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Review for Quiz 2
Chapter 4-6 (Modules 12-20), Pages 138-247Essentials of Understanding Psychology- Sixth Edition
PSY110 Psychology
© Richard Goldman
October 26, 2006
Consciousness
Awareness of sensations, thoughts, and feelings at the moment
Altered states of consciousness: Sleeping and Dreaming Drug use Hypnosis
Stages of Sleep 5 Distinct stages:
Stage 1 – Brief transition period – Rapid low amplitude brain waves
Stage 2 – Longest period of sleep – Slower more regular brain waves – brief periods of sleep spindles
Stage 3 – Even slower and larger brain waves Stage 4 – Slowest and largest brain waves – Only
achieved during the first early part of the night REM (Rapid Eye Movement) – Dreaming occurs,
increase in hart rate & blood pressure – accounts for ~20% of sleep time.
Complete cycle ~ 90 minutes
How much sleep is necessary
Changes with age The older you get the less you sleep We currently sleep about 3 hrs less/night
than 100 yrs ago Sleep deprivation causes a reduction in
cognitive ability & recent memory Sleep deprivation does not have a lasting
effect
Teen Sleep
Teens tend to get sleepier later (11:00pm) and wake later
Function & Meaning of Dreams
Nightmares – common – people often have about 24 per year Most dreams are about what you do Meaning of Dream
Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory – Freud Latent Content of dreams - Actual Meaning Manifest Content of dreams – overt dream Interpretations tend to be sexually oriented
Research shows that emotion & motivation parts of the brain are active during REM sleep.
Dream-for-Survival Theory – Dreaming reprocess recent events, sifts and strengthens memory
Activation-Synthesis Theory – Dreaming is triggered by random brain activity then the brain tries to make sense of it
Circadian Rhythm 1-day wake/sleep
cycle Controlled by SCN
(Suprachiasmatic Nucleus) in brain
Affected by seasons (amount of light and dark)
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the sleeping and feeding patterns of all animals.
There are clear patterns of brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
The term "circadian", coined by Franz Halberg, comes from the Latin circa, "around", and dies, "day", meaning literally "about a day.“
The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called chronobiology.
Sleep Disturbances
Insomnia - Can’t get to sleep ¼ of the population have it Some people do not really know how much they sleep
(they often sleep much more than they believe) Sleep Apnea – Heavy snoring – Stop breathing
SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) may be related CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway Pressure) devices
can help Surgery
Sleep Disturbances (Continued)
SAD – Seasonal Affective Disorder – Depression related to the lack of sunshine Short winter days Exposure to full spectrum light can help
Jet Lag Disparity between personal internal clock and actual
local time Shift Changes People are usually able adjust to different wake/sleep
cycles over time. Continual changes create continual problems.
Daydreams
Dreaming (fantasying) without sleeping Accounts for about 10% of wake time Reduces awareness of surroundings by varying
degrees
Ways To Sleep Better
Exercise Establish a fixed sleep pattern Use bed for sleep only Avoid caffeine after noon Drink warm milk at bedtime (contains
tryptophan) Avoid sleeping pills Visit a sleep disorder clinic
To establish a sleep pattern:
Go to bed at an established time If you can’t fall asleep get up do something
until you are tired Get up an established time Do not take naps during the day
Hypnosis
Trancelike stage of increased susceptibility to suggestion
Subject must be willing Will not do anything against your will 5-20% can not (or are not willing) to be
hypnotized
Some Use of Hypnosis
Psychological Treatment Pain Management Law Enforcement Athletic Improvement (concentration) Smoking/Drugs - addiction/compulsive
behavior management Enertainment
Meditation
A learned technique of focusing so sharply on something that you become unaware of outside stimulation.
Psychoactive DrugsAltered State of Consciousness
Influences a persons Emotions Perceptions Behavior
Addictive DrugsBiological or Psychological Dependency
Examples: Cocaine Alcohol Caffeine Nicotine Heroine
Why do People Take Drugs?
Pain relief or other medical reason Prescription Self medicated
Emulating Role Model Peer Pressure Curiosity Thrill Seeking Escape Pleasure Religious Practice
Stimulants Street Name Effects Withdrawal Symptoms Adverse/Overdose Reactions
Cocaine
Amphetamines Benzedrine Dexedrine
Coke SnowBlow LadySnowSpeed Speed
Increased confidence, mood elevation, sense of energy and alertness, decreased appetite, anxiety irritability, insomnia, transient drowsiness, delayed orgasm
Apathy. general fatigue. prolonged sleep, depression, disorientation, suicidal thoughts, agitated motor activity, irritability bizarre dreams
Elevated blood pressure, increase in body temperature, face picking, suspiciousness, bizarre and repetitious behavior vivid hallucinations, convulsions, possible death
Depressants
AlcoholBarbiturates
Nembutal Seconal Phenobarbital
Booze
Yellow jacketsYellowsReds
Anxiety reduction, impulsiveness. dramatic mood swings, bizarre thoughts, suicidal behavior slurred speech, disorientation, slowed mental and physical functioning. limited attention span
Weakness, restlessness, nausea and vomiting, headaches, nightmares, irritability, depression, acute anxiety hallucinations, seizures, possible death
Confusion, decreased response to pain. shallow respiration. dilated pupils, weak and rapid pulse, coma, possible death
Rohypnol RoofiesRope“Date-rape drug”
Muscle relaxation, amnesia, sleep Seizures Seizures, coma, incapacitation, inability to resist sexual assault
Narcotics
Heroin Morphine
H, hombre, junk, smack, dope, crap, horse, Drugstore dope, cube, first line, mud
Anxiety and pain reduction, apathy, difficulty in concentration, slowed speech. decreased physical activity drooling, itching, euphoria, nausea
Anxiety, vomiting, sneezing, diarrhea, lower back pain, watery eyes. runny nose, yawning, irritability, tremors, panic, chills and sweating. cramps
Depressed levels of consciousness, low blood pressure, rapid heart rate, shallow breathing, convulsions, coma, possible death
Hallucinogens
Cannabis (THC)delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
Marijuana Hashish Hash oil
Bhang. kif, ganja, dope, grass, pot, hemp, joint, weed, bone, Mary Jane reefer
Euphoria, relaxed inhibitions, increased appetite, disoriented behavior
Hyperactivity, insomnia, decreased, appetite. anxiety
Severe reactions rare but include panic, paranoia, fatigue, bizarre and dangerous behavior, decreased testosterone over long term; immune-system effects
MDMA
3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine Ecstasy Heightened sense of oneself and
insight, feelings of peace, empathy, energy
Depression, anxiety sleeplessness Increase in body temperature, memory difficulties
LSD
lysergic acid diethylamide Acid, quasey, microdot, white lightning
Heightened aesthetic responses; vision and depth distortion; heightened sensitivity to faces and gestures: magnified feelings; paranoia; panic: euphoria
Not reported Nausea and chills; increased pulse, temperature, and blood pressure; slow, deep breathing; loss of appetite; insomnia; bizarre, dangerous behavior
Classical Conditioning
Learned Response - learned by paring a neutral stimuli with a natural stimuli
Discovered by Ivan Pavlov while studying digestion
Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1946)
Classical Condition - Pavlov’s Experiment
Neutral Stimulus: Bell Rings (neutral stimulus) Gets Dog’s Attention
(unrelated to meat)
Unconditioned Stimulus Dog Shown Meat (UCS
Unconditioned Stimulus) Dog Salaivates (UCR
Unconditioned Response)
During Conditioning Neutral Stimulus:
Bell Rings Unconditioned Stimulus
Shown Meat Unconditioned Response
Dog Salivates
After Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus: Bell Rings
(Unconditional Stimulus removed) (no meat shown)
Conditioned Response Dog Salivates
Before Conditioning
Before Conditioning
Extinction
Extinction of Conditioned Response Un-learning a conditioned response The strength of a conditioned response
diminishes if not reinforced. Spontaneous Recovery
Immediate reemergence of CR Single paring of CS with CR
Stimulus Generalization
Responding similar stimuli as though it were the Conditioned Stimuli
Stimulus Discrimination
Ability to differentiate between stimuli
Operant Conditioning
Learned Response - learned by associating rewards or punishments with a activity
Thorndike's Law of Effect(Connectionism)
Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Edward Lee Thorndike8/31/ 1874 – 8/9/1949)
Reinforcers
Reinforcer – Stimulus that increases the likelihood of a particular behavior
Primary Reinforcer – Satisfies biological need (food, etc.)
Secondary Reinforcer – Associated with primary reinforcer (money, etc.)
Negative Reinforcer – Removal of a positive reinforcer, primary or secondary, (time-out, grounding, etc.)
Punishment
Stimulus the decrease the likelihood of a behavior – (spanking, jail, fines, etc.)
Produces: Avoidance activity Resentment
To be effective: Must be immediate Must be severe enough to discourage behavior
Least effective method of learning
Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-ratio – Rewards given at a fixed rate per
performance Hourly employee’s paycheck Requires strict adherence to reward schedule
Variable-ratio – Rewards given at an unknown rate Slot machine Very effective
Fixed-interval – Rewards given at fixed time Salaried employee’s paycheck Least effective
Variable-interval – Reward given at a unknown time intervals Pop quizzes More effective
Shaping Behavior
Teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximation of the desired behavior. (Successive approximations)
Behavior Modification
Formal procedure to increase or decrease a behavior:
1. Identify target behavior2. Design data recording system3. Establish baseline4. Start program (Reinforcing Behavior)5. Record Data6. Evaluate Data
Informal behavior modification is normal part of how we normally interact with others.
Latent Learning
Learning without apparent incentives Not demonstrated until needed
A passenger in a car may learning how find a particular store
Observational Learning
Learning by observing a model Imitation Much of childhood learning
Learning Styles
Relational – learning parts are related to the whole (women)
Analytical – analysis of the principals involved (men)
Memory
Process of encoding, storing, and retrieval of information: Encoding – Receiving, processing, and storing
information received from the senses Storage – Maintenance of information saved in
memory Retrieval – Locating information and bringing it to
awareness
Types of Memory
Sensory Learning – < 1 second – Raw Information Sight (Iconic) Hearing (Echoic) Touch Taste Smell Motion
Short Term Memory – 15-25 seconds Long Term Memory – Permanent
Short-term Memory
Holds encoded (processed/meaningful) information.
Can hold a maximum of seven (+/- 2) chunks of information. 7 numbers 7 letters 7 words (etc.)
Limited to 15-25 seconds
RehearsalTransferring Short-term to Long-term Memory Just repeating the information over and over
Keeps the information active in short-term memory
Often lost when the repeating stops Elaborative Rehearsal
Using logic, mnemonics, or organizing the information leads to long-term memory storage
Traditional Memory Model (Sequential)
SensoryMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
Short-termMemory
ConsciousAwareness
Retrieval
Simple Rehearsal
ElaborativeRehearsal
Working Memory Model
SensoryMemory
Encoding
Long-termMemory
Retrieval
WorkingMemory
CentralExecutive
VisualStore
VerbalStore
EpisodicBuffer
Long-term Memory Model
Long-term Memory
Declarative Memory Procedural Memory(Skills & Habits)Semantic
Memory(Facts)
EpisodicMemory(Personal
knowledge)
Associative Memory Model
Interconnected mental representations of information
Priming – Word or concept triggers recall of related information
Recalling
Difficult because of the vast amount of information stored in our brains
Retrieval Cues - Words or images that guide us through long term memory
Recall - retrieving information (fill in the blank)
Recognition - select from items presented (multiple choice)
Levels of Processing
The more material is analyzed, considered, or processed in any way – the better it will be remembered.
Which generates better, long-lasting memory? Rote memorization of a list of key terms Discussing the key terms in a study group
Flashbulb Memories
Vivid memories focused on a significant event in your life.
Constructive Processes in Memory Recollection is imperfect Our minds fill in the missing information Our personal biases and expectations affect
how we fill in the missing information. Schemas:
Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is: Interpreted Stored Recalled
Memories in the Courtroom
Eyewitnesses are prone to very high error because of fear, influences from personal schema, expectations (how questions are worded), etc.
Children’s recollections are especially susceptible to the influence or perceived expectations.
Repressed Memories:Truth or Fiction? “Repressed Memories” are often (always?)
“False Memories” (fabricated). Psychologists have been accused (and
convicted) of inadvertently prompting and encouraging the creation of “Repressed Memories.”
Repressed Memories - supported by Freud - no scientific support
Autobiographical Memory
Recalling our own past is subject to the same constructive processes and biases as other types of recall.
We tend to recall our past in ways that are consistent with our current beliefs and desires.
Major events are remembered best – unpleasant events are remembered least.
Accuracy of recall decreases with time.
Forgetting
The inability to recall may be attributed to may factors: Initial encoding Memory decay Interference Cue-dependent loss Drugs Disease Physical damage
Memory Persistence Memory decreases over time: Very rapid at first; Very slow later on
Reviewing information right after learning greatly increases persistence.
Relearning previously learned information is easier, quicker and more persistent.
Hermann Ebinghaus
Memory Decay
The loss of the physical memory trace. Though to be due to lack of use. Does not appear to be time dependent. (May just be a recall problem.)
Memory Interference
The theory that new memory interferes with the recall of older memory. Proactive Interference – Earlier learning interferes
with new learning Retroactive Interference – New learning interferes
with older learning
Biological Foundation of Memory Memory Trace: The physical (neurological) record
(map) of a memory. Consolidation:
Memory occurs with the increase of stable synapses between many neurons.
Controlled by the hippocampus Long-term Potentiation (LTP): The enhancement in
efficiency of the synapse between neurons. Multiple processing systems in the brain are
involved in learning and consolidation and LTP occurs over long periods of time throughout the brain.
Memory Dysfunctions Alzheimer's Disease
1 in 5 in 75-84 age group 50% of those 85 and over (May be related to low production of beta amyloid)
Amnesia Retrograde amnesia – Unable to remember past (rare) Anterograde amnesia – Unable to remember current
things Korsakoff’s Disease
Afflicts long-term alcoholics
Normal vs. Alzheimer’s Disease Normal forgetfulness:
Forgetting parts of an experience Forgetting where the car is parked Forgetting events from the distant past Forgetting a person's name, remembering it later
Memory loss due to Alzheimer's disease: Forgetting an entire experience Forgetting how to drive a car Forgetting recent events Forgetting ever having known a particular person Causes changes in both thinking (cognition) and behavior or
personality.