthisfield,languageisprimarilyseenashumanbehaviour,asamentalprocess.Languageisaformofcognitionaswell,andtounderstandlanguageweusethought,memoryandperception(Friedenberg&Silverman,2006,1-24)
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Thestructureofthesemanticmemoryasanetworkcannotbeconsideredseparatelyfromtheprocessthatoccurswithinthisnetwork:theretrievalofwordmeaning;ortherecallingofthemeaningofaword.Everynodeinthenetworkhasanactivationvalue.Whenreadingorhearingaword,thecorrespondingnodegetsactive.Withhearingorreading,thenodegenerallygetssoactivethatitreachesathresholdvalue,whichwecallthefiringofanode.Animportantaspectoftheprocessofwordmeaningretrievalisspreadingactivation.Thismeansthatwhenacertainconceptbecomesactive,allrelatednodeswillbecomeactiveaswell.Spreadingactivationstartsatanodeandspreadsthroughthelinksacrossthenetwork.(Ashcraft,2006)Anexampleiswhenpeopleheartheword‘robin’(‘roodborstje’inDutch),notonlythatcorrespondingconceptwillactivate,typicallywordslike‘redbreast’,‘animal’,‘feathers’and‘blueeggs’willbecomeactiveaswell(Ashcraft,2006).Therearetwowaysofrepresentingwordmeaningsinanetworkfashion:onenodeinthesemanticmemoryrepresentsonefullwordmeaning,orthemeaningsarerepresentedasanactivationpatterninwhichthenodesfunctionasasortofunitsofmeaning(Gaskell,2007,162-169).Today,thelastrepresentation(thedistributedrepresentation)isfavouredoverthefirstone(thelocalrepresentation).Likewise,forcaseslikephonologyspreadingactivationpatternsareassumedasalikelyrepresentation(Gaskell,2007).Withthesenewideas,seeingthememoryasanetworkbecomesmoredifficult;itismoreconvenienttothinkintermsofsmallnetworksthatallbelongtodifferentlevelsofanalysis,layeringontopofeachother,andmutuallyconnected.2.3.2.AmbiguouswordsWhenreadingasentencethatcontainsanambiguousword,wecandeterminewhichmeaningisintendedwiththeaidofthecontext.Withoutcontexteverysenseofthewordcanbeactivated,butyoucannotfindoutwhichmeaningisreferredto.Dominantmeaningsaremorelikelytohaveagreatamountofrepresentationsandwillbeaccessedmoreeasilythansubordinatemeanings(Gaskell,2007).Onemightsaythattheprocessingofanambiguouswordisharderthantheprocessingofanon-ambiguousword.Often,thisisthecase,butthingsarealittlemorecomplicated:insomesituations,ambiguitycanhaveabeneficialeffect.Ofthemaintasksusedinstudyingambiguity,lexicaldecisiontasksarefrequent.Inalexicaldecisiontask,aparticipanthastodistinguishwhetherwordsareexistingornon-existentwords.Thecollectedresultsareusedtogatherknowledgeontheorganisationofthementallexiconandthesemanticmemory.Otherprinciplescommonlyusedinthesestudies,areeye-trackingandpriming.2.3.3.TheadvantageofambiguityInlexicaldecisiontasksitisgenerallyfoundthatdecisionsonambiguouswordsarefasterthandecisionsonnon-ambiguouswords(wherethewordsarematchedonfrequencyandconcreteness).Ambiguouswordshavemoreconnectionsinthenetwork,foreveryconcept.Becauseofthis,searchingforoneofthepossiblemeaningsofareadword,yieldsaresultfaster,thanwhensearchingforanon-ambiguousword,bychance(Borowsky,R.,&Masson,1996;Jastrzembski,J.E.,&Stanners,1975;Kellas,G.,Ferraro,F.R.,&Simpson,1988).
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2.3.4.ThedisadvantageofambiguityThingsaredifferentfortasksbasedonsemantics,whenmorethansolelylexicaldecisionisneeded.Fortaskswherefulloralmostfullactivationonthesemanticlevelisneeded,itisgenerallyexpectedthatresponsetoambiguouswordsisnotfasterthanfornon-ambiguouswords.Eye-trackingresultsinvolvingtheamountoftimelookedatwords,suggestthatinthecaseofbalancedambiguouswords(meaningsareequallydistributed),thereisnodifferencewiththematchedcontrolwords(Duffy,Morris,&Rayner,1988;KRayner&Frazier,1989).However,whenconsideringbiasedambiguoustargetwords(wordswithadominantmeaning,andoneormoresubordinatemeanings),thereisadifferencewhenoneofthesubordinatemeaningsisinstantiated:subjectslooklongerattheambiguouswords,thanatthecontrolwords(Binder,K.S.,&Rayner,1998;Binder,2003;Duffyetal.,1988;Rayner,K.,Pacht,J.M.,&Duffy,1994).Thisiscalledthesubordinatebiaseffect(Pacht,J.M.,&Rayner,1993;Rayner,K.,Pacht,J.M.,&Duffy,1994).Apossibleexplanationforthissubordinatebiaseffectisthatwhenreadingtheambiguousword,bothmeaningswillbeactivated;thedominantmeaningisstrongerinconnectionsthanthesubordinatemeaning(Rayneretal,2006).Butbecausethepriorcontextbiasesthismeaning,conflictarisesbetweenthemeanings.Theresultsofthesestudiesindicatethatweusecontextforthedetermination/disambiguationofpropermeaning.Tasksinvolvingassociation-decision(askingparticipantshowrelatedtwowordsare),aswellassemanticcategorisationtasks(choosinginwhichsemanticcategory-forexample,livingthings-aparticularwordisconsidered)furtherconfirmtheideathatreactiontimesarelongerwithambiguouswords,whendeterminationofmeaningisexperimented(Gaskell,2007).
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2.4.Conclusion2.4.1.ConclusionLanguageisseenasamentalprocess,existingofmultiplesubprocesses.Wordsensedisambiguation(WSD),thedeterminingofmeaningof(ambiguous)wordsisoneoftheseprocesses.Wecandividethecomprehensionoflanguagetodifferentlevels,amongstwhichthephonologicalandthesemanticlevel.Onthesemanticlevel,wefetchwordmeaningfromthesemanticmemory.Thesemanticmemorycanbemodelledasanetwork.Inthisnetwork,spreadingactivationconstitutestheprocessofwordmeaningretrieval.Whenreadingorhearingaword,phonologicalororthographicnodesareactivated,whichsubsequentlyactivatesemanticnodes.Withoutcontext,ambiguitycanbeadvantageousordetrimental.Inotherwords,duetoambiguityreactiontimescanbeshorterorlongerwithparticulartasks.Especiallyforlexicaldecisiontasksambiguityisbeneficial,becauseofstrongerfeedbackfromsemanticleveltoorthographiclevel,forambiguouswordshavingmultiplerepresentationsonsemanticlevel.Intasksinvolving(recall/determinatinof)meaning,ambiguityhasanelongatingeffectonreactiontimes.Studyingambiguouswordswherecontextispresent,ambiguitycausesdelays,becausereadingorhearingandincorporatingcontext-sotostrivetocoherenceofthesepiecesofinformation-concernsmeaningaswell.Resultsfromeye-trackingstudiesindicatethatpeopleusecontexttodisambiguateandthatinitially,allsensesofanambiguouswordareactivated.2.4.2.DiscussionCurrentknowledgeofWSDwithinpsycholinguisticswasoutlined.Criticalremarkscanbemadeforallstudiesandparadigms,andthissuggeststhatresearchonWSDisnotfinished.Especiallyconnectingtoautism,itremainsthequestionhowfundamentalandspecifictheproblemofambiguitypreciselyis.Thatiswhyanewexperimentisconducted.
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3.ExperimentThedifficultiesforpeoplediagnosedwithASDthatinvolvelexicalambiguityareoutlinedinchapter1.Theneedforanexperimentwasposed.Totestwhetherthereisadifferenceinuseofcontextwhendisambiguatinghomonymsbetweenindividualswithautismandtypicallydevelopingindividuals,anovelexperimentwassetup.Theexperimentisdesignedtolookfordifferencesinperformance:scoresofchoosingsubordinatemeaningsofhomonymsfromwordswithoutcontext,orwithcontextcondition.Moreprecisely,ashiftinperformancefromwithouttowithcontextconditionisexplored.Apossibledifferencebetweenshiftingroupswithautismandinagroupoftypicaldevelopmentwasresearched.Ashintedpreviouslyintheearliermentionedresearchquestions,somehypothesesabouttheresultsarestated:Hypotheses
- Itisexpectedthattypicallydevelopingindividualsuserelatedsentencecontexttodisambiguatemeaningofhomonyms(e.g.striveforcentralcoherence).Specifically,onemightexpectthesesubjectstochoosefordominantmeaninginwordspresentedwithoutrelatedcontext,andshiftingtosubordinatemeaningswhencontext,relatingtothatspecificsubordinatemeaning,ispresent.
- Becauseoftheweakcentralcoherencetheory,andearlierexperimentsinvolvingambiguityandautism,itisexpectedthatindividualswithASDshowimpairmentorlackinuseofsentencecontexttodisambiguatehomonyms.Specifically,asmallerornon-existentshifttosubordinatemeaningisexpected,whenshiftingtowordswithsamecontexts.
3.1.Methods3.1.1.ParticipantsDescriptivesThirtyparticipantswereaskedtofillinthequestionnaire.Sixteenadolescentswithhigh-functioningautism(IQ>70)participated,asdidfourteentypicallydevelopingindividuals,matchingonage,gender2andeducation3.TherewasnodistinctionmadeforthetypeofASDasinthemostrecentDSM-V(APA,2013)theseweremergedtobecoveredunderthesameterm.AllthirtyparticipantshadDutchastheirnativelanguage,asthiswasanimportantprerequisitetobeabletoproperlyparticipateintheexperiment,thatusesDutchambiguouswords.RecruitmentMultipleinstitutionswerecontactedinwritingandbytelephonefortheacquisitionofyoungindividualswithautism,inparticulardifferentlocationsofsubsidiaryorganisationsofJADOS4:Stumass,CapitoandIVA.ThoseinterestedtoparticipatewerefoundinthecitiesofEindhovenandNijmegen.Communicationranthroughtheresidentialsupervisorsofthedifferenthousesforguidedliving,settingupappointmentsperlocation.Recruitmentoftypicallydevelopingindividualswentthroughword-of-mouth,andmyownnetwork.14participantswerefound,spreadthroughthecountry.
2Generallyonly1femaleisdiagnosedwithautism,asopposedto4males(Fombonne,2009)3NodirectIQscoreswereused,butallthirtyparticipantscompletedsecondaryeducation4http://www.jados.nloffersguidedlivingintheformoforganisationsStumassforhighereducationstudentswithautism,CapitofortheDutchMBOeducationstudentswithautism,andIVAforworkingpeoplewithautism.
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3.1.2.MaterialsExperimentalmaterialsconsistedof30sentences,allhavingcontextsentences,butonlyhalfofthemactuallyappearingincontextperexperiment(seefordetails,Task).Eachsentencecontainedalexicallyambiguousword,ahomonym.Aftereachsentencetheparticipantwasaskedtochooseforoneoftwomeaningsforthehomonym:oneofthembeingthedominantmeaning,onethesubordinate,withthisfactnotappearingonscreen.Sentenceswere3to8wordsinlength,andthecontextswere40wordsinlength,withamarginof2.HomonymsandtheirmeaningsAcquisitionofambiguouswordsproceededviaownbrainstorming,withthehelpofothers,andresearchonline.Checkingforwhetherbeingahomonym,andmoreimportantly,themeaningdistributionsofthesehomonyms,wentthroughtheSmallWorldofWords(SWOW)projectdatabase(Deyne,Navarro,&Storms,2013),which“startedattheExperimentalPsychologydepartmentoftheUniversityinLeuven(Belgium)in2003andalreadyresultedinthelargestavailablenetworkofwordassociationsinDutch(over5Mresponses)andEnglish(over1Mresponses)”5,asofMay2016.ThisdatabasecontainswordassociationsformostcommonDutchandEnglishwords.Thelistofhomonymsobtained,wascheckedforhavingmultipledistinctmeanings,andwasfilteredtohave30homonymsintheendthathadacleardominantandsubordinatemeaning.DistributionsofmeaningattributionsfortheusedhomonymscanbefoundintheAppendixC.Afterrecalculatingthistableofdistributions,onesentencewasfoundtohavethewrongcontext.Inthiscase,thecontextdidnothavethepropertyofpushinginthesubordinatedirection;insteaditstrivedforthealreadydominantmeaning.Therefore,thisquestioncanberegardedasanoutlier.Uponlearningofthisfact,analysiswascarriedouta2ndtime,toseeiftheresultswerethesame,moreonthisisdescribedintheResultssection.RandomisationOrderofquestions,aswelltheorderofthetwoanswersperquestion,wasrandomised,accordingtowidelyusedandcitedserviceRandom.org(2016),withrandomisationprocessesbasedonatmosphericnoise.3.1.3.QuestionnaireBeforethe30homonym-sentencesandtheirquestionsformeaning,notonlyinstructionwasgiven.Acoupleofstandarddemographicdatawasaskedtofillin.Aftertheexperimentalquestions,participantswereaskedtofillinsomeadditionalquestionsaboutthewholeoftheexperimentaswell,forinterpretingpurposes.Fortheprecisequestionnaireused,includingthecontextsforeachtarget-sentence,seeAppendixB.
5http://www.smallworldofwords.com/new/visualize/
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3.1.4.TaskToexaminewhetherindividualswithASDhavemoredifficultyusingsentencecontexttomakedecisionsregardinghomonyms,participantsweregiven15sentenceswithprecedingcontext,and15sentenceswithoutprecedingcontext.Theywereaskedtochoosefromtwomeaningsofahomonymthatwascontainedinthesentences.Eachquestionenforcedtochoosebetweentwomeanings,adominantandasubordinatemeaningofthetargethomonymword.Therewasnocountdownonthetimethatparticipantstookforquestions.Whencontextwaspresent,thesepartsofasentencecontainedmeaningsassociatedwiththesubordinatemeaningofthehomonym,withoutusingwordsthatareseenasdirectassociationsofthehomonym.(Controlledfor,usingtheSWOWdatabase)Forexample,therewasaDutchsentenceonsomethingbeing“light”(“licht”inDutch),possiblymeaning“light”asopposedto“heavy”,or“light”fromalightsource.IntheSWOWdatabasetheDutchword“licht”wasfoundtohavethemeaningofalightsourceasdominantmeaning,andthenot-heavymeaningassubordinate(alsoseeAppendixC),sowhenthisparticulartargetsentenceappearedwithprecedingcontext,thiscontextpushedtothesenseofnot-heavy,thesubordinatemeaning.Seethatsameexamplebelow:
Condition: Withoutcontext WithContext
Context: -
Iemandgaatverhuizen.Erzijnveelspullendiegedragenmoetenworden,enhetduurdeevenvoordatallemeubelsendozennaarbinnenwarengedragen.Tochleekhetuiteindelijkminderwerktekostendangedacht.
Sentence: “Datiswelfijn,licht.” “Datiswelfijn,licht.”Table1:Experimentalquestionouttake,withoutandwithcontextconditionsOnehalfoftheASDgroupreceived15homonymwordswithcontext,15without;andtheotherhalfofthegroupreceivedthesamewords,butwiththeconditionsofwhethercontainingcontextswapped,sotheother15homonymswithcontext,andtheother15without.Theserepeatedmeasuresinthiscrosseddesignwerecounterbalancedforallparticipants.Thesameprocesswentforthetypicaldevelopmentcontrolgroup.Foreveryonerandomisationwasusedforthesentenceorder,topreventorderofquestion-setsororderofhomonymshavinganeffectontheresult.(Asearliermentioned,oneofthequestionscontainedthewrongcontext,andmeasuredfortheswitcheddominantandsubordinateidentifiers.)3.1.5.ProcedureCarryingoutexperimentExperimentswerecarriedoutinthecomfortsofparticipants’ownhomes;forpeoplewithASD,thealreadydescribedguidedlivingareas.Quite,commonroomswereused,withdistractionssuchasotherresidents,ornoisesnotpresent.Foreachparticipantalaptopwasusedtocarryouttheexperimentitself.Acoupleoftimesthiswasadifferentlaptop,butitwasmadesurethesameresolutionandscreensize,aswellasbrightness,wasused.Afterintroduction(viatheresidentialsupervisors),spokeninstructionsweregivenminimallyandtoallparticipantsofthathomeatonce.Furtherinstructionwas
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presentedonscreen,toparticipantsindividually.FulldetailsofinstructionsgivencanbefoundintheAppendixA.ConsentformAconsentformwashandedout,andrequestedtobefilledinupontheparticipantfinishingtheexperiment.Thisformstatedtheparticipant’spermission(firstsignee)tousehis/heranswersforthesolepurposeofthisresearch,andrequiredthepledgeoftheexaminer(secondsignee)tohandlealldatarespectfullyandsecured,tonotsharethedatawithothersandtoguaranteethatthedatawillbedestroyedafterfiveyears.Forfulldetails,pleasefindtheconsentformintheAppendixD.2.1.6.Pre-processingProcessingofthedataunderwentseveralstepsbeforeanalysiswaspossible.Stepsaredescribedbelow:
• Datawasstoreddirectlyin*.csvfiles,passwordprotectedonthelaptopoftheexaminer.
• ThesedatafilesweresubsequentlyimportedinanExcelfile(againpassword-protected),andseveralmove-operationswereusedtomergethedataintoacleartablewithonemeasurementperrow,soadifferentrowforeverystimulus-answer.
• Recode-operationswereusedtoreplacethechosenanswerswiththeirrespectivedominantorsubordinateidentifier;0wasusedfordominant,1forsubordinate.
• DatawasimportedinanSPSSfile,asrepeatedmeasures,30subjectsx30questionscountingfor900rows.
• RecodingandcomputeoperationswereusedtomaketheSPSSdatafilefitforrepeatedmeasuresanalysis.Newvariableswerecreatedforthesum-scoresofchosensubordinates,respectivelyforcontextandnon-context,thusresultingintwosum-variables.
• Toaccountfortheproportionstothetotalamountofquestionsinthesetwoconditions,twoadditionalvariableswerecomputedusingSPSS,SumNocontextProp,andSumContextProp(thetwopreviousdescribedsumvariables,dividedby15each).
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3.2Results3.2.1.ExperimentaldesignAtwo-waymixeddesign(fullycrossedfactorial)waschosenforthisexperiment,withasbetween-subjectfactorthepassiveobservationofwhethertheparticipantwasdiagnosedwithAutismSpectrumDisorderornot(resultinginthetwogroupsASDandTypical),andaswithin-subjectcondition,thepresentationofprecedingcontextvs.no-context.Thedependentvariablewasthesubordinatescore,calculatedasthesumofchosensubordinatemeaningsinthetworespectiveconditions.3.2.2.AnalysistechniqueThisexperimentanditsfollowinganalysistestforinteractionofthebetween-subjectandthewithin-subjectfactor.Thatis,whetherthereisaninteractionbetweenhavingautismornot,andchoosingsubordinatemeaningsincontextorno-contextconditions.Atwo-wayANOVA(GLMrepeatedmeasurestest)waschosenasanalysistechnique.Thedependentvariablewasrecomputedastheproportionofthesubordinatescore,sothepreviouslydescribedscoredividedbythetotalofquestionsinthatcondition(15)resultingintwovariableswithcontinuousscores,between0and1.Toreiterate:themainhypothesisisthatthescorechangesoverconditionfortypicallydevelopingindividuals,andnotsomuchforpeoplewithASD.Also,itisexpectedthatintheconditionwithoutanycontext,theautismandTypicalgroupperformsimilar,whereasinthecondition,theTypicalgroupmightexpectedtobeperformingbetter.ThiswouldmeantheTypicalgroupisexpectedtobeperformingbetter,averagedoverallInstatisticalterms,the(HA)hypothesescanbestatedas:
- ThereisadifferenceinperformancebetweentheTypicaldevelopmentandtheASDgroup
- Thereisaninteractioneffectbetweenthegroupandtheconditionfactors=theeffectofgrouponperformanceisdependentofthecondition,andviceversa.
3.2.3.DescriptivestatisticsDemographicsOfthe30participantstheagerangedfrom19to29withameanof22.5(σ=2,6).FortheASDgroupthiswascomparable(N=16,M=22,1,σ=2,1)sinceitwasmatchedwiththeTypicalgrouponage(N=14,M=22,9,σ=3,1).Only10%oftheparticipantswasolderthan25.10%oftheparticipantswerefemale,90%male(ASD:12,5%female,Typical:7,1%female)(prevalenceofASDinmalesisfoundtobehigheracrossglobalpopulation(Newschafferetal.,2007)).Professionalstatuswasspread,butparticipantsweremainlystudent(87,5%inASD,66,7%intotal)orworking(50%inTypical,30%intotal).Educationwasspreadaswell,withhighesteducationinASD:43,8%highereducation(HBOoruniversity),56,2%hadhighschoolorMBOaseducation.Inthetypicaldevelopmentgroup85,7%hadhighereducation,14,3%lower.ExperimentLookingatthequestionsaskedwithoutcontext,thetypicaldevelopmentgroupchoseforsubordinatemeaningin41,9%ofthetime(averagingoverthe30questions),andtheASDgroupchoseforsubordinatemeanings47,9%ofthetime.
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Exploringthesubordinatescoresforbothgroupsinbothconditions,gavethefollowingmeansandstandarddeviations:Measure ASD/Typical Mean St.Dev.(σ) N
Subordinate-score(proportionalised)withoutcontext
Typical .4190 .11819 14ASD .4792 .11213 16Total .4511 .11703 30
Subordinate-scorewithcontext Typical .8095 .11652 14ASD .7042 .17549 16Total .7533 .15771 30
Table2:Descriptivestatisticsofallparticipantsperformancesinexperiment.Wecanherealreadyseeadifferencebetweenproportionofsubordinateschosenbythetypicaldevelopmentgroupinthedifferentconditions,withaconsistentstandarddeviation,andamuchlessershiftacrossconditionsbytheASDgroup,withthespreadquitelargerintheContextcondition.Forafullboxplotofthesedata(inwhichyoucanseethespreadinmoredetail),seebelow,undertheassumptionforoutliers.3.2.4.AssumptionsBeforeatwo-wayANOVAanalysiscanbecarriedout,someassumptionsneedtobesatisfied.
• DataneedstobenormallydistributedNormalityofdatawastestedusingtheproportionofsubordinatespersubject(dependentvariable)amongthetwodifferentconditions(within-subjectfactor)inthetwodifferentgroups(between-subjectfactor).ThesevariablesweretestedusingtheShapiro-Wilktestandfoundtobenormallydistributed(allp>0,05)(notrejectingtheH0hypothesisthatthedataresemblesaGaussiandistribution.)Alltheseresultshadthesameconclusioninthe2ndanalysiswith29ofthe30questions:normalitywasassumedwithallpvalues>0,05.
• DatahastocontainnooutliersAscanbeassessedbyinspectionofaboxplot,nooutliersweredetectedindataofthegroupsASDandTypicalfortherespectivesubordinatesproportionscores.Alsovisibleintheboxplotisthespreadofthedata,whichintheContextconditionismuchlargerfortheASDgroup.(Alltheseresultshadthesameconclusioninthe2ndanalysiswith29ofthe30questions:nooutliers)
Figure2:Boxplotofallparticipants'performances
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• Homogeneityofvariance. Therewashomogeneityofvariances,asassessedbyLevene'stestofhomogeneityofvariance(nocontext:p=0,745,context:p=0,059).(Alltheseresultshadthesameconclusioninthe2ndanalysiswith29ofthe30questions:nocontext:p=0,856,context:p=0,110)
• Assumptionofsphericity.Determiningwhetherthisassumptionismet,happensbymeansofMauchly'stestofsphericity.Becauseofonlyhavingtwoconditionsforthewithin-subjectscondition,theε-valuesare1.000andindicateperfectsphericity.Sothisassumptionisautomaticallymet.
• Assumptionofequalityofcovariances.Therewashomogeneityofcovariances,asassessedbyBox'stestofequalityofcovariancematrices(p=0,547)(Alltheseresultshadthesameconclusioninthe2ndanalysiswith29ofthe30questions:p=0,597)
3.2.5.StatisticalanalysisTestsofWithin-SubjectsEffectsTheresultsoftwo-wayinteractionandsignificancescoresareillustratedbelow,indicatedintheContext*ASD_Typrow.Measure:performanceonsubordinatescores
TypeIIISumofSquares
df MeanSq F Sign.(p)
partialη2
Observedpower
ASD_Typ .008 1 .008 .359 .554 .013 .089Context 1.414 1 1.414 96.079 .000 .774 1.000 Context * ASD_Typ .102 1 .102 6.945 .014 .199 .720 Error(Context) .412 28 .015 Error(ASD_Typ) .597 28 .021 Table3:statisticalresultsofanalysisforBetween,WithinandInteractioneffects.Wecanconcludethattherewasastatisticallysignificantinteractionbetweenthegroup-factor(ASD/Typ.)andcontext-conditiononproportionofsubordinateschosen,F(1,28)=6,945,p<0,05,partialη2=0,199.(Alltheseresultshadthesameconclusioninthe2ndanalysiswith29ofthe30questions:p<0,05(0,018)andF(1,28)=6,376)
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Theexistenceoftwo-wayinteractionbetweengroup(ASD/Typical)andcondition(nocontext/context)factorscanbeobservedbyvisuallyinspectingtheprofileplotafterrunningthetwo-wayANOVA.
Figure3:Profileplotforinteraction.1=NoContext,2=Contextcondition
Simplyput,thelinesarenotparallel,soonemightexpectaninteractioneffect.BecausethelinesfortheASDandTypicaldevelopmentgroupscrossovertheconditions,itislikelytofindasignificantinteractioneffect.Between-subjecteffectTheeffectofgroup,overall,wasnotsignificant,ascanbeseeninTable3(F(1,28)=0,359,p=0,554,partialη2=0,013,in2ndanalysis:F(1,28)=0,251,p=0,620,partialη2=0,009)ThistellsusthereisnosignificantdifferencebetweentheTypicalDevelopmentandAutismgroupswhenlookingatoverallperformanceonthequestionsintheexperiment,disregardingtheco-presenceofcontext.Differencesinno-contextconditionAscouldbeseenearlierintheboxplot,the“beginning”conditionso-to-speak,theconditionwhenthereisnocontextpresent,showedadifferencebetweenthetwogroups.Anindependentsamplest-testwasruntodeterminethesedifferences.Thesubordinatescorewashigherforthe16ASDparticipants(M=0,479,σ=0,112)thanfortheTypicaldevelopingparticipants(M=0,419,σ=0,118).Thisdifferencewasnotsignificant(meandifference=-0,06,95%CI[-0.15,0.03],t(28)=-1,429,p=0,164,d=0,52)(In2ndanalysis:t(28)=-1,486,p=0,149).Thispvaluemeansthereisa16,4%chanceofgettingameandifferencebetweenanASDandTypicalgroupatleastaslargeastheoneobtained,ifthenullhypothesisistrue(theH0statingthatthereisnodifferencebetweenthegroupmeans).Differenceinno-contextconditioncanbeseeninthebarchartbelow.
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Figure4:barchartofgroupdifferencesinno-contextcondition
Thelastquestionwasfoundtobeincorrectaccordingtotheexperimentsetup(see2.1.2Materials).Afterinitialanalysis,thisquestionwasconsideredasmissingvalueandasecondanalysiswasrun.The2ndanalysisresultsyieldedslightlydifferentvalues(mentionedthroughoutthetext)buthadthesameconclusions.3.2.6.ConclusionTherewerenooutliers,asassessedbyboxplot.Thedatawasnormallydistributed,asassessedbyShapiro-Wilk'stestofnormality(p>,05).Therewashomogeneityofvariances(p>,05)andcovariances(p>,05),asassessedbyLevene'stestforhomogeneityofvariancesandBox'sMtestrespectively.Mauchly'stestofsphericityindicatedthattheassumptionofsphericitywasautomaticallymetforthetwo-wayinteraction.Therewasasignificantinteractionbetweenthegroup-factor(ASD/Typ.)andcontext-conditiononproportionofsubordinateschosen(F(1,28)=6,945,p<0,05,partialη2=0,199).Theeffectofgroup,overall,wasnotsignificant(F(1,28)=0,359,p=0,554,partialη2=0,013).Thedifferenceintheno-contextcondition,betweengroups,wasnotsignificant(t(28)=-1,429,p=0,164).
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4.DiscussionThisthesistriedtoaddtotheknowledgeoftheweakcentralcoherencetheoryforAutismSpectrumDisorder(Frith,1989;F.Happé&Frith,2006).Existingliteraturewassummarized,andanoveldesignedexperimentwasconducted,inordertoanswerresearchquestions.Iwillelaborateonthesequestions.Afterthat,inwhatwaytheseresultscanbeapplied,isoutlined.Somelimitationsarediscussed,andlastly,conclusionsaresummarised.4.1.ResearchquestionsReiterating,themainresearchquestionofthisthesis,was:“Doescontextualinformationresolvelexicalambiguityforindividualswithautismspectrumdisorder?”Thedifferentsub-questionswereusedtoanswerthisquestion,sofirst,Iwilltrytoanswerthesesub-questions.4.1.1.Sub-question1Tounderstandthistopic,therewastheneedtoseeif:
1. IsambiguityaproblemthatisresolvedwithinASD,inthesamewayasitisfortypicaldevelopingindividuals?
Toresolvedifferentkindsoflinguisticambiguity,peopleusecontext(Gaskell,2007).Fortasksinvolvingvisuo-spatialcontext,individualswithASDarefacilitatedbytheuseofcontexttoacomparableextentastypicaldevelopingindividualsdo(López&Leekam,2003).Intasksconcerninglexicaldecisionorsemanticcategorisation,whereambiguityseemstoinitiallybeanadvantage(Borowsky,R.,&Masson,1996;Jastrzembski,J.E.,&Stanners,1975;Kellas,G.,Ferraro,F.R.,&Simpson,1988),peoplewithASDwerefacilitatedbyverbalcontextaswell(López&Leekam,2003).However,whenmeaningisinvolved,studiesforresolvinghomograph-ambiguity(F.G.E.Happé,1997;Jolliffe&Baron-cohen,1999)andauditorypresentedsentenceambiguity(Jolliffe&Baron-cohen,1999)showedthatuseofcontext,andthereforethestriveforcentralcoherence,wasimpairedforindividualswithhigh-functioningautism.Itseemsthatthereisaspecificissuewithlexicalambiguityandprocessingmeaning,forASD.4.1.1.Sub-question2Focusingin,subsequently,wecanwonder:
2. DoestheuseofcontextresolveambiguityforpeoplewithASD,inataskformeaningofhomonyms?
Anovelexperimentwasdesignedandconducted,thatstudiedtheuseofprecedingcontexttoswitchtosubordinatemeanings(insteadofdominant)ofhomonymswhencontextpushedtodoso,betweenASDandTypicalDevelopmentgroups.Thisbroughtsomehypothesestomind.
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Thesehypotheseswerestatedas:- Itisexpectedthattypicallydevelopingindividualsuseprecedingsentencecontext
todisambiguatemeaningofhomonyms(e.g.striveforcentralcoherence).- Becauseoftheweakcentralcoherencetheory,andearlierexperimentsinvolving
ambiguityandautism,itisexpectedthatindividualswithASDshowimpairmentorlackinuseofsentencecontexttodisambiguatehomonyms.
Thisbroughtforwardthestatisticaltestablehypotheses.Thosearediscussedbelow.
4.1.1.2.Sub-question2:statisticalhypothesis1
- Thereisaninteractioneffectbetweenthegroupandtheconditionfactors.-
Anexperimentfortwogroups:ASDandTD,compromisingquestionswithoutandwithprecedingcontext,wassetup.Therewasfoundtobeasignificantinteractioneffectbetweenthegroup-factor(ASD/Typ.)andwithin-subjectscondition(nocontext/context).Theexperimentcontrolledforage,andmaleASDprevalencebeingmuchhigher(Fombonne,2009),andaddressedadolescentswithhigh-functioning,allhavingatleastfinishedhigh-school.Theperformancewasmeasuredastheproportionofsubordinatemeaningschosen,expectedtobelowwithoutcontext,becauseofchoosingdominantmeanings,andexpectedtobehigh,whensentencecontextpushedtowardssubordinatemeanings.However,ascouldbeseenfromtheprofileplot(Figure3),andtakingintoaccounttheboxplot(Figure2),individualswithautismshowedlessclearashifttowardsusingcontext,asTDsdid.Theinteractioneffectstatesthattheinfluenceofprecedingcontextontheperformance,dependsonthecategoryofgroups:havingautismornotinfluencestowhatextentcontextisusedindisambiguatinghomonyms.ThisseemstoconfirmthepredictionfromthecentralcoherencetheorythatindividualswithanASDwillbeimpairedinabilitytoachievecoherence(F.Happé&Frith,2006;F.Happé,1997).
4.1.1.2.Sub-question2:statisticalhypothesis2- ThereisadifferenceinperformancebetweentheTypicaldevelopmentandtheASD
groupTherewasnosignificantbetween-subjecteffectfoundoverall(p=0,554)whichsuggeststheoveralluseofcontextfordisambiguatinghomonymsisnotsodifferentbetweenASDandTD.However,thatiswhenconditionswithandwithoutcontextarepresent.Inreallife,thereisalwayscontextintheformofanenvironment,andalsoalmostalwayslexicalcontext,intheformofconversation,texts,etc.Also,lookingatthespreadintheboxplot(Figure2),youcouldsaytheoveralleffectissomewhatleveledout,becauseoftheASDgroupchoosingsubordinatessomewhatmore,intheinitialcondition,withoutcontextalready.Whenuseofcontextisrequiredtochoosethesubordinatemeaningthatisofimportanceinaparticularsentence,theASDgroupshowedahugespread,andscoredlowerthanTD.Thebetween-groupeffectisnotstatisticallysignificant,but,Iargue,alsonotpracticallythatsignificant,becausetheinfluenceofcontextinreal-lifeexamplesisalwayspresent.Therewillalwaysbeaninfluenceofsuchacondition,aswellas(asisevidentfromtheinteractioneffect)theinfluenceofhavingASDornot.
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ConclusionAlso,theseresultssuggestthatlexicalambiguityisafundamentalissuewithinASD.WhereasdiagnosisandcharacterisationofASDhappensonahighleveltraits,suchascommunicationandobsessiveness,theproblemofdealingwithsubtletiesinsocialcommunication,suchashomonymspose,seemstobealreadydistinguishingautism,onsuchaspecific,fundamentallevel.Thisissomethingthathastobekeptinmind,designingtherapies,andasapossibleextensionofthediagnosisprocessofautism.4.2.ApplicationofresultsToanswersub-question3,thisparagraphisused,todiscusstheimplicationsinmoredetail.4.2.1.Sub-question3
3. CanresultsfrommeasurementsforminputforfutureArtificialIntelligence(AI)applications,tohelpindividualsbediagnosedwithASD?
4.2.2DiagnosisCurrentdiagnosisDiagnosisofanautismspectrumdisorderisstillsolelydependentonjudgementofclinicians.Theirintuitionforthesocialinteractionofachildandinterviewswithparentsserveasdiagnostictools.Socialskillslikeeye-contact,facialexpressions,posturesandgesturesareobserved.TheseinterviewsarestandardizedinformsofAutismDiagnosticInterview-Revised(ADI-R)(Rutter,M.,LeCouteur,A.,&Lord,2003)andtheAutismDiagnosticObservationSchedule(ADOS)(Lord,C.etal2000),butautismremainsadisorderspecifiedonbehavior.Thereisnobloodtest,nofunctionalimaging,norageneticscreeningthatcanmakeadiagnosisofASD(Volkmaretal.2004),andnobiologicalmarkersareusedindiagnosis(Anagnostou&Taylor,2011).Theobservationaljudgmentsthatarequantifiedinthesementionedstandardizedprotocolsarenotprecise,aswellassubjective.Thereisdisagreementofcliniciansonindividualdiagnoses,whichposesdifficultiesforboththeselectionofappropriatetreatmentsforpatients,andforthereportingofresultsofpopulation-basedstudies(Klin,A.etal2000;Volkmar,F.,Chawarska,K.,&Klin,2005).Also,thebehavioraldiagnosisasitisusedtoday,requiresconsiderabletimeinvestmentonthepartofparentsandclinicians.(Wall,Dally,Luyster,Jung,&DeLuca,2012)ThepracticeofdiagnosingASDnotonlyvarieswidelyintermsofstandardsandtimeframes,itappearsthatfamiliessometimeswaitaslongas13monthsbetweeninitialscreeninganddiagnosis(Wiggins,L.D.,Baio,J.O.N.,&Rice,2006)andevenlonger,whenbeingpartofaminoritypopulationorofalowersocio-economicstatus(Bernier,R.,Mao,A.,&Yen,2010).Thesedelayscandirectlytranslateintodelaysinthespeech-deliveryandbehaviouraltherapythathassignificantpositiveimpactonthedevelopmentofachild,especiallywhenthisisdeliveredearly(Hadwinetal.,1998;Pinto-Martinetal.,2008).However,neuro-imagingstudiesandstudieswithinfantssuggestthereareactuallyfundamentaldifferencesthatcouldbeusedtomakediagnosis,andthusfurthertreatment(-selection)thereupon,fasterandmorereliable.
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Neuro-imagingOneofthemostreplicatedfindingsinneuro-imagingisearlybrainovergrowthforpeoplewithASD,whichisalsoassociatedwithatypicalfunctionalandstructuralconnectivityinthebrain.Alsocorticalthicknessandsurfaceareaneedtobeexaminedfurtherincombinationwiththis,becauseitcouldshedlightonearlyneuroanatomicaldifferences,indicatorsofdevelopmentaleventsinASD(Anagnostou&Taylor,2011).Thisatypicalconnectivitycouldbeacauseforproblemswithcomplexinformationprocesseslikethestriveforcentralcoherence.AsAnagnostou&Taylorargueintheirreviewofdifferentneuro-imagingstudiesforASD,methodsusingwithfMRI,neurochemicalstudiesandstudiesforstructuralconnectivitycouldbecombinedwithinthesamecohortofsubjectsandinadevelop-mentalmanner.ThisfocuscouldhighlightshareddevelopmentalabnormalitiesinASD.Itcouldlikeimagingfindingstounderlyingneurobiology,whichisanecessarysteptofurtherfacilitateexperimentaltherapeutics.(Anagnostou&Taylor,2011)Furthermore,reductionsinsizeofthecorpuscallosumarefoundinautism(Hardan,Minshew&Keshavan,2000;Pivenetal.,1997),aswellasdecreasedfunctionalconnectivitybetweenhemispheres(Egaas,Courchesne&Saitoh,1995;Pivenetal.,1997).Thistoo,canleadtodecreasedinformationintegrationcapacity(Justetal.,2004;Schultz,Romanski&Tsatsanis,2000).Imagingdatasuggeststhereisatemporo-frontalpathwaylateralizedintherighthemisphereforprosodyandasimilarpathwaylateralizedinthelefthemisphereforsyntax/semantics,andthatthesepathwaysareconnectedviathecorpuscallosum(Friederici&Alter,2004),resultingindifficultyintegratinginformationfromprosodywithotheraspectsoflanguage(Diehletal.,2008).InfantsAsneuro-imagingcouldbegintoplayapartinearlydiagnosisofASD,alsoexperimentalstudyofinfantshasshownthatdeficitsineye-contactisnotonlyanalreadywide-knowntraitinautism,itsearlyonsetshowsacleardeclineineye-fixation,forinfantsof2to6monthsold,laterdiagnosedwithASD.ThispatternwasnotobservedininfantsnotdevelopingASD.(Jones&Klin,2013)FurthertechniquesOntopofinfantstudy,andneuro-imagingtechniques,testsliketheonedescribedintheexperimentofthisthesis,couldplayanextrarolein(early)diagnosis.Asambiguitystudiesforautismwithhomographs(Happé,1997;Jolliffe&Baron-Cohen,1999;López&Leekam,2003)haveshown,aswellastheexperimentalresultspresentedhere,lexicalambiguityseemstobeamajor,fundamentalproblem,showingdifferencesofperformanceonalow/sentencelevel.Usingtheseresults,testscanbedesigned,toseeifpeopleshowlittledifferenceinperformanceofdisambiguation,acrossconditionsofcontextandno-context.Namely,theseresultscouldbeanindicatorofpoorintegrationofcontextandweakcentralcoherence,andthereforeautism.Databaseswithlargedatasetsonlexicalandstructuralinformationcouldbeusedforimplementing,likethealreadydescribedSmallWorldOfWords(Deyneetal.,2013)orforexampleWordNet(PrincetonUniversity,2010).Notethatsolely,suchatestcouldneverbeadirectindicationofASDandinisolationcouldnotyieldadiagnosis.Resultsliketheonesdescribedcouldhavemanymoreothercauses,likelearningimpairments.
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Thatiswhysuchproposedextratestsaresuggestedtobeanextratoolindiagnosis.Theprocesscouldbeashorttesttoprioritizefurtherdiagnosis.Neuro-imagingorlongitudinalstudiesdescribedabovecouldserveassuchanearlyextratoolaswell,withanimportantdifferencethatthesewouldtakealotofeffortandtime;alotofcommitmentbeforemovingontoatherapeuticaldiagnosis.However,whenclear,conclusiveneurobiologicalindicatorswouldbefoundforautism,thesewouldofcoursebehighlysuggestedmethodsaswell.MachineLearningandtheADI-RAlastsuggestionforhelpindiagnosiscomesfrommachinelearning.Theearlierdescribedstandardinterviewusedindiagnosis,theAutismDiagnosticInterview-Revised(ADI-R)consistsof93questionsandcantakeupto2,5hours(Walletal.,2012).InastudybyWalletal.from2012machinelearningtechniqueswerestudiestoreducethisamount.TheyfoundthattheAlternatingDecisionTree(ADTree)hadhighsensitivityandspecificityintheclassificationofindividualswithautism.TheADTreeclassifierconsistedofonly7(ofthe93)questions,93%fewerthanthefullADI-Rinterview,andperformedwithlargerthan99%accuracywhentheyappliedittoindependentpopulationsofindividualswithautism,misclassifyingonlyoneoutofthe1962casesusedforvalidation.Thiscouldbeamajorimprovementforanearlyextratoolindiagnosis.4.2.3.TherapyAlso,IthinktheresultsofthisthesiscanaddtothetherapiesforpeoplewithASD.Whenconsideringlexicalambiguityasaveryspecificissue,posingdifficultyforindividualswithautism,therapiesandsocialstories(Gray&Garand,1993)couldbedevelopedthatfocusonuseofcontext.Previousresearchhasalreadyshownthatpeoplewithautismfeelcomfortableinpredictableenvironments.Moreparticularly,theyenjoyinteractingwithcomputers.Thiscouldbeexplainedbytheattentionofpeoplewithautism,whichtendstobefixedonisolatedobjectsapartfromthesurroundingarea.Computerscanbreakintothisworldbyfocusingtheattentiononthescreen,sothatexternaleventscanbeignoredmoreeasily(Murray,2011).Computer-basedtherapiesandeducationareseenasaneffectiveaidinteachinglanguagetochildrenwithautismforatimenow(Hershkowitz,2000).Wecanconcludethatthehelpofcomputersishighlysuggestedwhenimplementingpossibletestsdescribedabove.Interactiveeducationalenvironments,forexamplebasedontheuseofrobotics,iscurrentlyawidelyresearchedandimplementedarea(Kientzetal.,2013;Ricks,D.J.,&Colton,2010).Thisthesissuggeststhatalsointhisfield,afocusshouldbedevelopedonintegratingcontext,especiallyforlexicalambiguity;asopposedtothefairlywellperformanceonviso-spatialambiguity(López&Leekam,2003).
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4.3Limitations4.3.1.CriticsonCentralCoherencetheoryOnemainpointofcriticsoftheweakcentralcoherencetheorywasthatitdoesnotaccountforthewholerangeofautisticdisorders.Astudyby(Jarrold&Russell,1997),citedin(F.Happé&Frith,2006)showedthatweakcentralcoherenceoccursonlyinsomepartofthepopulationwithanautisticdisorder.Forthis,andmorereasons,HappéandFrithadjustedthetheoryin2006.Oneofthechangesconsistedofthedeficitincentralprocesses,thatmanifesteditselfbyfailingtocometoaoverallmeaning,beingchangedfromaprimarytoasecondaryproblem,wherethesuperiorityinlocalordetailorientedprocessinggainedmoreimportance.Amoreremarkableadjustmentwasthechangingofthedescriptivenature,toanacknowledgementthatweakcoherenceisbutanaspectofcognitionwithinautism,insteadofthedeterminingfactorfordeficienciesinsocialskillsthatarepresentinpeoplewithASD.4.3.3.ExperimentTheexperimentcarriedoutinthisthesiscontainssomelimitations,whicharedescribedbelow.WrongquestionUponrecheckingthedistributionstableofthe30homonymsusedintheexperiment(seeAppendixC),thelastonewasfoundtohavethewrongdominantandsubordinateidentifiers,andbecauseofthis,thewrongprecedingcontextaccordingtotheexperimentdesign.MeaningdistributionsAnimportantlimitationofthisexperimenttobenoted,isthatitdidnotcontrolfortheexactdistributionsofdominantandsubordinatemeanings.Thatis,intheresults,scoreswerebasedonhowmanysubordinateschoseninthedifferentconditionsoverall.However,sometimesasubordinatemeaninginno-contextischosen(inpreviousdatabaseslikeSWOW)10%ofthetime,andsometimes30%,forexample.Thisexperimentonlycheckedforameaningbeingnotablysubordinate.Amoredetailedexperimentshould:
- Onlyusehomonymswithsubordinateanddominantmeaningswithsamedistributions,orbecausethisispracticallyimpossible
- accountfortheprecisedistributions,whencomputingamoreadvancedscore,thatcanbeusedasameasurementinasimilarexperimentastheonedescribedhere.
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4.4.ConclusionInthisthesis,atheoreticalbackgroundwasgivenonautism(ASD),andthedifficultiesindividualswithASDencounterwithintegratinginformation/context,especiallywithlexicalambiguity.AnovelexperimentwassetuptoseeifpeoplewithASDcandisambiguatehomonymsusingprecedingsentencecontext,andtheimplicationsofthisexperimentwerediscussed.Thisresultedinanswerstodifferentsub-questions.Below,themainresearchquestionisdiscussed,aswellasproposalsforfutureresearch.4.4.1.Researchquestion“Doescontextualinformation(4)resolve(3)lexicalambiguity(2)forindividualswithautismspectrumdisorder(1)?”
1. Autismspectrumdisorderisabehaviouraldisorderthatposesdifferentkindsofissues,amongwhichsocialcommunication.
2. Withinsocialcommunication,subtletiesinlanguage,andintegratinginformationtoresolvethesenuancesandambiguityareaclearproblem.Muchresearchhasbeencarriedout,andhasshownthatespeciallystrivingforcentralcoherenceisweakened.Integratinginformationusedfordisambiguatingmeaningoflexicalambiguityisimpaired.
3. Becausethisabilityisimpaired,wetrytoexaminehowfundamentalthisproblemis.Onwhatlevelisambiguityalreadyaproblem?Thisiswhyanexperimentwascarriedout,requiringparticipantstoresolvelexicalambiguity,choosingforspecificmeaningsofambiguouswords.
4. Inordertodoso,andtoinspectintegratinginformationuse,contextualinformationwasaddedtoseethatifsuchafundamentalproblemarises,doesitconfirmweakcentralcoherence?
“No”isnotapossibleanswertothisresearchquestion,becauseresultsshowedthatindividualswithASDactuallyimprovedperformancewhensentencecontextwasadded,tosomeextent.However,peoplewithASDalreadychosesubordinatemeaningsomewhatmorethanTypicaldevelopingindividuals(TDs),withoutcontext.However,“Yes”isnotapossibleansweraswell,becausetheASDgroupscoredlowerthanTDs(andwithgreatspread)whencontextwasadded.Also,therewasasignificantinteractioneffectofgroup(ASD/TD)andcondition(nocontext/context),sayingthattherelationshipbetweenoneofthesetwofactors(forexample,havingcontext)andtheperformanceisdependentontheotherfactor(forexamplebeingASD/TD).Soyes,tosomeextentprecedingcontextualinformationdoesaddtotheunderstanding,butthisabilityseemssomewhatimpaired,onthelevelofdisambiguatinghomonyms,furtherconfirmingtheweakcentralcoherencetheory(Frith,1989).
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4.4.2.FutureresearchAveryspecificproblemisresearchedinthisthesis,andimplicationandeffectongreaterfieldsofknowledgearesuggested.However,furtherresearchisstillneededformanythingstobecomeclearer:
- DiagnosisCanweactuallyimproveearlydiagnosiswiththehelpofresultsofstudieslikethisone?Atool,ormultipledifferentones,couldbeimplementedusinghomonymsandtheirdominantandsubordinatemeaningdistributions,toseeifindividualscouldbeclassifiedforfurtherinspectionofdiagnosis.Thesamegoesforstudiesinvolvinghomographs,andothertypesoflexicalambiguity.Also,couldtests/toolslikethese,beintegratedwithneuro-imaging,ormachinelearnedquestionnaires?Again,tonotdiagnoseinisolation,buttobeanextra,forprioritizingdiagnosisortreatment.
- MeasurementWhenusingresultsfromthiskindoftests,moreresearchshouldbeinvestedintocomputingascoreormeasurementfortheperformanceonlexicalambiguity.Amoresophisticatedwayoftestingsomeone’sabilitytousesentencecontexttodisambiguatemeaningisneeded.
- DisambiguationCouldtheabilityofdisambiguationactuallybeimproved?ResearchintoNaturalLanguageProcessingisalreadybeingcarriedoutregardingresolutionoflexicalambiguity(Small,S.L.,Cottrell,G.W.,&Tanenhaus,2013).Canperformanceofautomatedwordsensedisambiguationbemeasured?Ifperformanceiswellenough,couldtoolsbedevelopedfromthis,toaidindividualswithASDinintegrationofinformation?
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Saemundsen,E.,Magnússon,P.,Georgsdóttir,I.,Egilsson,E.,&Rafnsson,V.(2013).PrevalenceofautismspectrumdisordersinanIcelandicbirthcohort.BMJOpen,3(6).
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Tyler,L.K.,&Marslen-Wilson,W.D.(1981).Children’sprocessingofspokenlanguage.JournalofVerbalLearningandVerbalBehavior,20(4),400–416.
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AppendicesAppendixA.Experimenttimeline<Welcomewords,START><Instructions(inDutch)>“Welkombijditkortetaalkundigeexperiment.Weonderzoekenhierinhoemensenzinnenverwerken.Bedanktdatjemeewiltdoen!Hetexperimentbestaatuit3blokken:wevragenjenaarenkelepersonalia,ernavolgthetexperimentmet30meerkeuzevragen(diedurenongeveer15minutenintotaal)waarnatotslotenkelealgemenevragenvolgen.”“Jebentaltijdvrijomtestoppen(geefdatindatgevalaanaandeonderzoekerofjebegeleider).Naafloopvanhetexperiment,gaarnehettoestemmingsformulierintevullendatnaastjeligt.Jekunthetvastevendoorlezen,maarjekunthetnaafloopinvullen.“<Personalinformationquestions(inDutch)>Persoonlijkeinformatie
- Watisjeleeftijd?(injaren)- Watisjegeslacht?- Watisjeberoepsstatus?- Watisdehoogstevormvanonderwijsdiejehebtafgerond?
1. Jezultnusteedseenstukjetekstzien,waarinjehetdikgedruktewoordmoetvervangenmeteenwoordvandezelfdebetekenis.
2. Kieshetantwoorddatvoorjouhetbestepast.Erisgeentijdsrestrictie,maarprobeerniettelangnatedenken;wezijnbenieuwdnaarjeeersteingeving!
3. Alsjehetnietweet,probeerdantocheenantwoordtekiezen.4. Zodrajeeenvervanginghebtgekozen,kunjejeantwoordnietmeerveranderen.
<30Homonymquestions(inDutch,seeAppendixB)(randomizedorder,answerchoicesalso)><Generalquestions(inDutch)>
- Jezaglangereenkortestukjestekst.Inhoeverrehielpdietekstjouomeenpassendebetekenistekiezenvoorhetwoord?(1-5,1=Totaalniet,delengtevandetekstmaaktenietsuit,5=Heelerg,hoelangerdetekst,hoemakkelijkerikhetvondomeenbetekenistekiezen)
- Nuhebjesteedstekstgezien,maarwatzou,denkje,voorjouhetbestewerken,omtehelpenbijhetkiezenvaneenbetekenis?(Doordetekstdieerbijstond;Ikhadnietechtmoeitemetzinnen;Anders)
- Hebjeverdernogopmerkingen,ofgedachtenoverdevragen,ofditexperiment?“Hartelijkdankvoorjedeelname!Jekunthetexperimentnubeëindigen,enhet-toestemmingsformulierinvullen.”<END>
36
AppendixB.Questionnaire(inDutch) woord Zin+evt.context Antwoord
Subordinate/dominant
1 Licht Iemandgaatverhuizen.Erzijnveelspullendiegedragenmoetenworden,enhetduurdeevenvoordatallemeubelsendozennaarbinnenwarengedragen.Tochleekhetuiteindelijkminderwerktekostendangedacht.“Datiswelfijn,licht.”
Nietzwaar/lichtvanzonoflamps/d
2 Scheiding Bijelkekapperkunjenieuwedingenuitproberen.ZowildeMarieeensietsandersmethaarkapsel.Zehadhetnualzolangineenbepaaldehouding,datzeheteigenlijkeenbeetjemafbegontevinden.“Wateenrarescheiding.”
Scheidinginhethaar/echtscheidingvaneenhuwelijks/d
3 Schaal Opschoolleerjevaakoverhoejebepaaldegroothedenkanopmeten.Ergopvallendishet,maarookverwarrend,datjeinsommigelanden,danopeenanderemanierdoet,daninanderelanden.Dieschaalisechtperfect.
Schaalvoorbijvoorbeeldgewichtofaardbevingen/komoffruitschaals/d
4 Toets PietwoondetijdelijkbijJan,omdathijnoggeenkamerhadgevonden.Hijmoestooknogeenboelspullenkopen,zohadPietnoggeeneigenlaptop.WelkonhijdievanJansomslenen.“Ééntoetswasnietgeweldig.”
Toetsvaneencomputer/examens/d
5 Toast OphetverjaardagsfeesthadPietzichverheugd.Hetwaseenverrassinggeweestvoorzijnvriendin,endatbetekendeveelvoorhaar.Hungemeenschappelijkevriendenhieldenhunglazenindelucht,enwenstenhenenkelemooiewoordentoe.“Detoastbevielhemgoed.”
Proostenvanchampagneofietsdergelijks/geroosterdbroods/d
6 Gerecht MethaaradviseurgingzenaarAmsterdam.Diedagbrachtwatspanningmetzichmee,wantwatdebeslissingoverhaargeldzouzijn,wasnogonzeker.Naafloopliepenzenaarbuiten.“Zijhadnogalwatcommentaarophetgerecht.”
Eten/rechtbankd/s
7 Aangeven Metzijntweeënishetveelmakkelijkerkoken.Jekuntdetakenverdelen,enjehoeftnooitvertelopenvoorkeukengerei.Alsjeietsnietweetofietsnodighebt,kunjehetaltijdvragen.“Kunjedataangeven?”
Melden(bijpolitie/douane)/aanreikenofoverhandigend/s
8 Lijn Jangingvandaageenmeeloop-dagdoenopeennieuweschool.Eerstreisdehijeenuurmetdetrein.Ernamoesthijnogevenzoekenhoehijvanafhetstationnaardeschoolzoukomen.“Isdatweleenlijn?”
Streep/buslijnd/s
9 Stoppen Marieheefthetergdrukmethaarscriptie.Heledagenzitzeindebibliotheekomeraantewerken,maarhetisbijnaaf.Zevindhetlastigomhetlostelatennuhetzoveris.“Vanavondgaatzestoppen.”
Stilstaan/ophoudend/s
10 Trap JanenPietzatenenkelejarensamenopeenvechtsport.Zekondendanlekkerhunovertollige
schop/trapmettredesomomhoogtegaan
37
energieopeengoedemaniergebruiken,doortesporten.Thuiskekenzeookweleensvechtfilms.“Kijk,datwaseenstevigetrap.”
s/d
11 Aas Opvakantieregendehetdeheletijd,duszochtdefamilieanderedingenomdedruilerigemiddagenenavondendoortebrengen.Gelukkighaddenzegenoegmeegenomen.Pahadeenleukspel.“Aasiswathijnognodighad.”
Kaartuitkaartspel/lokaasvoorvissens/d
12 Blad Vandaagbezochtenzemetschooleennatuurpark.Zehaddenonderandereeenrondleidingeneenworkshop.Schoolhooptedathierdoordekinderenmeerwaarderingzoudenkrijgenvoordenatuuromhenheen.“Pakeenbladdatjemooivindt.”
Boomblad/Papierenblad,omopteschrijvens/d
13 Hoop VoorzijnwerkstukhadJanzichgeenzorgengemaakt.Hijvondhetbestmoeilijk,maarhijhadveelartikelengevonden.Pietweeshemopeensectieindebieb,endaarhadhijméérdangenoegaan.“Daarzateenhoop.”
Bergofveel/verwachtingofgeloofs/d
14 Golven MorgengaathijnaarSpanje.Nietperseomtedoenwatalzijnvriendennadeexamensdeden,maaromeencongresbijtewonenvanietswaarhijaljarenopzijnzolderkamermeebezigwas.“Golven,waarhijvanhield.”
Watergolven,opzee/geluids-,radiogolvend/s
15 Noot JanisinTilburgvandaag,enisgespannenvoordeauditiediehijdaargaatdoen.Almaandenhadhijzichvoorbereid.Hetconservatoriumiswaarhijaltijdalvandroomde.“Verteleensietsoverdienoot.”
Muzieknoot/nootdiejekuntetens/d
16 Slot DeheledaghadMariezichverstoptophaarkamer,omhetlaatsteboekineenserietelezen.Hetlagsindsgisterindewinkelenzehadhetnualbijnauit.Nogéénhoofdstuktegaan.“Eeninteressantslot.”
Einde/Slotmetsleutels/d
17 Kussen VorigjaarhadPietiemandontmoet.Naenkeledates,eneenpaarkerenlogeren,haddenzegemerktdatdechemieaanwezigwas.Ookhaddenzeveelgemeenschappelijkeinteresses,envindenzeelkaarheelmooi.“Hetkussenisfantastisch.”
(hoofd-)Kussenomopteslapen/zoenend/s
18 Vorst Deregeringhadhetallangafgesprokenmethetbuitenlandsestaatshoofd,zodatallesgoedzougaan,wanneerhijneerstreekinNederland.Ondanksdathetalvroegdonkerwas,zouhij’savondseengrootseaankomstkrijgen.“Devorstkomtervolgendeweekaan!”
Vrieskou/koning(in)d/s
19 Schat Hijhadalvergereisd,alvorenshijwaswaarhijwildezijn.Hijhadhaarzogemist,ennuzoudenzeelkaareindelijkweerzien.Hijwasgelukkigenverliefdtoenhijhaaropzochtbijhaarfamilie.“Wateenschatvondhijdaar.”
Lievebenaming,liefste/schatvangoud,bijv.Piratenschats/d
20 Bank Zeliependoordestad,Janlietzijnfamiliezienwaarhijnuwoonde.Hijhadzealverteldoverdestad,enwaarhijvaaklangskwam.Zevondenhetfijneenstezien.“Daarisdebankwaarwehetoverhadden!”
Bankmetgeld/zitbanks/d
38
21 Kraan Terwijlzedoordestadliepen,zagenzehoeveeleraanhetveranderenwas.Overalstondennieuwegebouwen,enerwerdennogsteedsnieuwebijgemaakt.Sommigenoghogerdandehoogstediezekenden.“Degrotekraanvielhemop.”
Waterkraan/hijskraand/s
22 Ster Langhaddenzeernaaruitgekeken.DelatepremièrevandenieuweHarryPotterfilm.Zekekenhunogenuitopderodeloper,wantzoietshaddenzenognooitmeegemaakt.“Zehaddennognooitzo’ngrotestergezien.”
Steraandehemel/filmster,beroemdheidd/s
23 Beeld PietliepmetMariedoorzalenvolmooieauthentiekeRomeinsespullen.HetwasvakantieenzewarennaarRomegegaan,huneerstevakantiesamen,omdatzeallebeizovancultuurhielden,ennognooitinItaliëwarengeweest.“Kijkdatbeeldeens!”
Foto,televisie/kunstwerk,standbeeldd/s
24 Pad Laatstgingenwijwandelen,endatbevielzogoeddatwesteedsverdervandebebouwdewereldkwamen,zelfsverdwaaldraakten.Doordatwefouthaddengelopen,kondenwenuderouteterugnaarhuisnietmeervinden.“Ikziedaareenpad!”
Bos-oflooppad,weg/kikkerachtiges/d
25 Eng Alsjedatenevideospelspeelt,waarbijjemoetracendoorscherpebochten,moetjegoeduitkijken.Erzittenbepaaldestukkenineenroute,waarjenáuwelijksdoorheenpastmetjeauto.“Datstukjeiseng.”
Bang,griezelig/smal,nauwd/s
26 Val Zehaddenindekeukennogallastvanstank.Nalangschoonmakenenopruimen,bleekdeoorzaakbijnogwatandersteliggendanalleenteweinigafwasdoen.Erbleekeenplaagtezijn.“Dievalmoetonverwachtzijngeweest.”
Muizenval,strik/ongeluks/d
27 Kop ’sMiddagsgingenMarieenPietwatdrinkenbijdeomavanJan.Alhaarspullenwarennogvanprachtigantiek.Zekekenonderandereuitgebreidnaarhaarversierdekledingenoudeborduursels.“Kijkeensnaardiekop.”
Servies,koffiekop/hoofds/d
28 Blik Fotografereniséénvandegrootstehobby’svanJan.Hijvindthetgeweldigommensenopstraataantesprekenen,alshetmag,metzijncamerahunportrettenvastteleggenvanuitverschillendestandpunten.“Wateenblikhebjedaarzeg!”
Metalenblik,conservenblik/opslagvanogen,maniervankijkend/s
29 Cel Opdeuniversiteitwarenzeaandachtigbezig.Inhetlokaalzatentallozegeïnteresseerdenaanverschillendetafelsteluisterennaardegastspreker,diehunvoordezebijzonderegelegenheidietsnieuwsginglatenzien.“Latenwedezeceleensbekijken.”
Gevangeniscel/biologischeceluitlichaamd/s
30 Baan Mariewildealtijdalpilootworden.Zewasnueindelijkzover.Zemoestalleennogeentestopeengrootvliegvelddoen.Zekonnietwachtenomtrotstevertellenhoezealledetailsuithaarhoofdwist.“Datiseengoedebaan.”
Beroep/richting,wegs/d
39
AppendixC.SmallWorldofWordsdistributions(inDutch)
Homonym Dominantmeanings % Subordinatemeanings % Othermeanings %
Licht
lamp,zon,donker,helder,geel,fel,raam,schakelaar,hemel,buiten 80,8% zwaar,veer 9,1%
dag,klaar,elektriciteit,warm 10,1%
Scheiding
huwelijk,ouders,kinderen,verdriet,pijn,ruzie,pijnlijk,echtscheiding,koppel,relatie,kind,man,vrouw,zorgen 81,8% haar,grens,splitsing 16,1% tafel 2,1%
Schaalfruit,kom,fruitschaal,glas,eten,zilver,bord,tafel 59,1%
aardbeving,weegschaal,wegen,kaart,meter,landkaart,wiskunde 21,3%
ei,kerk,decoratie,eieren 19,6%
Toets
test,examen,punten,school,proef,leren,stress,studeren,moeilijk,cijfer 67,1%
computer,knop,pc,telefoon 12,3%
piano,klavier,muziek 20,6%
Toast
brood,kaas,broodrooster,ontbijt,krokant,eten,boter,lekker,confituur,warm,bruin,hard,boterham,rooster,ochtend 93,7% champagne 4,1% droog 2,3%
Gerecht
eten,lekker,koken,restaurant,maaltijd,keuken,recept,warm,pasta,menu,diner,dessert 68,7%
rechter,advocaat,rechtbank,straf,politie,vonnis,rechten 29,3% gezellig 2,0%
Aangeven
politie,diefstal,misdaad,douane,melden,verraden,geboorte 55,7%
aanreiken,doorgeven,helpen,overhandigen, 23,7%
aanwijzen,belastingen,geven,tonen,richting,aanwijzen 20,6%
Lijnstreep,recht,lat,potlood,wiskunde,figuur,papier, 58,3% bus 20,0%
dieet,mager,dun,dik,slank,coke,telefoon 21,7%
Stoppen
halt,auto,rood,stilstaan,verkeer,gevaar,verkeerslicht,verkeersbord,remmen 58,5%
ophouden,roken,einde,gedaan,opgeven,doorgaan 36,4%
wachten,pensioen,plots 5,1%
Trap
treden,trede,omhoog,leuning,hout,verdieping,huis,hoog,lift,boven,ladder,tree,steen,kelder,omlaag,lopen 90,0% schop 3,6%
vallen,vermoeiend,lastig 6,4%
Aas
vissen,worm,vis,gier,hengel,lokken,haak,water,vislijn,jacht,vijver,vangst,prooi,wormen 83,7%
kaarten,kaart,kaartspel,troef 13,8% dood 2,5%
Bladpapier,schrijven,wit,pen,boek,balpen,examen 55,8% boom,groen,herfst,bos 42,8% tijdschrift 1,4%
Hoop
leven,geloof,toekomst,geluk,liefde,moetverwachting,vrede,wanhoop,wens,dromen,verlangen 70,4% berg,veel,massa,stapel 20,0% wit,groen 9,6%
Golven
zee,surfen,water,strand,vakantie,sport,zwembad,oceaan,boot,sport,zon,wind,blauw 83,8% geluid,radio,fysica 10,1% zon,haar 6,1%
Noot
eten,kraken,boom,walnoot,bruin,hard,lekker,okkernoot,notenkraker,herfst,hazelnoot,vrucht,notenboom,bos 67,4%
muziek,vals,piano,partituur,muzieknoot 31,0% nood 1,6%
40
Slotsleutel,deur,fiets,dicht,sleutelgat,veiligheid,vast 66,4% einde,toe, 18,6%
kasteel,burcht,sluiten 15,0%
Kussen
slapen,bed,zacht,hoofdkussen,veren,slaap,kussensloop,zetel,sloop 53,5%
zoenen,liefde,lippen,mond,zoen,nat,tong 39,0%
lekker,rood,mals,wit, 7,4%
Vorst
koud,winter,koude,vriezen,kou,sneeuw,ijs,schaatsen,glad 63,2%
koning,kroon,albert,sire,keizer,koninkrijk 36,8%
0,0%
Schat
goud,piraat,geld,kist,piraten,rijk,rijkdom,juwelen,zeerover,kostbaar,koffer 62,1%
lief,liefde,liefste,lieveling,lieverd,partner,kind,geliefde 36,2% geluk 1,7%
Bankzitten,park,zetel,rusten,school,tuin,rust,hout 54,5%
geld,sparen,rekening,loket,kluis 45,5%
0,0%
Kraan
water,lekken,lek,wassen,tap,warm,bad,keuken,drinken,badkamer 66,3%
werf,haven,bouw,bouwwerf,hoog,hijskraan,takel 23,6%
vogel,werken,geel 10,2%
Ster
hemel,nacht,maan,licht,zon,heelal,ruimte,geel,kerstmis,planeet,donker,wens,ver,hemellichaam 93,2% film,beroemd 4,9% zeester 1,8%
Beeldtv,foto,televisie,scherm,computer,buis,film,dia 53,9%
kunst,standbeeld,kunstwerk,marmer 34,9%
idee,mooi,tuin,zicht 11,2%
Pad
kikker,groen,vijver,glibberig,vies,amfibie,water,slijmerig,slijm,dier,bruin,traag,kwaken,prins,giftig 87,4% bos,weg, 8,4% natuur,sprookje 4,2%
Eng
bang,donker,griezelig,akelig,angstig,halloween,naar,schrik,lift,spook,film,bangelijk 64,0% smal,nauw 29,9% benauwd 6,1%
Val
pijn,ongeluk,trap,diep,fiets,ladder,put,grond,parachute,pijnlijk,opstaan,knie,breuk 75,1%
muis,muizen,muizenval,strik 18,5%
bos,bergen,muur 6,5%
Kop
hoofd,dier,staart,haar,paard,voetbal,lichaam,verstand,varken,dieren,slim,pijn 69,8% koffie,tas,thee,beleg 16,3%
munt,krant,pijn,koppig 13,9%
Blik
cola,conserven,eten,ijzer,metaal,erwten,blikopener,soep,drank,opener,bier,frisdank,roest,drinken,tin 70,4%
ogen,kijken,oog,glimlach 26,8% grijs 2,7%
Cel
gevangenis,tralies,misdaad,gevangene,opgesloten,gevangen,crimineel,cipier,dief,straf,koud,gevang,misdadiger,metaal, 79,4% biologie,lichaam,eicel, 14,8%
klein,klooster,nor 5,9%
Baanweg,auto,straat,verkeer,rijden 43,5% werk,job,geld,loon 56,5%
0,0%
Lastquestionhadwrongcontext,sotheherestateddominantandsubordinareidentifierwereswitched.
41
AppendixD.Consentform(inDutch)TOESTEMMINGSVERKLARING*voordeelnameaanhetwetenschappelijkonderzoek:TaalonderzoekvoorstudieKI,RadboudUniversiteitNijmegen,doorNoutvanDeijck(onderbegeleidingvanPashieraBarkhuysenenFrancGrootjen)-Ikbennaartevredenheidoverhetonderzoekgeïnformeerd.Ikhebde(schriftelijke)informatiegoedgelezen.Ikbenindegelegenheidgesteldomvragenoverhetonderzoektestellen.Mijnvragenzijnnaartevredenheidbeantwoord.Ikhebgoedoverdeelnameaanhetonderzoekkunnennadenken.Ikhebhetrechtmijntoestemmingopiedermomentweerintetrekkenzonderdatikdaarvooreenredenbehoefoptegeven.-Ikstemtoemetdeelnameaanhetonderzoek.Naam :Geboortedatum :Handtekening : Datum:------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Ondergetekendeverklaartdatdehierbovengenoemdepersoonzowelschriftelijkalsmondelingoverhetbovenvermeldeonderzoekgeïnformeerdis.Hij/zijverklaarttevensdateenvoortijdigebeëindigingvandedeelnamedoorbovengenoemdepersoon,voorhaar/hem,verdergeengevolgenheeft.Ookzalallepersoonlijke,eningevuldeinformatielopendehetexperiment,vertrouwelijkbehandeldworden,veiligwordenopgeslagen,ennietwordengedeeldmetmensenbuitenhetonderzoek.Naafrondingvanhetonderzoekzalalleverkregendatavoorhooguit5jaarbewaardworden.Naam :Functie :Handtekening :Datum:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------*Ditformulierisbestemdvooronderzoekmetpersonenvan18jaarenouderdiewilsbe-kwaamzijn.Bijditsoortonderzoekmoetdoordebetrokkenenzelftoestemmingwordenverleend.