Revolutions for Women · 2019-08-22 · 2 Revolutions for Women: Increasing women’s participation in cycling for recreation and transport 3. Study design and methods The study was

Revolutions for Women:Increasing women’s participation in cycling for recreation and transport

Summary of key findings

Jan GarrardSharyn CrawfordNatalie Hakman

School of Health and Social DevelopmentDeakin University

October 2006

Supported by the Victorian Government


Acknowledgements

This project benefited greatly from theexpertise and input of members of theRevolutions for Women ReferenceGroup: Merryn Bellamy and LynnGunning (Department for VictorianCommunities, Sport and RecreationVictoria), Rosemarie Speidel (CyclingPromotion Fund), Heidi Marfurt (BicycleVictoria), and Susie Strain (MelbourneCity Council).

We also thank Ben Zipper, HeidiMarfurt, Harry Barber, and Kati Retifrom Bicycle Victoria for their assis-tance with development of the ques-tionnaire, use of the on-line surveysoftware, Survey Monkey, and contact-ing the survey participants.

Special thanks to the women whoshared with us their varied, insightfuland inspiring cycling stories. Thanksalso to the women and men who tookthe time to complete the online cyclingsurvey.

The Revolutions for Women researchproject was funded by the Departmentfor Victorian Communities, Sportand Recreation Victoria

The Deakin University team comprised:Dr Jan Garrard, Ms SharynCrawford, Ms Natalie Hakman.

Summary of key findings October 2006

Contact details Dr Jan GarrardSchool of Health and SocialDevelopmentDeakin University221 Burwood HighwayBurwood VIC 3125Tel: +61 3 9251 7263email: [email protected].

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Summary of key findings

1. Introduction

Cycling for recreation and transport hasa range of health, environmental, socialand community benefits. Cycling as aform of moderate to vigorous intensityphysical activity can contribute to themultiple health benefits associated withan active lifestyle (Hendriksen et al 2000;Wagner et al 2001). These includereduced all-cause mortality (Kujala et al1998), reduced risk of coronary heartdisease (Manson et al 1999), stroke(Ellekjaer et al 2000), respiratory disease(Rockhill et al 2001), colon cancer(Friedenreich & Orenstein 2002), breastcancer (Friedenreich & Orenstein 2002)and type 2 diabetes (Hu et al 1999).Moderate intensity exercise such ascycling assists weight management(Fogelholm & Kukkonen-Harjula 2000)and smoking cessation (Marcus et al1999), reduces levels of depression andstress, improves mood, and raises levelsof self-esteem (Sculley et al 1999).Recent research indicates that physicalactivity also improves cognitivefunctioning (van Gelder et al 2004; vanPraag et al 2005; Weuve et al 2004).

Cycling is also associated with a rangeof additional health, social andenvironmental benefits due to itscomplementary role as a form oftransport. Cycling for transport is a low-cost, convenient and energy-efficientmeans of personal mobility thatcontributes to cleaner air, lesscongested cities and more people-friendly, liveable communities (Carlos &Phillips 2000).

Cycling can also contribute to socialinclusion because it provides anaffordable and convenient form ofpersonal mobility that is accessible topeople who do not own or have accessto a motor vehicle. Transport costs(principally motor vehicle related)account for a high proportion (16%) ofhousehold expenditure on goods and

services – second only to expenditureon food and non-alcoholic beverages(17%), and similar to housing costs(16%) (ABS 2006). One in 10households in the Melbournemetropolitan area does not have amotor vehicle, rising to approximately 30per cent in some disadvantagedsuburbs of Melbourne (Department ofSustainability and Environment nd).Studies in the UK have identified that ahigh proportion of households without acar experience difficulties visiting familyand friends, and accessing employment,shops and health services (SocialExclusion Unit 2003).

Cycling is a form of physical activity andmode of transport that lends itself toparticipation by a diverse range ofpopulation groups. In countries thathave developed a culture of activetransport and recreation, cycling is aninclusive, population-wide activity thatincludes children, seniors, women,ethnically and culturally diverse groups,and disadvantaged population groups(Pucher & Dijkstra 2003; SocialExclusion Unit 2003). In countries suchas Germany, Denmark, the Netherlandsand Japan, a high proportion of childrencycle to school, women cycle asfrequently as men, and, in some cases,the majority of trips taken by seniors(65+ years) are active trips (cycling andwalking) (Pucher & Dijkstra 2003).These diverse population groupsfrequently achieve adequate levels ofphysical activity ‘incidentally’, at lowcost, without having to find the time andmoney to participate in organisedsports, exercise or fitness programs.

Although cycling features in the top fivesport and recreation activities inAustralia (Standing Committee onRecreation and Sport 2005), cyclingfrequency, particularly cycling fortransport, is low relative to internationallevels, and substantial genderdifferences occur for all forms of cycling(recreation, transport and sport).Australian women’s rates of cycling fortransport are about one-third of the malerate, and for recreation the female rate isapproximately half that of men(VicRoads nd; Standing Committee onRecreation and Sport 2005). Thesegender differences do not occur in a

number of western European and Asiancountries, where women’s rates ofcycling are often higher than those ofmen. These international data challengethe assumption that cycling is aninherently gendered activity, suggestinginstead that environmental, social andcultural factors are likely to play animportant role in women’s participationin cycling.

In light of the health, social, communityand environmental benefits of cycling,and data indicating no similar genderdifferences among several European andAsian populations, the gender differencein cycling participation in Australiawarrants investigation. This study wasestablished to investigate genderdifferences in cycling, and identifysuccessful interventions for promotingcycling for women.

2. Study objectives

The study objectives were to:

1 Identify the motivations, supports andconstraints associated with women’sparticipation in cycling.

2 Conduct case studies of a range ofprograms and initiatives that havebeen developed and implemented topromote women’s participation incycling, to identify critical successfactors.

3 Develop recommendations forstrategies and programs to increasewomen's participation in cycling.

4 Develop and disseminate guidelinesfor cycling programs and initiativesthat address women’s needs.

This report presents the researchfindings related to objectives 1 to 3.


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3. Study design and methods

The study was conducted in twophases: (i) case studies of women’scycling programs; and (ii) an onlinesurvey of female and male cyclists.

3.1 Case studiesCase studies of six community-basedinitiatives aimed at increasing women’sparticipation in cycling were conducted,based on program observation (4programs), individual semi-structured,qualitative interviews with programcoordinators (8), and focus groupdiscussions with program participants (6focus groups, 50 women).

3.2 Online surveyAn online survey of female and malecyclists was conducted in partnershipwith Bicycle Victoria (BV). A randomsample of 10,000 members andcontacts of Bicycle Victoria aged 18years or over received an emailmessage on 23rd November 2005inviting them to participate in the survey.2403 respondents submitted acompleted survey by 22nd December2005, the majority in the first week thesurvey was open. The response rate(24% crude response rate; 28%adjusted for estimated levels of non-working, dormant and infrequentlyaccessed email addresses) was relativelylow, though common for online surveys.

Despite low response rates, onlinesurveys can result in representativesamples of respondents (Bethell et al2004; Koch and Emrey 2001).Nevertheless, caution needs to be usedin generalising the findings to allindividuals on the Bicycle Victoriadatabase of members and contacts (thesampling frame for the survey). It is alsoimportant to bear in mind thatindividuals on the Bicycle Victoriadatabase are not representative of allcyclists in Victoria. This study limitationwas offset by the advantages ofobtaining detailed information from arelatively large number of female andmale cyclists quickly and at low cost.

This enabled the gender comparisonsthat were the focus of the study to beconducted.

The online survey included questionsabout: frequency and duration of cyclingfor recreation and transport; reasons forcommencing and continuing cycling;constraints on cycling; experiences ofintentional harassment from motorvehicle occupants; participation incycling programs and events; andoverall levels of physical activity.Response categories for the closed-ended questions asking aboutmotivations, supports and constraintson cycling were developed from keythemes and issues derived from theearlier qualitative phase of the study.

3.3 Data analysisQualitative data were analysed descriptivelybased on a combination of both pre-determined and emergent themes.

Quantitative data were imported intoSPSS for Windows (version 12.0.1) andanalysed using descriptive statistics,Pearson’s chi-square tests fordifferences in proportions, independentt-tests for differences in means, andlogistic regression for identifyingvariables associated with intentionalharassment from motor vehicleoccupants. Unless otherwise stated,reported differences are significant at the5 per cent significance level.

4. Key findings –qualitativecomponent (case studies)

These findings are based on interviewsand focus group discussions with femalecyclists and coordinators of women’scycling programs.

4.1 Participantcharacteristics

Program and study participants rangedin age from 20 to 80 years and included

students, full-time parents, part-time andfull-time employees, and retirees.Participants lived in Melbourne,Canberra and the regional city ofGeelong, and most were novice cyclistsor returning to cycling after havingcycled as a child. The majority cycledfor recreation, but some cycled fortransport, and others competed intriathlons and bicycle races.

4.2 Reasons forcommencing andcontinuing cycling

When discussing reasons forcommencing or returning to cycling,women frequently mentioned health andfitness; relaxation and stress reduction;preparing for cycling events or activities(often seen as a new personal goal orchallenge); and the opportunity to learnnew skills. Social factors were alsoimportant and included being active withother family members (partners,children); the desire to be an active rolemodel for their children; andencouragement from family, friends, orworkmates.

Key factors for continuing cyclingincluded a sense of fun, independenceand enjoyment associated with cyclingas a form of mobility; enjoyment oftraining sessions and cycling events –including the social interactions; beingable to incorporate activity into theirbusy lives; setting and achieving cycling goals; learning new skills in asafe and supportive environment;increased self-confidence (cycling-specific, but also in life in general); andcontact with ‘realistic’ role models(rather than elite cyclists).

4.3 Constraints on cyclingConstraints on cycling included personaland socio-environmental factors.

Key personal factors mentioned bywomen were lack of confidence andcycling skills (especially cycling in trafficand in groups), and lack of fitness andassociated concerns about keeping up,‘getting dropped’ and slowing othersdown. Novice women reported concernsabout the need to simultaneously master


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a number of new skills, includingoperating the bicycle while at the sametime negotiating road and path hazardsin an environment (other traffic) that wasperceived as hazardous. Manoeuvressuch as merging with traffic to do a righthand turn, and negotiating roundaboutswith other traffic were challenging fornovice cyclists.

Key socio-environmental constraints oncycling described by women includedadverse traffic conditions (risksassociated with sharing the road withmotor vehicles); driver aggression andassault; end of trip facilities and bikesecurity (for women who cycle fortransport); cultural norms aboutappropriate cycling clothing andappearance; dress and appearancecodes at work and meetings (whenarriving by bicycle); and getting the rightadvice in a ‘blokey’ bicycle retailenvironment (technical language, limitedchoices for women’s bicycles andclothing).

4.4 Supports for cyclingWhen discussing supports for cycling,women frequently mentioned supportiveprograms and people, cycling groups orclubs, cycling events, and cyclingconditions.

Women’s cycling programs wereimportant for novice women whowanted to achieve new cycling goalsand challenges, and acquire new skills,but to do so within a safe, friendly andsupportive environment. Thecharacteristics of successful women’scycling programs are described below in Sections 4.5 and 4.6.

Supportive people included cyclingprogram coordinators (usually, but notalways women) who conductedprograms based on participants’ needsand levels of experience; the coaches,mentors and role models who assistedthem to do ‘risky’ things safely (eg rideon-road) and encouraged them toattempt new cycling challenges (eg alonger cycling event); verbal andpractical support from partners, family,friends and work colleagues; ‘realistic’role models rather than elite cyclists;and other women who, by cycling to

work, contribute to commuter cyclingbecoming more normative behaviour.

Women expressed a number ofpreferences regarding cycling groups orclubs. Many women enjoyed the socialinteraction of cycling with a group, andreported feeling safer riding in a group.Participating in rides (social and training)with other women helped them do thingsthey would not do on their own (eg ridingon the road). Women are more likely tojoin groups that have a similar standardof cycling as their own, and/or providesupport for less experiencednewcomers. Because women who joincycling groups (particularly the‘fitness/training’ oriented groups) oftenimprove rapidly, integrating newcomers is a challenge. The more successfulgroups are those that are able tomaintain the interest and involvement ofexisting members, while catering for theneeds of less experienced cyclists (seeSections 4.5 and 4.6 below). Thecontinuity of the sessions (ie knowingthat someone will be there), togetherwith social activities during, after or inaddition to rides were also important forsustaining participation.

Supportive cycling conditions includedmodern, well-equipped bicycles,facilities at work (eg showers, securebicycle storage); and safe cycling routes– women preferred off-road paths bothfor recreation and transport. Safe andpleasant environments for cycling wereparticularly important for recreationalcyclists, especially for older women.These women generally preferred off-road paths or quiet roads, andachievable distances and cycling pace.Women felt more comfortable aboutcycling in traffic when they gained skillsand experience, and did it with othermore experienced cyclists who acted as role models.

Women often commenced cycling toparticipate in a cycling event or tour, orto ride to work. The women in thisstudy preferred events that emphasisedand rewarded participation among allages and abilities, rather thancompetition. Female-only events (egtriathlons and rides) were popularamong novice cyclists, not just becauseonly women were participating, but also

because the event could be shaped tomeet women’s needs and preferences(eg time, location, distance, andrecognition of participation rather than‘winning’).

4.5 Characteristics of successful community-basedcycling programs for women – beginningcyclists

Study participants spoke very positivelyabout the programs they hadparticipated in. Positive featuresincluded a supportive, friendly andpatient learning environment thatenabled women to learn at their ownpace; achieving a balance of basictheory and hands-on practice; gettingthe ‘technical talk’ level right;accessibility in terms of time, place andcost; incorporating individual goal-setting and practical planning; confidentleadership; and positive reinforcementfor their efforts. Provision of on-goingactivities such as training sessions,social rides and cycling events matchedto women’s cycling abilities wereimportant for sustaining cycling.Women suggested that ‘one-off’programs should also provide localcommunity links to sustain cycling(clubs, groups, cycling events, female-friendly bike shops).

4.6 Characteristics of successful community-basedcycling programs for women – moreexperienced cyclists

More experienced cyclists soughtprograms and resources that providedmore specialised skills; quality,affordable coaching for improvedperformance; access to on-goingcycling groups at the right level; adviceon bicycle technology and equipment;support to achieve new goals andchallenges; and effective methods ofcommunication about events andtraining sessions. The social aspects of


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programs, groups and events were alsoimportant for the more experiencedcyclists.

5. Key findings –quantitativecomponent(online survey)

5.1 The study sampleSurvey respondents (N = 2403) were32.6% female and 67.4% male, had amean age of 43 years, and lived mainlyin Victoria (87.1%). Respondents had asimilar age distribution and mean age(43 years) as the sampling frame (44years), but a lower proportion of females(32.6%, 39.3% respectively).

The majority of respondents (82.5%)were experienced cyclists (cycling formore than two years). More females(23.4%) than males (14.5%) wereinexperienced cyclists. Respondentshad cycled for a mean of 11.2 years,and a median of 8 years, and nearly allrespondents (98.4%) had cycled in theprevious 12 months.

5.2 Cycling purpose andfrequency

Most respondents cycled for recreation(91%), followed by transport (58%) andcompetition (13%). The only significantgender difference was that females(10.2%) were less likely than males(14.9%) to cycle for competition.Eighty-one percent of respondentscycled at least once a week, includingnearly one in four respondents whocycled every day. Males (27.2%) weremore likely than females (21.2%) tocycle every day, or at least once a week(58.0%, 51.8% respectively).

5.2.1 Cycling for transportRespondents who had cycled fortransport in the previous week (n =1249) cycled an average of 5.3 times,taking an average of 45 minutes per trip.Based on an average speed of 15-20

km/hr, average trip lengths were 11.3-15.1 km. There were no significantgender or cycling experience differencesin trip frequency or duration.

This relatively long trip distance(compared with international data) isconsistent with the most common tripbeing journey to work (rather thanshorter local trips), and the journey towork serving as a form of exercise orfitness training (see Section 5.3).

Respondents cycle for transportprincipally on roads with no bicyclefacilities (83.2% of females, and 86.9%of males). On-road bike lanes (77.7%females, 71.5% males) and off-roadpaths (64.6% females, 64.4% males)were used by progressively smallernumbers of respondents. This patternof use of different types of cyclingfacilities is influenced by availabilityrather than choice. Few respondents(6% females, 12% males) preferred tocycle for transport on roads with nobicycle facilities. Consequently, themost commonly used facilities (roadswith no bicycle facilities) were the leastpreferred option.

The large use/preference mismatchassociated with cycling on roads with nobicycle facilities was less marked for on-road bike lanes and off-road paths.Females were more likely to use on-roadbike lanes than off-road paths, butshowed similar preferences for thesetwo types of bicycle facility. Males werealso more likely to use on-road bikelanes than off-road paths, but, unlikefemales, they expressed a greaterpreference for on-road lanes. Thesefindings, of females generally preferringgreater separation from motor vehicletraffic than males, are consistent withother studies, and are likely to reflectfemales’ greater aversion to risk-takingbehaviours in general (Byrnes 1999).

The principal trip destination forrespondents who cycled for transportwas ‘work’ (70%), followed by‘recreation venue’ (14.3%) and ‘shops’(7.7%). This pattern of utilitarian cycling(primarily fairly long distances to work)differs from other studies (includinginternational studies), suggesting thatthis cycling population (Bicycle Victoria

members and contacts) uses thejourney to work principally for health andfitness ‘training’. This is consistent withthe principal reason for cycling being‘health and fitness’ (see Section 5.3).

5.2.2 Cycling for recreationRespondents who had cycled forrecreation in the previous week (n =1530) cycled an average of 2.5 times,and the average trip took 1 hour 46minutes. Males and females cycled asimilar number of times, but males spentlonger cycling for recreation thanfemales (4.6 hours, 3.9 hoursrespectively).

Respondents cycled for recreationprincipally on roads with no bicyclefacilities (67.6% of females, and 74.4%of males). Off-road paths (59.9%females, 53.4% males) and on-road bikelanes (50.1% females, 47.6% males)were used by smaller numbers ofrespondents. As was the case forcycling for transport, this pattern of useof different types of cycling facilities isinfluenced by availability rather thanchoice. Few respondents (15%females, 26% males) preferred to cyclefor recreation on roads with no bicyclefacilities.

Once again, the most commonly usedfacilities (roads with no bicycle facilities)were the least preferred option.Nevertheless, relatively more males thanfemales cycled for recreation on theroad (with no bike lanes) and preferredto do so. Conversely, females weremore likely than males to cycle forrecreation on off-road paths and toprefer off-road paths. Female and malepatterns of use and preferences for on-road bicycle lanes were similar.

These findings suggest somewhatdifferent patterns of recreational cyclingamong females and males, with femalespreferring more ‘leisure’ orientedrecreational cycling on off-road paths,and men preferring more ‘fitness’oriented cycling on the roads.

When cycling to and from respondents’trip destination (principally work) istreated as one trip, there were nosignificant differences in either the


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number or duration of weekly recreationcompared with transport trips.

Respondents were a very activepopulation group, spending an average of 6.1 hours cycling for transport and/orrecreation in the previous week (n = 1934).

5.3 Reasons forcommencing andcontinuing cycling

Respondents were asked to rate theimportance of 21 factors for (i)commencing and (ii) continuing cyclingon a four-point scale: not important at all(0); slightly important (1); important (2);very important (3).

The most important reasons forcommencing cycling were ‘health andfitness’ (mean score 2.56), ‘buildingphysical activity into a busy lifestyle’(2.24), ‘fun and enjoyment’ (2.24),‘getting outside in the fresh air’ (2.04)and ‘relaxation and/or stress reduction’(1.99). In general, personal health,fitness and wellbeing factors wereimportant reasons for both males andfemales to commence cycling. Social,family, environmental and economicfactors were more important for womenthan men, while the low impact nature ofcycling, and bicycle racing were moreimportant for men than women.

The five factors considered byrespondents to be the most importantreasons for continuing to cycle, werethe same as those considered mostimportant for commencing cycling,mostly in the same order. The meanimportance score for all five factorsincreased for ‘continuing’ comparedwith ‘commencing’ cycling, but‘relaxation/stress reduction’ had thegreatest proportional increase (14.6%)among these five factors. Thesefindings suggest that, for this sample,motivating factors for cycling arereinforced with cycling experience.

Overall, 17 out of 21 factors showed anincrease in mean importance, with thegreatest proportional increase being for‘environmental concerns’ (23.9%). Thissuggests that environmental concernsmay become more important afterexposure to a ‘cycling culture’.

Cycling is often promoted as a cheapform of transport, but respondents ratedcycling as a convenient form oftransport as more important for bothcommencing and continuing cyclingthan cycling as a cheap form oftransport. This may change as the priceof petrol continues to increase.

5.4 Constraints on cyclingThe five most important constraints oncycling were predominantly socio-environmental constraints: lack of time(mean score 1.59 1 ); concerns aboutcycling in traffic (1.55); aggression frommotorists (1.29); bad weather (1.23);and inhaling car fumes (1.12). Three ofthese five most important constraints oncycling can be addressed throughimproved cycling infrastructure and/orimproved interactions between cyclistsand motorists.

Fifteen other listed constraints all hadmean scores less than 0.5 (ie between‘no constraint’ and ‘minor constraint’).

Females showed a similar overall patternof constraints as males, but there weresome significant differences. ‘Concernsabout cycling in traffic’, ‘aggression frommotorists’, ‘inhaling car fumes whencycling on the road’, ‘lack of confidencein bicycle maintenance’, ‘lack ofconfidence in cycling ability’ and ‘lack ofconfidence in cycling skills’ were ratedas significantly more importantconstraints by females than males.

Several other constraints weresignificantly more important for femalesthan males (eg lack of knowledge oflocal cycling routes, feeling self-conscious in cycling clothing, difficulty‘keeping up’ on rides), even though,overall, they were not perceived to bemajor constraints. Having to wear abicycle helmet was the least importantconstraint for both females and males,and there was no gender difference.

5.5 Harassment from motorvehicle occupants

Consistent findings from this and otherstudies indicate that road safetyconcerns and driver behaviour are majorconstraints on cycling for women. Twothirds of respondents had experiencedintentional harassment from motorists orpassengers in the previous year. Themost frequent forms of harassment(from seven response categoriesprovided) were: deliberately driving tooclose, causing fear/anxiety; shoutingabuse; sounding the horn in anaggressive manner; obscene gestures;and blocking your path.

While females reported harassment frommotorists as a significantly moreimportant constraint on cycling thanmales (see Section 5.4), more males(70.5%) than females (56.6%) actuallyreported experiencing intentionalharassment in the previous year. Thegender difference in experience ofharassment remained after adjustmentfor time spent cycling, age, cyclingexperience, and cycling purpose(transport and/or recreation). Youngercyclists and those who had been cyclingfor more than two years were also morelikely to report intentional harassmentfrom motorists in the previous year.

5.6 Participation in cyclingprograms and events

Nearly one in ten respondents reportedhaving participated in a cycling programin the previous 12 months, with femalesmore likely to have done so than males(12.1%, 6.9% respectively), andinexperienced cyclists more likely thanexperienced cyclists (14.0%, 7.5%).Programs predominantly focused onbicycle maintenance (90 respondents),cycling skills (37 respondents) andtraining for a bicycle event (17respondents).

Participation in cycling events was moreprevalent than participation in cyclingprograms. More than half ofrespondents (57%) had participated in acycling event in the previous 12 months,with inexperienced cyclists (66%) more

1 No constraint (0); minor constraint (1); moderate constraint (2); major constraint (3)


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likely to have done so than experiencedcyclists (54.5%). There was a tendencyfor more males to have participated in acycling event, but the difference wasmarginally non-significant. Forrespondents who had participated in acycling event, the average number ofevents was 2.8 events over the previous12 months. Males (3.0 events)participated in significantly more cyclingevents than females (2.3 events) overthis period. Experienced cyclists (3.0events) participated in a greater numberof events than inexperienced cyclists(1.7 events).

5.7 Physical activityparticipation

Participants’ physical activity levels weremeasured using the eight core questionsin the Active Australia Survey instrument(Australian Institute of Health andWelfare (AIHW) 2003).

Cyclists in this study are a veryphysically active population group.78.7% of men and 79.1% of womenachieve sufficient time (≥150 minutes ofmoderate intensity physical activity perweek) and sessions (≥5 per week) ofactivity to achieve a health benefit(defined as ‘adequately active’). Incomparison, for Australians aged 18-75years, approximately 47% of men and43% of women are adequately active(Armstrong et al 2000). Respondents inthis study had the same mean age asrespondents in the 1999 Active AustraliaSurvey (43 years) (Armstrong et al2000).

In addition, the proportion of adequatelyactive respondents did not decline withage as it does for the Australianpopulation. The proportion ofadequately active respondents is similaracross all age groups, while in theAustralian population, the proportiondeclines from 58% of 18-29 year-olds toan average of 42% for 30-75 year-olds.

Respondents also had high levels ofvigorous physical activity 2, which areassociated with additional healthbenefits. Males and females participatedin 5.1 and 4.1 hours respectively ofvigorous physical activity per week.Male respondents spent, on average, 3.8

more hours per week doing vigorousphysical activity than the average adultAustralian male, and female participantsan additional 3.3 hours. Participation invigorous physical activity did not declinesignificantly with age.

Consistent with these high levels ofphysical activity, approximately three-quarters of respondents reportedincreased levels of physical activity sincecommencing cycling. This is alsoconsistent with ‘health and fitness’ beingthe most important reason for bothcommencing and maintaining cycling.

6. Conclusions

This study is the most comprehensiveinvestigation of gender differences incycling in Australia, and possibly in theworld. Qualitative interviews withparticipants and coordinators ofwomen’s cycling programs wereconducted, together with observationsof a small number of programs. Thesequalitative data provided insights intofemales’ motivations, supports andconstraints for cycling, and thecharacteristics of successful community-based cycling programs for women.These determinants of cycling were thenexamined quantitatively through anonline survey of female (n = 696) andmale (n = 1441) cyclists.

Survey findings indicated that femalesand males have similar overall patternsof motivations, supports and constraintson cycling. Significant differences wereidentified, but these did not result in amarkedly different pattern of female andmale determinants of cycling.

This finding was unexpected given thelarge gender differences in cycling inAustralia. It suggests that promotingcycling for women will be maximised bystrategies directed at the wholepopulation, as well as interventionsspecifically targeting women. Additionalevidence for the value of a population-wide approach for promoting cycling forwomen comes from cross-countrycomparisons of gender differences incycling. Countries with high rates ofcycling for transport and recreation havefew gender differences in cycling, while

countries such as Australia, which haverelatively low rates of cycling (particularlyfor transport), have large genderdifferences in cycling (Garrard 2003).Female participation in cycling appearsto be an indicator of a cycling friendlyculture and environment, with eachcontributing to the other interactively.

Population-wide strategies thatpotentially reach the whole population,including women, include:

• creating cycling-friendly environmentsand policies (eg bicycle paths andlanes, traffic calming, incorporatinggreater cycling-awareness amongmotorists, for example, throughmotor vehicle licence-testing)

• enforcement of road safety measures(eg speeding and distracted driving)

• mass-media promotion, both ofcycling and also of mutual respectbetween cyclists and motorists.

These population-wide strategiesaddress three of the five most importantconstraints on cycling for both femalesand males (concerns about cycling intraffic, aggression from motorists, andinhaling car fumes). These three factorswere also significantly more importantfor females than males.

The finding that women are moreconcerned about harassment frommotorists, but men experience moreharassment, suggests that women areparticularly sensitive to driver behaviourthat is perceived to be dangerous orthreatening. This finding might help toexplain at least some of the genderdifferences in cycling cross-nationally, asthere is some evidence that aggressivedriving behaviour is more prevalent inAustralia than in 15 Member States ofthe European Union (EOS Gallup Europe2003), several of which have high ratesof cycling by both men and women.Strategies (such as those outlinedabove) that promote mutual tolerance,patience and respect between cyclistsand motorists will help address thisimportant constraint on cycling,particularly for women.

While similar overall patterns ofmotivations, supports and constraints

2 In the Active Australia Survey questionnaire, cycling is included as an example of vigorous physical activity (AIHW 2003)


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on cycling for females and malessuggest the value of population-wideapproaches for promoting cycling forwomen, some important genderdifferences at the more ‘micro’ level canassist in planning complementarytargeted interventions for women.

Target interventions for womenshould take into account the followingfactors.

In terms of motivating women tocommence and continue cycling,messages should focus on: health andfitness; building physical activity into abusy lifestyle; fun and enjoyment; gettingoutside in the fresh air; andrelaxation/stress reduction. Of lessimportance overall, but relatively moreimportant for women than men, are:being active with families, partners orchildren; environmental benefits; a newchallenge; and encouragement fromfamily and friends.

Cycling events, programs andcampaigns were less importantmotivations for women’s cycling than thefactors outlined above, suggesting thegreater overall importance of the moreinformal individual, family, social andcommunity influences and activities.Nevertheless, cycling programs appearto be important for a sub-set of novicefemale cyclists. Participants in thewomen’s cycling programs in this studyspoke very positively of programs thataddressed cycling skills (includingoperating a bicycle and cycling in traffic);

bicycle selection, setup andmaintenance; and knowledge of localcycling routes. These program elementsaddressed constraints which, while notmajor constraints for women overall,were substantially more importantconstraints for women than men.

Cycling events, such as those organisedby Bicycle Victoria, were more importantmotivations for women’s cycling thancycling programs, probably reflectingtheir greater number and size, andtherefore population reach. Given thatmore than half of survey respondentshad participated in a cycling event in theprevious 12 months, an interactionbetween the key motivations for cycling(health and fitness, fun and enjoyment,getting outside in the fresh air, andrelaxation/stress reduction) andparticipation in cycling events is likely.

Finally, promoting cycling for recreationand transport represents a goodinvestment in individual and communityhealth and wellbeing for women andmen. Participants in this study (bothfemales and males) are a very activepopulation group. They are nearly twiceas likely to be adequately active as theadult Australian population, and theyalso participate in substantially higherlevels of vigorous physical activity whichis associated with additional healthbenefits. Unlike the Australianpopulation, their physical activity ratesdid not decline with age. While thesefindings cannot be generalised to allcyclists in Victoria, they suggest that

cycling is a form of physical activity thatlends itself to frequent participation, forrelatively long periods of time, across thelifespan.

The opportunity to combine physicalactivity with transport is a particularlyappealing combination for busy peoplewho have difficulty finding time forphysical activity, and more than half ofthe participants in this study cycle fortransport. This brings additional socialbenefits in the form of increased socialinclusion through more equitable accessto personal mobility, cleaner air, lesscongested cities and more people-friendly, liveable communities (Carlos &Phillips 2000).

If a greater proportion of Australianwomen are to obtain the individualhealth and wellbeing benefits of cycling,as well as contributing to the additionalenvironmental, social and communitybenefits associated with a shift towardscycling as a sustainable and active formof transport, both population-wideinterventions and programs, events, andgroups specifically targeting women arerequired. The findings from thislandmark study of gender differences incycling in Victoria will be used toadvocate for population-wideinterventions to create supportivephysical, social and culturalenvironments for female (and male)cycling, and to develop guidelines forcommunity-based programs andactivities aimed at promoting cycling for women.


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