RNAV AREA NAVIGATION - Jet Flight and Instructor Training · 8.1.2 Responsibility of the ATC ... below should be addressed in the Training Manual. Subject • Theory of RNAV,

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RNAV AREA NAVIGATION

CONTENTS: 1. RNAV TRAINING ...................................................................................................................... 3 2. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 4 3. DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................................. 4 4. RNAV............................................................................................................................................ 5 4.1 CONVENTIONAL NAVIGATION ....................................................................................................... 5 4.2 AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) ......................................................................................................... 5 4.2.1 Basic RNAV (B-RNAV) .................................................................................................................. 6 4.2.2 Precision RNAV (P-RNAV): .......................................................................................................... 8 5. AIRCRAFT CAPABILITIES..................................................................................................... 9 5.1 AIRCRAFT AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) DATABASES....................................................... 9 5.2 BASIC RNAV (B-RNAV) AIRCRAFT CAPABILITY ............................................................... 9 5.2.1 Limitations in TMA ........................................................................................................................ 9 5.3 PRECISION RNAV (P-RNAV) AIRCRAFT CAPABILITY ....................................................... 9 5.4 MINIMUM FUNCTIONS FOR B-RNAV AND P-RNAV................................................................... 10 5.5 MEL ............................................................................................................................................. 10 6. TMA SIDS / STARS .................................................................................................................. 11 6.1 CONVENTIONAL' .......................................................................................................................... 11 6.1.1 Advantages of 'conventional' over RNAV SIDs/STARs: .............................................................. 11 6.1.2 Limitations of 'conventional' over RNAV SIDs/STARs:............................................................... 11 6.2 RNAV .......................................................................................................................................... 11 6.2.1 Advantages of RNAV over 'conventional' SIDs/STARs................................................................ 11 6.2.2 Limitations of RNAV over 'conventional' SIDs/STARs:............................................................... 11 6.3 NAMING OF RNAV SIDS/STARS............................................................................................. 11 6.4 METHODS USED TO TERMINATE STARS...................................................................................... 12 6.4.1 Closed' STARs Procedures .......................................................................................................... 12 6.4.2 'Open' STARs Procedures ............................................................................................................ 12 6.4.3 Path Terminators ......................................................................................................................... 12 7. WAYPOINTS............................................................................................................................. 13 7.1 RNAV WAYPOINT NAMING ..................................................................................................... 13 7.1.1 P-RNAV Approach’s Waypoints Naming .................................................................................... 13 7.2 TYPES OF WAYPOINT ............................................................................................................. 13 7.2.1 Fly-by: ................................................................................................................................ 13 7.2.2 Fly-over: ............................................................................................................................. 14 7.3 FLY-BY TURNS: ........................................................................................................................ 15 7.3.1 FACTORS DETERMINING TURN ANTICIPATION.................................................................. 15 7.3.2 TYPE OF AIRCRAFT & RNAV SYSTEM MANUFACTURER.................................................... 15 8. TMA OPERATION................................................................................................................... 16 8.1 RESPONSIBILITIES FOR TERRAIN CLEARANCE............................................................... 16 8.1.1 Responsibility of the Pilot ............................................................................................................ 16 8.1.2 Responsibility of the ATC ............................................................................................................ 16 8.1.3 P-RNAV Terrain Clearance Minimum Requirement ................................................................... 16 8.2 CATEGORIES OF LEVEL INFORMATION ............................................................................ 17 8.2.1 Minimum Flight Altitudes (MFAs)............................................................................................... 17 8.2.2 Cleared Levels ............................................................................................................................. 17 8.2.3 Level Restrictions......................................................................................................................... 17 8.3 WAYPOINT SPEED RESTRICTIONS ...................................................................................... 17 8.4 'DIRECT TO' INSTRUCTIONS IN THE TMA ............................................................................ 18

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9. OPERATING PROCEDURES................................................................................................. 18 10. P-RNAV ...................................................................................................................................... 19 10.1 GENERAL INFORMATION.............................................................................................................. 19 10.1.1 Background.................................................................................................................................. 19 10.1.2 Differences between B-RNAV and P-RNAV ................................................................................ 19 10.1.3 Mandate for P-RNAV................................................................................................................... 19 10.1.4 RNP-RNAV................................................................................................................................... 19 10.1.5 Aircraft equipment ....................................................................................................................... 19 10.1.6 Benefits of the P-RNAV................................................................................................................ 20 10.1.7 Operators’ courses of action ....................................................................................................... 20 10.1.8 Approval....................................................................................................................................... 20 10.1.9 Conventional/RNAV MIX............................................................................................................. 21 10.2 RADIOTELEPHONY (RTF) PHRASEOLOGY FOR AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) ........... 21 10.3 FLIGHT OPS AND CREW INFORMATION....................................................................................... 22 10.3.1 Pre-Flight Planning..................................................................................................................... 22 10.3.1.1 Crew Qualification..........................................................................................................................................................................................22 10.3.1.2 Flight Planning.................................................................................................................................................................................................22 10.3.1.3 Notams ................................................................................................................................................................................................................22 10.3.1.4 Minimum Equipment List (MEL).............................................................................................................................................................22 10.3.1.5 Database .............................................................................................................................................................................................................22 10.3.2 Before Start .................................................................................................................................. 23 10.3.2.1 System Initialization .....................................................................................................................................................................................23 10.3.2.2 Check Of the Active Flight Plan.................................................................................................................................................................23 10.3.2.3 Route Modifications ......................................................................................................................................................................................23 10.3.3 Takeoff ......................................................................................................................................... 23 10.3.3.1 Prior to Take Off..............................................................................................................................................................................................23 10.3.3.2 Line Up ................................................................................................................................................................................................................23 10.3.4 Departure..................................................................................................................................... 23 10.3.4.1 Flight Plan Monitoring .................................................................................................................................................................................23 10.3.4.2 Track Keeping Monitoring..........................................................................................................................................................................23 10.3.5 Descent and Arrival ..................................................................................................................... 24 10.3.5.1 Check of the Active Flight Plan .................................................................................................................................................................24 10.3.5.2 System Accuracy Check ...............................................................................................................................................................................24 10.3.5.3 Route Modifications ......................................................................................................................................................................................24 10.3.5.4 Track Keeping Monitoring..........................................................................................................................................................................24 10.3.6 Contingency Procedures.............................................................................................................. 25 10.3.7 Incident Reporting ....................................................................................................................... 25 11. VERTICAL NAVIGATION (VNAV)...................................................................................... 26 12. GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS (GNSS) ............................................... 27 12.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 27 12.2 SATELLITE-BASED NAVIGATION SYSTEMS..................................................................... 27 12.2.1 Global Positioning System (GPS)................................................................................................ 27 12.2.1.1 GPS System segmentation consists of: ..................................................................................................................................................28 12.2.1.2 GPS Operation..................................................................................................................................................................................................33 12.2.1.3 Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)..........................................................................................................................................34 12.2.1.4 GPS signal errors ............................................................................................................................................................................................36 12.2.2 GLONASS .................................................................................................................................... 37 12.2.3 Galileo ......................................................................................................................................... 38

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1. RNAV TRAINING All flight crews must receive appropriate training, briefings and guidance material in the operation of RNAV-based departure and arrival procedures. This should cover the normal and contingency procedures wherever practicable, standard training events (simulator checks / proficiency checks) should include departures and arrivals using the RNAV-based procedures. The operator must ensure that the Training Manual contains appropriate material to support P-RNAV operations. As a minimum, the items listed in Table below should be addressed in the Training Manual.

Subject • Theory of RNAV, including the differences between B-RNAV, P-RNAV and RNP-RNAV

• Limitations of RNAV

Charting, database and avionics issues including: • Waypoint naming concepts. • RNAV Path terminator concepts and especially:

o Use of the ‘Closed procedures’ path terminator. o Use of the ‘Open procedures’ path terminator.

• Fly-by and fly-over waypoints.

Use of the RNAV equipment including, where appropriate: • Retrieving a procedure from the database. • Verification and sensor management. • Tactically modifying the flight plan. • Addressing discontinuities. • Entering associated data such as:

o Wind. o Altitude/Speed constraints. o Vertical Profile/Vertical Speed.

• Flying the procedure. • Use of Lateral Navigation Mode and associated lateral control techniques. • Use of Vertical Navigation Mode and associated vertical control techniques. • Use of automatic pilot, flight director and auto-throttle at different stages of the procedure.

• RT phraseology for RNAV

• The implications for RNAV operations of system malfunctions which are not RNAV related (E.g. hydraulic failure or engine failure).

RNAV Initial, Conversion and recreant training, consists of the following: • Self steady programme through Gain Jet web site www.pilotext.com which consist of :

o RNAV Study Guide in text format o CBT (Computer biased trainer) o DVD produced by Euro control o RNAV test which consist of 20 questions with a minimum pass mark of 75%.

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2. INTRODUCTION The navigation procedures are normally based on the availability of ground navigation aids, e.g. VOR, DME, NDB, ILS and MLS as well as corresponding airborne navigation systems which allow Navaid point to Navaid point navigation. This necessitated large safety margins in aircraft separation and the airspace has become saturated. The air navigation structure for existing ATS Routes, SID's, STAR'S, etc., did not take account of availability of modern self-contained navigation systems with enhanced performance and accuracy. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has recognized the need to benefit from RNAV System technology to increase airspace capacity and achieve fuel savings, direct / parallel tracks, etc. Routes can be planned not necessarily predicated upon point source navaids. For this purpose a certain level of navigation accuracy, availability and integrity should be ensured. This navigation element is called "REQUIRED NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE" (RNP) which indicates the navigation system required to meet the Area Navigation criteria instead of particular equipment. 3. DEFINITIONS • Area navigation (RNAV): A method of navigation which permits aircraft operation on any desired flight path. • RNP (Required Navigation Performance)

A statement of navigation performance accuracy necessary for operation within a defined airspace. A containment value expressed as a distance in nautical miles from the intended position within which flights would be for at least 95 % of the total flight time.

• ANP (Actual Navigation Performance) The FMC calculated certainty of airplane’s position in NM. There is a 95% probability that the airplane is within the displayed ANP

• RNP 5 (also called BRNAV - Basic Area Navigation) Represents a navigation accuracy of ± 5 NM i.e. aircraft will remain within 5 NM corridor from the route centerline for at least 95% of the flight time. This level is currently achieved by aircraft (without RNAV capability) defined by VOR, or VOR/DME located less than 100 NM apart.

• RNP 1 (also called PRNAV - Precision Area Navigation) Represents a navigation accuracy of ± 1NM 95% of total flight time

• RNP▬RNAV Represent a navigation accuracy of ± 0.3NM and ± 0.1 NM 95% of total flight time • ECAC : European Civil Aviation Conference • Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)

A technique whereby a GNSS receiver / processor determines the integrity of the GNSS navigation signals using only GNSS signals or GNSS signals augmented with altitude. This determination is achieved by a consistency check among redundant pseudo-range measurements. At least one satellite in addition to those required for navigation must be in view for the receiver to perform the RAIM function

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4. RNAV 4.1 CONVENTIONAL NAVIGATION • Routes are linked to geographical positions of Navigational AIDS (NAVAIDs). Therefore, aircraft

overfly these NAVAIDs • NAVAIDs used include NDBs, VORs, ILS and MLS.

Aircraft fly over NAVAIDS such as NDBs and VORs

4.2 AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) • Area Navigation (RNAV) is a method of navigation which permits aircraft operation on any desired

flight path within the coverage of station-referenced navigation aids or within the limits of the capability of self-contained aids, or a combination of these.'

• RNAV makes use of navigational aids (ground-based or space-based), but aircraft don't have to overfly them.

• RNAV routes are defined by significant points called Waypoints which are in turn defined by coordinates. These routes can follow any desired path and are not constrained by the position of ground based NAVAIDS.

• Only aircraft equipped with an RNAV system can navigate effectively to these waypoints. • The aircraft position is calculated by the RNAV system using inputs from one or more of the following:

o VOR/DME o DME/DME o GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) o INS {with radio update) or IRS (Inertial Navigation System/ Inertial Reference System)

AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV)

Aircraft fly desired path

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5 NM

Track Accuracy = ± 5NM for 95% of flight time

4.2.1 BASIC RNAV (B-RNAV) • Europe; RNP5 (B-RNAV) has been implemented in the European Civil Aviation Conference

(ECAC) Area from 23rd April 1998. The FIR's/UIR's in the following countries are covered, including feeder routes (SID's/STAR's) in/out of TMA : Armenia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, U.K.

• Aircraft must have a Basic RNAV system (± 5NM accurate track keeping capability 95% of total flight time).

• Basic RNAV is planned to be mandatory for Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) operations at all en-route flight levels

• B-RNAV, however was not intended for Terminal Control Area (TMA) operations • Area Navigation may be implemented with normal route designators. However, ICAO has assigned the

alphabets L, M N, P to identify RNAV routes in regional route networks. • It is mandatory for aircraft operating in European Airspace to comply with B-RNAV requirements

contained in TGL10 “Temporary Guidance Material on Airworthiness Approval and Operational” Criteria for use of Navigation Systems in European Airspace designated for RNAV Operations”. Compliance with these regulations is in two parts: o Airworthiness Approval

Aircraft should be equipped with navigation systems meeting the navigation accuracy required under RNP 5. A statement to this effect is normally included in Flight Manuals of respective aircraft.

o Operational Approval Crew operating procedures and training and contingency procedures are required to be laid down to ensure navigation accuracy.

• B-RNAV Operational approval must be stated in the applicable Air operator Certificate (AOC).

Basic RNAV (B-RNAV)

5 NM

Desired Fight Path

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B-RNAV operations in ECAC airspace provides a number of advantages over the conventional ground based navigation, whilst maintaining existing safety standards. These advantages and their related benefits include: • Improved management in the flow of traffic by repositioning of intersections; • More efficient use of available airspace, by means of a more flexible ATS route structure and the

application of the Flexible Use of Airspace (FUA) Concept, permitting the establishment of: o More direct routes (dual or parallel) to accommodate a greater flow of en-route traffic; o Bypass routes for aircraft over flying high-density terminal areas; o Alternative or contingency routes on either a planned or an ad hoc basis; o Establishment of optimum locations for holding patterns; o Optimized feeder routes

• Reduction in flight distances resulting in fuel savings; • Reduction in the number of ground navigation facilities. All these are easily achievable, as one of the main objectives of this initial application of RNAV was to ensure that full use was made of the existing on board RNAV systems. Many of them had been fitted for some time and were capable of performance better than RNP 5 accuracy. Therefore the requirements were established such that they could be satisfied by the majority of existing types of RNAV equipment and full benefit was derived from their features. Simulations demonstrated that capacity gains up to 30% could be achieved only by a uniform application of B-RNAV, in parallel with the revised ATS route network and the implementation of FUA concept.

B-RNAV applies to all IFR flights operating as GAT, in conformity with the ICAO procedures. In some cases B-RNAV has also been implemented on certain SIDs and STARs provided that: • The B-RNAV portion of the route is above Minimum Sector Altitude/Minimum Flight Altitude/Minimum

Radar Vectoring Altitude (as appropriate), has been developed in accordance with established PANS-OPS criteria for en-route operations and conforms to B-RNAV en-route design principles.

• The initial portion of departure procedures is non-RNAV up to a conventional fix beyond which the B-RNAV procedure is provided in accordance with the criteria given above.

• The B-RNAV portion of an arrival route terminates at a conventional fix in accordance with the criteria given above and the arrival is completed by an alternative final approach procedure, also appropriately approved.

• Due regard has been taken, during the design process, of the operating procedures of the users National Authorities may designate domestic routes in the lower airspace, which can be used by aircraft which are not B-RNAV capable. Each State should publish appropriate mandatory carriage requirements identifying the airspace within which the mandate prevails. State aircraft (as described in the Chicago Convention) are exempted from this B-RNAV requirement.

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1 NM

Track Accuracy = ± 1NM for 95% of flight time

4.2.2 PRECISION RNAV (P-RNAV): • Precision RNAV (P-RNAV) is fully suitable for en-route and/or TMA operations as well. • Aircraft equipped and certified with a Precision RNAV system (±1NM accurate track keeping capability

(95% of total flight time)) may operate on P-RNAV Standard Instrument Departures/Standard Instrument Arrivals (SIDs/STARs).

• B-RNAV and P-RNAV are RNAV applications specific to Europe and USA. Precision RNAV (P-RNAV)

1 NM

Desired Fight Path

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5. AIRCRAFT CAPABILITIES 5.1 AIRCRAFT AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) DATABASES • A navigational database is an electronic store of relevant Air Traffic Services (ATS) route structures

including Standard Instrument Departures / Standard Instrument Arrivals (SIDs/STARs), which is updated at every 28 days.

• Aircraft Operators or Pilots tailor their individual database as a function of their own operations to suit their own requirements

• Basic RNAV (B-RNAV) certification does not require a database • B-RNAV certified aircraft, therefore, may need to manually enter waypoints (minimum of 4 waypoints

required to be stored and displayed). • Precision RNAV (P-RNAV) certification requires that SIDs/STARs must be loaded automatically from

an on-board database. 5.2 BASIC RNAV (B-RNAV) AIRCRAFT CAPABILITY • Very limited functionality. • Manual waypoint entry prone to errors. • No “Fly-by” capability requirement • Track accuracy ± 5 NM (95% of flight time). • Therefore, B-RNAV has very limited potential for application in Terminal Control Areas (TMAs). 5.2.1 LIMITATIONS IN TMA • Possibly no on-board database • Possible increase in pilot workload, and decrease in data integrity, as waypoint may need to be input

manually (possible flight safety implications). • The lowest common denominator must be assumed - that pilots must define each waypoint by

inputting co-ordinates. • No 'DIRECT TO' function • Be aware that errors in manual waypoint entry are the biggest single cause of human 'blunder' errors 5.3 PRECISION RNAV (P-RNAV) AIRCRAFT CAPABILITY • Fully suitable for application of RNAV in the Terminal Control Area. • P-RNAV is not mandatory, therefore not all aircraft will be P-RNAV equipped • Improved integrity and accuracy performance. • Large database appropriate for TMA operations, SIDs/STARs loaded automatically from database

(data is integrity checked). • P-RNAV systems able to interpret coded SIDs/STARs • Comprehensive pilot display requirements • Displays a minimum of 10 waypoints. • Track accuracy ±1 NM (95% of total flight time). • Significantly improved functionality. • 'DIRECT TO' function required. • 'Fly-by' and “Fly-Over” capabilities required. • “Parallel off-set” not required, although most aircraft have this capability. • Pilot selects the appropriate SID/STAR by name and all waypoints are automatically loaded from the

database and displayed in tabular and graphical form • Chance of errors greatly reduced as the creation of new waypoints by pilot manual entry in the RNAV

system is not permitted in the TMA • Specific crew training, operating procedures and navigation data quality are required for P-RNAV.

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5.4 MINIMUM FUNCTIONS FOR B-RNAV AND P-RNAV

FUNCTIONS B-RNAV P-RNAV Continuous indication of aircraft relative to track (ND) Display of distance/bearing to active (TO) waypoint Display of groundspeed or time to active (TO) waypoint Minimum number of waypoints stored 4 10* Present position - LAT/LONG Autopilot/Flight Director coupling Automatic channel selection of NAVAIDS Failure indication of RNAV system and sensors 2D Navigation (LNAV) Navigational database 'DIRECT TO' capability Automatic leg sequencing and associated turn anticipation Track Accuracy (95% of flight time) 5NM 1NM

- Required - Recommended

* P-RNAV aircraft certification requires the navigation database to load the entire SID/STAR on selection. Note: P-RNAV aircraft also fulfill all B-RNAV requirements 5.5 MEL The minimum level of B-RNAV can be met by a single installed system comprising one or more sensors, RNAV computer, control display unit, and navigational display (e.g. ND, EHSI, HSI or CDI), provided that the system is monitored by flight crew and in the event of failure, the aircraft retains the capability to navigate relative to ground-based navigation aids, e.g. VOR, DME and NDB.

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6. TMA SIDS / STARS RNAV procedure design permits flight in any air-space without the need to fly directly over classic ground based aids. P-RNAV offers the ability to use RNAV functionality in all phases of flight except final approach and missed approach. This allows the routes in the terminal airspace to be defined to best meet the needs of the airport, the air traffic controller and the pilot. This often means shorter, more direct routes with simple connections to the en-route structure A SID is usually assigned by air traffic control to the pilot based on the first airway’s waypoint in the flight plan and the active runway.Different types of SIDs/STARs can be employed in the TMA 6.1 CONVENTIONAL' • Suitable for all aircraft fitted for IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) because they are based on (VORs) and

other conventional Navigational AIDS (NAVAIDs). • Some aircraft also fly 'conventional' SIDs/STARs using their RNAV system • Requires the use of VOR/DME and/or NDBs. 6.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF 'CONVENTIONAL' OVER RNAV SIDS/STARS: • All aircraft operating under IFR are suitably equipped • Defined by waypoints (detailed in the topic called 'Waypoints'). 6.1.2 LIMITATIONS OF 'CONVENTIONAL' OVER RNAV SIDS/STARS: • Inflexible SID/STAR design, aircraft must fly over ground-based NAVAIDs. • Constraint to optimizing airspace • Coding for RNAV systems can be ambiguous • Track accuracy performance can not be stipulated • Inconsistent track keeping performance 6.2 RNAV • Can only be flown by P-RNAV certified aircraft and crew. • Some States allow for the use of Basic RNAV (B-RNAV) in the TMA. Such SIDs/STARs must employ

conventional navigation below the Minimum Flight Altitudes (MFAs). • If applicable in your State, this will be clarified at local level • The pilot bears ultimate responsibility for ensuring the crew and aircraft meet the certification

requirements of the SID/STAR which has been assigned. Where this is not the case the pilot must inform Air Traffic Control (ATC).

6.2.1 ADVANTAGES OF RNAV OVER 'CONVENTIONAL' SIDS/STARS • Flexible SID/STAR design as aircraft don't have to fly over ground-based NAVAIDs • Less Radiotelephony (RTF) required (less radar vectoring). • Tactical flexibility (allows 'DIRECT TO' instructions). • Reduced ground track. • Environmental benefits (noise & emissions). • Better track keeping for noise critical paths. • Track keeping performance is very accurate. 6.2.2 LIMITATIONS OF RNAV OVER 'CONVENTIONAL' SIDS/STARS: • Results in mixed-mode operations. • Not all aircraft are P-RNAV equipped. • Aircraft capability has to be identified. • Air Traffic Control (ATC) is required to distinguish aircraft based on aircraft equipment, as indicated in

the Flight Plan (FPL). 6.3 NAMING OF RNAV SIDS/STARS • SID/STAR names are made up of 3 elements

1. A Basic Indicator, the Waypoint name at which the SID ends or the STAR starts. 2. The current Validity Indicator (a number between 1 and 9) for that particular SID/STAR. 3. A Route Indicator, where required, a letter (not I or O) identifying the particular SID/STAR out of a

number of SIDs/STARs ending/starting at that waypoint • Followed by the word DEPARTURE or ARRIVAL as appropriate

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6.4 METHODS USED TO TERMINATE STARS 6.4.1 CLOSED' STARS PROCEDURES • Characterized by the publication of an uninterrupted RNAV nominal track to the final approach

segment of the relevant instrument approach. • For 'closed' STARs, the aircraft and crew know track miles to touch down • Local implementation could define an extended downward segment, including multiple waypoints for

tactical sequencing purposes 6.4.2 'OPEN' STARS PROCEDURES • Characterized by the publication of an RNAV nominal track up to a waypoint abeam the final approach

fix of the relevant instrument approach, followed by a published heading to be flown. 6.4.3 PATH TERMINATORS

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7. WAYPOINTS 7.1 RNAV WAYPOINT NAMING 'A specified geographical location used to define an area, navigation route or the flight path of aircraft employing area navigation. • Strategic Waypoint:

o Usual used on enroute navigation, o ICAO global standards require that a waypoint be designated a '5 letter pronounceable name

code', e.g. BARNA. • Tactical Waypoints:

o Used in SID and STARs. o The Last Two letters of the airport ICAO identifier plus 3 numbers e.g. at Stockholm Arlanda airport

ESSA,SA123,SA456 • Other Waypoints necessary for design

o Help-waypoint such as lead in radials o Database Identifiers e.g. D225G ( 225° is the radial and letter G is the seventh letter in the

Alphabet which represent 7 DME Distance )

7.1.1 P-RNAV APPROACH’S WAYPOINTS NAMING • Approach fix is replaced by initial approach waypoint (IAWP) • Intermediate fix by intermediate approach waypoint (IWP) • Final approach fix by final approach waypoint (FAWP) 7.2 TYPES OF WAYPOINT 7.2.1 FLY-BY: • A waypoint which requires turn anticipation (start of turn before the waypoint) to allow tangential

interception of the next segment of a route or procedure • The aircraft navigation system calculates the start of the turn onto the next route leg before the

waypoint • This is the preferred type of waypoint for all Area Navigation (RNAV) Standard Instrument

Departures/Standard Instrument Arrivals (SIDs/STARs).

Fly-by Waypoint

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7.2.2 FLY-OVER:

• A waypoint at which a turn is initiated • The aircraft starts to turn onto the next route leg as it passes over the waypoint • A fly-over waypoint is used in TMAs if it is not possible to use a fly-by, or where clear advantages can

be gained from its use. • Not always the same, as each flight will determine its own specific amount of recovery turn. • Preferred option for all RNAV SIDs/STARs • Only used in TMAs for specific purposes, as defined by local implementation such as :

o Missed approach points o Holding points o Final approach waypoints (FAWP)

Fly-over Waypoint

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7.3 FLY-BY TURNS: • Fly-by waypoints, in conjunction with 'turn anticipation', allow aircraft to fly 'smoothly' between route

segments. The logic of the RNAV computer will decide the amount of 'turn anticipation' • Air Traffic Control (ATC) perceptions of differences in turn anticipation will be marginal since they will

be consistent with existing typical aircraft responses to ATC-initiated turns • Ground tracks may not always be the same, as each flight will determine its own specific amount of

turn anticipation

7.3.1 FACTORS DETERMINING TURN ANTICIPATION • Speed: The greater the ground speed, the earlier the turn starts • Level: Immediately after take-off and at higher levels, some aircraft limit the angle of bank. This could

lead to earlier turn starts. • Amount of Turn Between Route Segments: The larger the turn, the earlier it will start

7.3.2 TYPE OF AIRCRAFT & RNAV SYSTEM MANUFACTURER o Aircraft/avionics manufacturers do not always interpret the international standards in exactly in the

same way o Certain aircraft may commence a turn earlier than others as a function of aircraft avionics and flight

profile.

Possible difference in 'turn anticipation'

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8. TMA OPERATION 8.1 RESPONSIBILITIES FOR TERRAIN CLEARANCE Use of Area Navigation (RNAV) in Terminal Control Areas (TMAs) does not change existing responsibilities. It DOES NOT relieve the pilots of their responsibility to ensure that any clearances are safe in respect to terrain clearance and nether the Air Traffic Control (ATC) of its responsibility to assign levels which are at or above established minimum flight altitudes 8.1.1 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE PILOT • Is responsible for terrain clearance. When an Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flight is being radar

vectored by ATC or is given a direct routing off an ATS route, the radar controller shall issue clearances such that the prescribed obstacle clearance exists,

• Must ensure flight operations conform to published Minimum Flight Altitudes (MFAs), • Must inform ATC of any inability to accept a clearance or instruction on the basis of terrain clearance

issues. 8.1.2 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE ATC • When an IFR flight is being radar vectored by ATC or is given a direct routing off an ATS route, the

radar controller shall issue clearances such that the prescribed obstacle clearance exists, • Must assign levels in ATC clearances consistent with MFAs • If Minimum Radar Vectoring Altitudes (MRVAs) are to be used by ATC as the basis for assigning

levels in conjunction with RNAV clearances/instructions, a Radar Minimum Altitude Chart - ICAO should be published to allow pilots to comply with their responsibilities with regard to terrain avoidance.

• Be aware that RNAV 'DIRECT TO' instructions are not radar vectors. 8.1.3 P-RNAV TERRAIN CLEARANCE MINIMUM REQUIREMENT Minimum obstacle clearance guaranteed in an area equal to two times the RNP value.

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8.2 CATEGORIES OF LEVEL INFORMATION Three main categories of level information are as follows: • Minimum Flight Altitudes • Cleared Levels • Level Restrictions

8.2.1 MINIMUM FLIGHT ALTITUDES (MFAS) • Minimum Flight Altitudes can be considered as:

o Minimum Sector Altitudes (MSAs) o Minimum Radar Vectoring Altitudes (MRVAs) o Area Minimum Altitudes (AMAs) o Minimum flight altitudes published for segments of SIDs/STARs

• Minimum Flight Altitudes are calculated to ensure safe terrain clearance • Currently it is not mandatory to publish MRVAs • ICAO is recommending that a 'Radar Minimum Altitude Chart - ICAO' be published showing the

MRVAs

8.2.2 CLEARED LEVELS • Could be published as a written 'CLIMB TO/DESCEND TO (level)':

o Expect aircraft to climb/descend to that level o Mostly published as elements of SIDs. o Limited application for STARs.

• Explicit o Issued by ATC on Radiotelephony (RTF).

• Explicit cleared levels override published cleared levels. • Local implementation will define published cleared levels 8.2.3 LEVEL RESTRICTIONS • Published

o Shown on chart in conjunction with waypoints where required. o Do not represent authorization to climb/descend to that level o Published for purposes of strategic airspace/traffic segregation.

• Explicit o Issued by ATC on RTF

• Pilots must comply with level restrictions to the extent the cleared level makes possible • For arriving aircraft published level restrictions, which are at or above the cleared level which is in

effect, shall be complied with. • For departing aircraft, published level restrictions, which are at or below the cleared level which is in

effect, shall be complied with 8.3 WAYPOINT SPEED RESTRICTIONS • Published on chart, in conjunction with selected waypoints where required • ATC is free to cancel published speed restrictions at their own discretion. • Explicit speed restrictions override published ones. • Be aware that adjusting speeds could have an impact on turn performance (track) and vertical profiles

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8.4 'DIRECT TO' INSTRUCTIONS IN THE TMA • P-RNAV implementation allows ATC the possibility for the systematic use of 'DIRECT TO' in the

overall management of TMA traffic. • All P-RNAV certified aircraft are able to execute 'DIRECT TO' waypoints • Where appropriate, ATC could consider 'DIRECT TO' as an alternative to radar vectoring for P-RNAV

capable aircraft. • By using 'DIRECT TO' instead of radar vectoring, P-RNAV systems maintain 'distance to go'

information • Advantages

o The RNAV system and pilot are aware of distance to touch down for aircraft management o RNAV-equipped aircraft may derive maximum benefit from RNAV systems in terms of optimized

flight management and performance. • Pilots may not be able to comply with a 'DIRECT TO' for any of the following reasons:

o Navigation computer problem o Too close to waypoint specified, o Angle of turn/speed too great o Waypoint not displayed on the Flight Management System (FMS) for pilot selection, o Waypoint not part of SID/STAR, and/or o SID/STAR not assigned

• Large turns close to the waypoint or at high speed, may result in the aircraft overshooting the next leg. 9. OPERATING PROCEDURES a. Flight Planning

• Aircraft status should be checked for compliance with B-RNAV requirement, when flight is scheduled to operate in European airspace.

• Designator “S” and "R" will be inserted in field 10 of ICAO Flight Plan to indicate that the aircraft is fitted with B-RNAV equipment meeting RNP 5 navigation capability.

• Designator “S” , "R" and “P” will be inserted in field 10 of ICAO Flight Plan to indicate that the aircraft is fitted with P-RNAV equipment meeting P-RNAV navigation capability

b. In-flight Procedure

Correct operation of RNAV system shall be checked before flight into or before joining and during operation on an RNAV route, which includes:

• Routing is in accordance with the clearance and

• RNP 5 requirement is met, i.e., aircraft status should be checked for compliance with system accuracy.

• RNP 1 requirement is met, i.e., aircraft status should be checked for compliance with system accuracy

In case of inability to comply due to a failure or degradation of RNAV System, ATC should be advised and a revised clearance requested by the pilot. Aircraft will normally be allowed to continue in accordance with current ATC clearance; if not, a revised clearance will be issued to revert to VOR/DME navigation. Crew should at all times be aware of aircraft position and report accurate position when called for. Be prepared for offset routes to be flown. Be alert to any deviation from assigned RNAV route and report to ATC and adhere to the revised ATC clearance.

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10. P-RNAV 10.1 GENERAL INFORMATION

10.1.1 BACKGROUND Precision-RNAV (P-RNAV) is the natural progression from Basic RNAV (B-RNAV) Initial application is in the terminal area and P-RNAV track keeping accuracy equates to cross track accuracy of RNP 1 (±1NM). P-RNAV Procedures are designed to a common set of design principles specific to RNAV equipped aircraft. These P-RNAV Procedures will replace the wide variation of RNAV procedures in European ECAC Terminal Airspace that do not have a common basis. It has been recognized that a large variation of principles and requirements in RNAV operations is not without safety implications. 10.1.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN B-RNAV AND P-RNAV Basic Area Navigation (B-RNAV) was the forerunner of the RNAV implementation in ECAC. It was introduced to enable en-route capacity gains to be achieved with minimal aircraft capability. It requires aircraft conformance to a track-keeping accuracy of ±5NM for at least 95% of flight time to ensure that benefits are achieved whilst meeting the required safety targets. B-RNAV can be achieved using inputs from VOR/DME, DME/DME or GNSS and IRS / INS Precision Area Navigation (P-RNAV) is being introduced for RNAV applications in terminal airspace. It requires aircraft conformance to a track-keeping accuracy of ±1NM for at least 95% of flight time, together with advanced functionality, high integrity navigation databases. P-RNAV capability can be achieved using inputs from DME/DME or GNSS and/or INS/IRS. Many existing aircraft can achieve P-RNAV capability without additional onboard equipment. P-RNAV procedures are designed, validated and flight checked to a common standard. All aircraft are certified to the same criteria and have the same functional capability. In addition ATC procedures and RT phraseology will be standard. This harmonized approach will enable all aircraft to fly accurate and consistent flight paths in the terminal area. 10.1.3 MANDATE FOR P-RNAV An ECAC wide mandate for the carriage of P-RNAV is not foreseen. However European States will progressively introduce P-RNAV requirements for Terminal RNAV procedures. It is expected that. Increasingly, from November 2005, P-RNAV procedures will be implemented across the Terminal Areas of the ECAC States, although a limited provision of conventional procedures will enable some access to the airports in those areas. Conventional Terminal Area procedures will continue to be provided although there may be operational limitations at some airports. Basic RNAV will be limited to RNAV procedures above MSA that are designed according to en route principles.

Navigation Strategy for ECAC States

En route & connection to Terminal Areas Terminal Areas En route & Terminal Areas including approaches

B-RNAV 1998 P-RNAV 2005-2015 RNP-RNAV 2015 + 10.1.4 RNP-RNAV RNP-RNAV will be the final step toward achieving an area navigation system with functionality and integrity for all phases of flight with track keeping accuracy applicable to prescribed RNP values, typically RNP 0.3NM and RNP 0.1NM.No mandate is foreseen before 2015. 10.1.5 AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT Many existing aircraft can achieve P-RNAV capability without additional onboard equipment. All aircraft are to be certified to the same criteria and will have the same minimum functional capability.

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10.1.6 BENEFITS OF THE P-RNAV P-RNAV will make a significant contribution to safety by introducing predictable and repeatable flight paths for all aircraft types with: • Approach procedures designed to common set of parameters • Aircraft flying consistently to those parameters • Pilots and controllers with same knowledge of intended flight path 10.1.7 OPERATORS’ COURSES OF ACTION Both airworthiness and operational approval must be obtained before commencing P-RNAV operations. As part of operational approval, operators will need to: • Provide pilot training • Review SOPs • Eventually update aircraft MELs • Get the database from a P-RNAV approved supplier or implement approved navigation database

integrity checks. 10.1.8 APPROVAL The aircraft operator is required to submit to the responsible State authority a compliance statement that shows how the airworthiness certification criteria and operational requirements have been satisfied. Approval must be obtained before commencing P-RNAV operations Note: P-RNAV operational approval must be stated in the applicable Air Operator Certificate.

The following table highlights some of the main approval aspects regarding P-RNAV.

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10.1.9 CONVENTIONAL/RNAV MIX The carriage and operation of P-RNAV equipment is not mandatory. Therefore, some conventional (NON-RNAV) Terminal Area Procedures will continue to be provided allowing aircraft not appropriately approved for Terminal Airspace RNAV operations to continue operating. In Terminal Airspace where RNAV procedures have been introduced to handle traffic more effectively, the application of conventional procedures and radar vectoring by Air Traffic Service Providers to accommodate non P-RNAV approved flights in a mixed-mode operation may adversely affect airport capacity and increase delays. Aircraft operators are therefore being actively encouraged to gain P-RNAV approvals for their aircraft so as to optimize benefits for all users, as well as ATC. Finally, some published Terminal Airspace RNAV procedures with minimum flight attitudes at or above MSA/MRVA may require only B-RNAV approval, but those procedures will be based on en-route design principles and have associated limitations 10.2 RADIOTELEPHONY (RTF) PHRASEOLOGY FOR AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV)

Condition ATC Phraseology PILOT Phraseology:

Checking if Aircraft able to accept a SID/STAR

"ADVISE IF ABLE (designator) DEPARTURE [or ARRIVAL]"

"UNABLE (designator) DEPARTURE [or ARRIVAL] DUE RNAV TYPE" Note: For operation on RNAV arrival and departure routes, where clearance is given by ATC for an RNAV SID/STAR for which the aircraft is not approved, the pilot is to advise ATC who will then seek to provide an alternative routing

If aircraft unable to continue on issued RNAV SID/STAR due to some failure or degradation of their RNAV system

"UNABLE RNAV DUE EQUIPMENT

Note: If, as a result of a failure or degradation, in flight, of the RNAV system, an aircraft is unable to meet the requirements for continued operation on a RNAV SID/STAR, a revised clearance shall be requested by the pilot.

If ATC unable to issue requested RNAV SID/STAR:

"UNABLE TO ISSUE (designator) DEPARTURE [or ARRIVAL] DUE RNAV TYPE" Note: ATC is unable to assign a RNAV SID/STAR requested by a pilot, for reasons associated with the type of on-board RNAV equipment indicated in the FPL.

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10.3 FLIGHT OPS AND CREW INFORMATION 10.3.1 PRE-FLIGHT PLANNING 10.3.1.1 CREW QUALIFICATION The crew must be trained, qualified and current for the intended route. The crew must be qualified and current for P-RNAV operations. 10.3.1.2 FLIGHT PLANNING For an aircraft with P-RNAV approval, a ‘P’ shall be inserted in the FPL Item 10, in addition to the ‘R’ for B-RNAV approval. 10.3.1.3 NOTAMS The NOTAMS must advice lack of availability of any navigation aid that might affect the navigation infrastructure required for the intended operation, including any NON-RNAV contingencies and must be confirmed for the period of intended operation. GNSS specific: if a stand-alone GPS is to be used for P-RNAV, the availability of RAIM must be confirmed with account taken of the latest information from the US Coastguard or from the EUROCONTROL AUGUR website which give details of satellite non-availability http://augur.ecacnav.com/help.html http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/current/current.alm 10.3.1.4 MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LIST (MEL) Any Navigation equipment unserviceabilities must be checked against MEL for effect on RNAV operations. Availability of the onboard navigation equipment necessary for the route to be flown must be confirmed. In certain areas, this may include the availability of an autopilot and/or a flight director to maintain track keeping accuracy. 10.3.1.5 DATABASE The onboard navigation database must be current and appropriate for the intended operation and include the relevant navigation aids, waypoints, and the coded Terminal Area procedures for the departure, arrival and alternate airfields. The navigation database should be obtained from a supplier possessing a Letter of Acceptance (LOA) from EASA or the FAA (as appropriate) demonstrating compliance with the data quality requirements set out in EUROCAE ED 76, or RTCADO 200A (as appropriate). The award of a (LOA) equates to the term ‘approved’ as used in JAA TGL-10 relating to data integrity. Operators obtaining their data in this manner are therefore deemed to satisfy the requirements of TGL10 Unless this is the case, operators applying for P-RNAV approval must demonstrate to the appropriate regulator that data integrity checking is being implemented using software tools or acceptable manual procedures Operators should check to ensure the True to Magnetic conversion table, held in the FMS or RNAV equipment, is in date. Out of date conversion tables may give inaccurate headings leading to unacceptable track errors

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10.3.2 BEFORE START 10.3.2.1 SYSTEM INITIALIZATION At system initialization, the flight crew must confirm that the navigation database is current and verify that the aircraft position has been entered correctly 10.3.2.2 CHECK OF THE ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN The active flight plan should be checked by comparing the charts, SID or other applicable documents, with the map display (if applicable) and the MCDU. This includes: • Confirmation of the correct waypoint sequence • Reasonableness of track angles and distances • Any altitude or speed constraints, and • Correct identification, where possible, of waypoints as fly-by or fly-over waypoints.

Pilots shall particularly focus on any segment of the P-RNAV procedure which is below MSA. If required by a procedure, a check will need to be made to confirm that position updating will use a specific navigation aid, or to confirm exclusion of a specific navigation aid. A procedure shall not be used if doubt exists as to the validity of the procedure in the navigation database. Note: As a minimum, the departure checks could be a simple inspection of a suitable display to achieve the objectives of this paragraph 10.3.2.3 ROUTE MODIFICATIONS Route modifications in the Terminal Area may take the form of radar headings or ‘direct to’ clearances and the flight crew must be ready to react promptly. This may include the insertion in the flight plan of a waypoint sequence loaded solely from the database as part of an alternative procedure. Warning: The creation of new waypoints by manual entry into the RNAV system by the flight crew is not permitted as it would invalidate the affected P-RNAV procedure. 10.3.3 TAKEOFF 10.3.3.1 PRIOR TO TAKE OFF Prior to commencing take off, the flight crew must verify that the RNAV system is available and operating correctly and, when available, the correct airport and runway data have been loaded 10.3.3.2 LINE UP Unless automatic updating of the actual departure point is provided, the flight crew must ensure initialization on the runway threshold or intersection update, as applicable. This is to preclude any inappropriate or inadvertent position shift after take-off. GNSS specific: the signal must be acquired before the take-off roll commences and GNSS position then may be used in place of the runway update. 10.3.4 DEPARTURE 10.3.4.1 FLIGHT PLAN MONITORING During the procedure and where feasible. Flight progress should be monitored for navigational reasonableness, by cross-checks, with conventional navigation aids using the primary displays in conjunction with the MCDU. If P-RNAV capability is not based on GNSS equipage, transition to the P-RNAV structure shall only be made from the point where the aircraft has entered DME/DME coverage. Note: When a procedure is designed to be started conventionally, then the first point of the P-RNAV procedure will be identified on the charts. 10.3.4.2 TRACK KEEPING MONITORING When using autopilot and/or flight director, particular attention should be paid to the selected/armed mode as the resultant track keeping accuracy may vary. Track keeping monitoring of a P-RNAV procedure below MSA will also require particular attention in degraded conditions such as engine failure, as both the vertical and the lateral obstacle clearance are more critical

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10.3.5 DESCENT AND ARRIVAL

10.3.5.1 CHECK OF THE ACTIVE FLIGHT PLAN As for departure, prior to the arrival phase, the flight crew should verify that the correct terminal procedure has been loaded. The active flight plan should be checked by comparing the charts with the map display (if applicable) and the MCDU. This includes again: • Confirmation of the waypoint sequence, • Reasonableness of track angles and distances, • Any altitude or speed constraints, • Where possible, which waypoints are fly-by and which are fly-over. Some P-RNAV procedures called open procedures are terminated by means of a heading segment to assist sequencing and to prevent automatic turns onto final approach. Again, pilots shall particularly focus on the segment of P-RNAV procedures which are below MSA. If required, a check will need to be made to confirm that updating will include or exclude a particular navigation aid as appropriate. A procedure shall not be used if doubt exists as to the validity of the procedure in the navigation database. Note: As minimum, the arrival checks could be a simple inspection of a suitable display to achieve the objectives of this paragraph The crew briefing shall include reversion to a conventional procedure and the go around procedure. The crew briefing shall include reversion to a conventional procedure and the go around procedure. Warning: As for departure, the creation of new waypoints by manual entry into the RNAV system by the flight crew is not permitted as it would invalidate the P-RNAV procedure. 10.3.5.2 SYSTEM ACCURACY CHECK For P-RNAV systems without GNSS updating, a reasonableness check is required during the descent phase before reaching the Initial Approach Waypoint (IAWP). For example, where feasible, display bearing/range to a VOR/DME on the RNAV system and compare it to the actual RMI reading of that particular Navaid. It should be noted that: • For some systems that accuracy may be derived from the navigation mode or accuracy mode. • Where the MCDU is not capable of displaying accuracy in decimal units, then an approved alternative

means of checking will have to be followed. GNSS specific: for GNSS based systems, absence of a triggered alarm is considered sufficient. If the check fails, a conventional procedure must then be flown. Where the contingency to revert to a conventional arrival procedure might be required, the flight crew must make the necessary preparation and briefing. 10.3.5.3 ROUTE MODIFICATIONS Route modifications in the Terminal Area may take the form of radar headings or “direct to” ATC clearances and the flight crew must be ready to react promptly. This may include the insertion in the flight plan of a waypoint sequence loaded solely from the database as part of an alternative procedure. Manual entry or modification by the flight crew of the loaded procedure, using temporary waypoints or fixes not provided in the database, is not permitted. Any published altitude and speed constraints must be observed, unless otherwise instructed by ATC. 10.3.5.4 TRACK KEEPING MONITORING As for departure, when using autopilot and/or flight director, particular attention should be paid to the selected/armed mode as the response to the track keeping demand may vary.

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10.3.6 CONTINGENCY PROCEDURES • Contingency procedures will need to be developed by the operator to address Cautions and Warnings

for the following conditions: o Failure of the RNAV system components including those affecting flight technical error (e.g. failures

of the flight director or automatic pilot). o Multiple system failures. o Failure of the navigation sensors. o Coasting on inertial sensors beyond a specified time limit.

• The flight crew must notify ATC of any problem with the RNAV system that results in the loss of the required navigation capability, together with the proposed course of action

• In the event of communications failure, the flight crew should continue with the RNAV procedure in accordance with the published lost communication procedure.

• In the event of loss of P-RNAV capability, the flight crew should invoke contingency procedures and navigate using an alternative means of navigation which may include the use of an inertial system. The alternative means need not be an RNAV system.

10.3.7 INCIDENT REPORTING Significant incidents associated with the operation of the aircraft which affect or could affect the safety of RNAV operations, need to be reported. Specific examples may include: a. Aircraft system malfunctions during P-RNAV operations which lead to:

1. Navigation errors (e.g. map shifts) not associated with transitions from an inertial navigation mode to radio navigation mode.

2. Significant navigation errors attributed to incorrect data or a navigation database coding error. 3. Unexpected deviations in lateral or vertical flight path not caused by pilot input. 4. Significant misleading information without a failure warning. 5. Total loss or multiple navigation equipment failure.

b. Problems with ground navigational facilities leading to significant navigation errors not associated with transitions from an inertial navigation mode to radio navigation mode.

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11. VERTICAL NAVIGATION (VNAV) a. The following provides a brief description to aid understanding of the overall navigation function and

the relationship of VNAV to this the guidance material. The flight crew must clearly understand the application of vertical navigation mode and/or speed management, as appropriate, particularly in the context of a continuous descent profile

b. For vertical navigation, the system compares the determined vertical position (barometric altitude) with a desired vertical profile derived from altitude data, a vertical angle, or a vertical flight profile, applicable to that route or procedure and selected from an on-board navigation database. The desired vertical profile to be followed and the difference between it and the determined vertical position are then output to the following types of system to enable the profile to be followed: • Vertical Profile Deviation Indicator • Vertical Profile Display • Automatic Thrust System. • Flight Director. • Automatic pilot.

c. Some systems may provide the capability to determine optimized climb and descent profiles based on aircraft performance characteristics (including engine performance), aircraft weight, aircraft speed, prevailing meteorological conditions, operator cost constraints, and published altitude and speed constraints associated with a particular arrival/approach/departure procedure.

d. A VNAV capability is optional for P-RNAV. It should be possible to fly a published descent profile conventionally manually, given adequate flight deck information and with appropriate crew training.

e. Unless a published VNAV procedure is being flown, the vertical profile between two altitude constraints is always at the pilot’s discretion. However, the flight crew should aim, wherever possible, to adhere to the optimum vertical profile. Crews should recognize that there are a number of methods by which adherence to the path can be achieved. Where a VNAV procedure is published, the flight crews are required to fly in accordance with the published constraints.

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12. GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS (GNSS) 12.1 INTRODUCTION The two core satellite constellations are the Global Positioning System (GPS) provided by the United States of America and Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), provided by Russian Federation. These systems provide independent capabilities and can be used in combination with potential future core European systems (Galileo) and augmentation systems. The total system, including GPS / GLONASS / Galileo and all augmentation is referred to as GNSS. Efforts to bring the full benefits of satellite navigation to users focus on developing these augmentations and certifying them for operational use. 12.2 SATELLITE-BASED NAVIGATION SYSTEMS 12.2.1 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) The Global Positioning System (GPS) formally known as the Navstar Global Positioning System is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24 satellites GPS placed into orbit, developed, funded and controlled by the U.S. Department of Defense. The first GPS satellites where launched into space in 1978.to reduce the proliferation of navigation aids. by creating a system that overcame the limitations of many existing navigation systems, A full constellation of 24 satellites was achieved in 1994, completing the system Originally it was intended for military applications, but in the 1980s, the government of the United States of America made the system available for civilian use. The GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day and there are no subscription fees or setup charges. GPS has become a widely used aid to navigation worldwide, and a useful tool for map-making, land surveying, commerce, and scientific uses. Also GPS provides a precise time reference used in many applications including scientific study of earthquakes, and synchronization of telecommunications networks

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12.2.1.1 GPS SYSTEM SEGMENTATION CONSISTS OF:

1. Space Segment (The satellite) 2. Control Segment (The ground stations) 3. User Segment (GPS receivers).

1. Space Segment (The satellites) The space segment consists of 24 satellites and the delta rockets that launch the satellites from Cape Canaveral in Florida. The GPS satellites fly in circular orbits at an altitude of 11900 NM above the Earth’s surface, operating at such high altitude allows the signal to cover a greater area. There are six orbital planes (with nominally four Space vehicle SVs in each) tilted to the earth’s equator by 55° degrees to ensure coverage of Polar Regions. The satellites are arranged in their orbits so a GPS receiver on the earth can always receive from at least four (4) of them at any given time. The satellites are traveling at speed of 7,000 miles per hour, which allows them to circle the earth once every 12 hours. (Twice a day) They are powered by solar energy cells; If solar energy fails (eclipses, etc) they have backup batteries on board to keep them running. They also have small rocket boosters to keep them flying in the correct path. The satellites continuously orient themselves to point their solar panels toward the sun and their antenna toward the earth Each satellite transmits low power radio signals on several frequencies (designated L1, L2, etc). Civilian GPS receivers “listen” on the L1 frequency of 1575.42 MHZ in the UHF band. The signals travels “line of sight”, meaning it will pass through clouds, glass and plastic, but will not go through most solid objects such as buildings and mountains.

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The satellites are composed of:

• Solar Panels. Each satellite is equipped with solar array panels. These panels capture energy from the sun, which provides power for the satellite throughout its life.

• External components. Such as antennas. The exterior of the GPS satellite has a variety of antennas. The signals generated by the radio transmitter are sent to GPS receivers via the L-band antennas. Another component is the radio transmitter, which generates the signal. Each of the 24 satellites transmits it's own unique code in the signal.

• Internal components such as atomic clocks and radio transmitters. Each satellite contains four atomic clocks. These clocks are accurate to at least a billionth of a second or a nanosecond. An atomic clock inaccuracy of 1/100th of a second would translate into a measurement (or ranging) error of 1,860 miles to the GPS receiver.

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2. Control Segment (Ground Stations) The “control” segment does what its name implies, it “control the GPS satellites by tracking them and then providing them with corrected orbital and clock (time) information.The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by US Air Force • Monitor Stations: Six monitor stations are located at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado, Cape Canaveral, Florida, Hawaii, Ascension Island in the Atlantic Ocean, Diego Garcia Atoll in the Indian Ocean, and Kwajalein Island in the South Pacific Ocean. Each of the monitor stations checks the exact altitude, position, speed, and overall health of the orbiting satellites. The control segment uses measurements collected by the monitor stations to predict the behavior of each satellite's orbit and clock. The prediction data is up-linked, or transmitted, to the satellites for transmission back to the users. The control segment also ensures that the GPS satellite orbits and clocks remain within acceptable limits. A station can track up to 11 satellites at a time. This "check-up" is performed twice a day, by each station, as the satellites complete their journeys around the earth. Noted variations, such as those caused by the gravity of the moon, sun and the pressure of solar radiation, are passed along to the master control station

GPS Master Control and Monitor Station Network

• Master Control Station: The master control station, located at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado Springs, Colorado, is responsible for overall management of the remote monitoring and transmission sites. The master control station “corrects” the satellite data and, together with two other antenna sites, sends (uplinks) the information to the GPS. These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within one microsecond and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal orbital model. The master Control Station computes not only position but also velocity, right ascension and declination parameters for eventual upload to GPS satellites. • Ground Antennas: Ground antennas monitor and track the satellites from horizon to horizon. They also transmit correction information to individual satellites

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3. User Segment (GPS Receivers) The GPS User Segment consists of the GPS receivers and the user community. GPS receivers convert space vehicle (SV) signals into position, velocity, and time estimates. Four satellites are required to compute the four dimensions of X, Y, Z (position) and (T) Time. GPS receivers are used for navigation, positioning, time dissemination, and other research. Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of GPS. Navigation receivers are made for aircraft, ships, ground vehicles, and for hand carrying by individuals Precise positioning is possible using GPS receivers at reference locations providing corrections and relative positioning data for remote receivers. Surveying, geodetic control, and plate tectonic studies are examples Time and frequency dissemination, based on the precise clocks on board the SVs and controlled by the monitor stations,

Satellite navigation is being widely used by aviators throughout the world to overcome many of the deficiencies in today's air traffic infrastructure. With its accurate, continuous, all-weather, three (GPS only) and four (GPS with augmentations) dimensional coverage, satellite navigation offers an initial navigation service that satisfies many of the requirements of users worldwide. Unlike current ground-based equipment, satellite navigation permits accurate aircraft position determination anywhere on or near the surface of the earth. More specifically, an aggressive exploitation of satellite navigation technologies provides substantial benefits to both the providers of such services in the region, as well as the individual and combined user communities. The implementation of this technology in a country or region provides the following benefits to aviation transportation: • Enhanced safety of flight throughout the region • Seamless navigation service based on a standardized navigation service and common avionics • More efficient, optimized, flexible, and user-preferred route structures • Increased system capacity • Reduced separation minimums resulting in increased capacity and capabilities • Significant savings from shortened flight times and reduced fuel consumption • Reduced costs to each individual State while increasing overall benefits to individual States and the

entire region • Further economies from reduced maintenance and operation of unnecessary ground-based systems • Improved ground and cockpit situational awareness • Increased landing capacity for aircraft and helicopters

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Additionally, the implementation of this technology adds a margin of safety to operations within the expected coverage area by providing four-dimensional positioning, as opposed to the two-dimensional positioning of traditional systems. This reduces accidents by providing a consistent navigation capability that does not change, regardless of location, replacing major portions of current ground-based navigation infrastructures, and simplifying avionics suites. It also offers a precision approach capability at any airport within that region. All aircraft equipped with certified GPS/WAAS receivers have the needed accuracy, integrity, and availability for them to use GPS as a primary navigation aid, and thus experience the benefits of seamless travel.

• Arrival Aircraft arriving at the terminal area use set instructions to lead them into the local area to begin their landing approach. The current Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARS) are based upon the placement of navigation aids, aircraft performance, and obstructions to flight. Through more accurate and continuous position information, GPS will offer more flexible routes, easing congestion, saving time and fuel, especially at high-density airports. • Departure Aircraft departing from the terminal area must comply with set instructions that will lead them safely to their enroute departure point. The current standard instrument departures (SIDs) are based on factors such as navigational aids available, aircraft performance, and obstructions to flight. Because of its accurate and continuous location information, GPS will offer direct and flexible departure routed, ease congestion, and save time and fuel while maintaining high levels of safety • Enroute Control and navigation of aircraft over land must rely on the use of ground hardware. Aircraft must normally fly from point to point to navigate to their destination. Flight paths are rarely direct. With the advent of GPS, exact positional information is available to pilots. This enables direct routes, reduced flight times and reduced fuel consumption. • Landing Landings based on GPS will eliminate many of the time and fuel-consuming maneuvers currently in use. Additionally, GPS can enable the addition of vertical guidance to landing scenarios where this capability did not formally exist. Vertical guidance is a key component to increasing safety. • Oceanic Oceanic flights are out of range of ground-based surveillance systems. Controllers rely on position reports radioed periodically from pilots. Due to the time delays in receiving these reports, a significant distance must be kept between aircraft to ensure safety. GPS-equipped aircraft relay their position via digital data links through satellites to controllers. Knowing each aircraft's real-time position enables controllers to safely reduce aircraft separation, which increases capacity, reduces fuel consumption, and optimizes flight routes. • Surface Surface traffic at airports is frequently busy. Controlling and monitoring that traffic becomes increasingly difficult as visibility decreases. The ICAO is examining ways to use GPS with other technologies to help identify and locate surface vehicles during all kinds of weather conditions. That information could be used to help aviators and controllers safely navigate in the surface environment.

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12.2.1.2 GPS OPERATION Satellite Navigation is based on a global network of satellites that transmit radio signals in medium earth orbit. Users of Satellite Navigation are most familiar with the 24 Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites. The United States, who developed and operates GPS, and Russia, who developed a similar system known as GLONASS, have offered free use of their respective systems to the international community. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), as well as other international user groups, have accepted GPS and GLONASS as the core for an international civil satellite navigation capability known as the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). The basic GPS service provides users with approximately 100-meter accuracy, 95% of the time, anywhere on or near the surface of the earth. To accomplish this, each of the 24 satellites emits signals to receivers that determine their location by computing the difference between the time that a signal is sent and the time it is received. GPS satellites carry atomic clocks that provide extremely accurate time. The time information is placed in the codes broadcast by the satellite so that a receiver can continuously determine the time the signal was broadcast. The signal contains data that a receiver uses to compute the locations of the satellites and to make other adjustments needed for accurate positioning. The receiver uses the time difference between the time of signal reception and the broadcast time to compute the distance, or range, from the receiver to the satellite. The receiver must account for propagation delays, or decreases in the signal's speed caused by the ionosphere and the troposphere. With information about the ranges to three satellites and the location of the satellite when the signal was sent, the receiver can compute its own three-dimensional position. An atomic clock synchronized to GPS is required in order to compute ranges from these three signals. However, by taking a measurement from a fourth satellite, the receiver avoids the need for an atomic clock. Thus, the receiver uses four satellites to compute latitude, longitude, altitude, and time.

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12.2.1.3 WIDE AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (WAAS) WAAS covers the United States of America, Canada and Mexico, WAAS is an extremely accurate navigation system developed for civil aviation. Before WAAS, the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS) did not have the potential to provide horizontal and vertical navigation for approach operations for all users at all locations. With WAAS, this capability is a reality WAAS provides service for all classes of aircraft in all phases of flight - including en route navigation, airport departures, and airport arrivals. This includes vertically-guided landing approaches in instrument meteorological conditions at all qualified locations throughout the NAS Unlike traditional ground-based navigation aids, the WAAS covers nearly all of the National Airspace System (NAS). The WAAS provides augmentation information to GPS receivers to enhance the accuracy and reliability of position estimates. The signals from GPS satellites are received across the NAS at many widely-spaced Wide Area Reference Stations (WRS) sites. The WRS locations are precisely surveyed so that any errors in the received GPS signals can be detected The GPS information collected by the WRS sites is forwarded to the WAAS Master Station (WMS) via a terrestrial communications network. At the WMS, the WAAS augmentation messages are generated. These messages contain information that allows GPS receivers to remove errors in the GPS signal, allowing for a significant increase in location accuracy and reliability. The augmentation messages are sent from the WMS to uplink stations to be transmitted to navigation payloads on geostationary communications satellites The navigation payloads broadcast the augmentation messages on a GPS-like signal. The GPS/WAAS receiver processes the WAAS augmentation message as part of estimating position. The GPS-like signal from the navigation transponder can also be used by the receiver as an additional source for calculation of the user’s position.

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WAAS also provides indications to GPS/WAAS receivers of where the GPS system is unusable due to system errors or other effects. Further, the WAAS system was designed to the strictest of safety standards – users are notified within six seconds of any issuance of hazardously misleading information that would cause an error in the GPS position estimate. The WAAS will allow GPS to be used as a primary means of navigation from takeoff through Category I precision approach. Other modes of transportation also benefit from the increased accuracy, availability, and integrity that WAAS delivers. The WAAS broadcast message improves GPS signal accuracy from 100 meters to approximately 7 meters. The benefits of WAAS to civil aviation will be substantial. WAAS improves the efficiency of aviation operations due to: 1. Greater runway capability 2. Reduced separation standards which allow increased capacity in a given airspace without increased risk 3. More direct enroute flight paths. 4. New precision approach services 5. Reduced and simplified equipment on board aircraft 6. Significant government cost savings due to the elimination of maintenance costs associated with older,

more expensive ground-based navigation aids (to include NDBs, VORs, DMEs, and most Category 1 ILSs)

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12.2.1.4 GPS SIGNAL ERRORS Factors that can degrade the GPS signal and thus affect accuracy include the following: • Ionosphere and troposphere delays: The satellite signal slows as it passes through the atmosphere.

The GPS system uses a built-in model that calculates an average amount of delay to partially correct for this type of error.

• Signal multipath: This occurs when the GPS signal is reflected off objects such as tall buildings or large rock surfaces before it reaches the receiver. This increases the travel time of the signal, thereby causing errors.

• Receiver clock errors: A receiver's built-in clock is not as accurate as the atomic clocks onboard the GPS satellites. Therefore, it may have very slight timing errors.

• Orbital errors: Also known as ephemeris errors, these are inaccuracies of the satellite's reported location.

• Number of satellites visible: The more satellites a GPS receiver can "see," the better the accuracy. Buildings, terrain, electronic interference, or sometimes even dense foliage can block signal reception, causing position errors or possibly no position reading at all. GPS units typically will not work indoors, underwater or underground.

• Satellite geometry/shading: This refers to the relative position of the satellites at any given time. Ideal satellite geometry exists when the satellites are located at wide angles relative to each other. Poor geometry results when the satellites are located in a line or in a tight grouping.

• Intentional degradation of the satellite signal: Selective Availability (SA) is an intentional degradation of the signal once imposed by the U.S. Department of Defense. SA was intended to prevent military adversaries from using the highly accurate GPS signals. The government turned off SA in May 2000, which significantly improved the accuracy of civilian GPS receivers.

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12.2.2 GLONASS Global Navigation Satellite System is a radio-based satellite navigation system, developed by the former Soviet Union and now operated for the Russian government by the Russian Space Forces. Development on the GLONASS began in 1976, with a goal of global coverage by 1991. Beginning in 1982, numerous satellite launches progressed the system forward until the constellation was completed in 1995. Following completion, the system rapidly fell into disrepair with the collapse of the Russian economy. Beginning in 2001, Russia committed to restoring the system, and in recent years has diversified, introducing the Indian government as a partner, and accelerated the program with a goal of restoring global coverage by 2009. In recent years, Russia has kept the satellite orbits optimized for navigating in Chechnya, increasing signal coverage there at the cost of degrading coverage in the rest of the world. As of September 2007, GLONASS availability in Russia was 37.4% and average availability for the whole Earth was down to 28.5%, with significant areas of less than 25% availability. Meaning that, at any given time of the day in Russia, there is 37.4% likelihood that a position fix can be calculated With GLONASS falling rapidly into disrepair, a special-purpose federal program named "Global Navigation System" was undertaken by the Russian government on August 20, 2001. According to it, the GLONASS system was to be restored to fully deployed status (i.e. 24 satellites in orbit and continuous global coverage) by 2011. On May 18, 2007, GLONASS system officially provides open access to the civilian Russian and foreign consumers free of charge and without limitations. Orbital characteristics A fully operational GLONASS constellation consists of 24 satellites, with 21 used for transmitting signals and three for on-orbit spares, deployed in three orbital planes. The three orbital planes' ascending nodes are separated by 120° with each plane containing eight equally spaced satellites. The orbits are roughly circular, with an inclination of about 64.8°, and orbit the Earth at an altitude of 19,100 km, which yields an orbital period of approximately 11 hours, 15 minutes. The planes themselves have a latitude displacement of 15°, which results in the satellites crossing the equator one at a time, instead of three at once. The overall arrangement is such that, if the constellation is fully populated, a minimum of five satellites are in view from any given point at any given time. Each satellite is identified by a "slot" number, which defines the corresponding orbital plane and the location within the plane; numbers 1-8 are in plane one, 9-16 are in plane two, and 17-24 are in plane three. A characteristic of the GLONASS constellation is that any given satellite only passes over the exact same spot on the Earth every eighth sidereal day. However, as each orbit plane contains eight satellites, a satellite will pass the same place every sidereal day. For comparison, each GPS satellite passes over the same spot once every sidereal day. The ground control segment of GLONASS is entirely located within former Soviet Union territory. The Ground Control Center and Time Standards is located in Moscow and the telemetry and tracking stations are in Saint Petersburg, Ternopol, Eniseisk, Komsomolsk-na-Amure.

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12.2.3 GALILEO The Galileo positioning system, referred to simply as Galileo, is a planned Global Navigation Satellite System, to be built by the European Satellite Navigation Industries for the European Union (EU) and European Space Agency (ESA) as an alternative to the United States operated Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS. Galileo Operating Company, the concession holder and private consortium that was to run Galileo, was to have its main headquarters in Toulouse, France, with some specialized command centers also located in Munich (performance control), London (system operations), Rome (performance control), and Madrid (Safety of Life signals and redundancy control). It was reported on 18 May 2007 the EU will take direct control of the Galileo project from the private sector. Galileo is tasked with multiple objectives including the following: to provide a higher precision to all users than is currently available through GPS or GLONASS, to improve availability of positioning services at higher latitudes, and to provide an independent positioning system upon which European nations can rely even in times of war or political disagreement. The current project plan has the system as operational by 2011–12, three as or four years later than originally anticipated. It is named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. The Galileo positioning system is referred to as "Galileo" instead of as the abbreviation "GPS" to distinguish it from the existing United States system. The GALILEO constellation consists of 3 orbital planes inclined at 56º. Each orbit will have 10 SVs. The constellation is designed to be very robust even when a satellite fails, in order to maintain service guarantees. This will be achieved by maintaining one SV as a spare in each plane. The constellation will be placed at an altitude of 23,616 km, and this will mean that each satellite will take 14 hours 4 mins to complete one orbit. The ground track will be repeated every 10 days. The constellation is planned to be as good for the professional areas (e.g. aviation) as for the civil mass markets; this influences the optimization with respect to the visibility

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RNAV AREA NAVIGATION - Jet Flight and Instructor Training · 8.1.2 Responsibility of the ATC ... below should be addressed in the Training Manual. Subject • Theory of RNAV,