Road Dust Pollution by Heavy Metals along the Sides of .... Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 4... · affect regional environment and harm human health, ... EL-Bady, 2014 by sedimentation,

J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 4(12)177-191, 2014

© 2014, TextRoad Publication

ISSN: 2090-4274

Journal of Applied Environmental

and Biological Sciences www.textroad.com

*Corresponding Author: Mohamed S.M. EL-Bady, Department of Geological Sciences, National Research Center, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt. E-Mail: [email protected]

Road Dust Pollution by Heavy Metals along the Sides of Expressway

between Benha and Cairo, Southern of Nile Delta, Egypt

Mohamed S.M. EL-Bady

Department of Geological Sciences

National Research Center, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt Received: October 1, 2014

Accepted: November 24, 2014

ABSTRACT

Benha-Cairo Expressway is one of the busiest roads in Egypt. For the assessment of heavy metal pollution

level in dust generated on the Expressway, 10 samples of dust were collected from various places along the

Benha-Cairo expressway. The samples were analyzed for seven heavy metals using FAAS (flame atomic

absorption spectrometry). Due to rapid increase in the use of vehicles from day to day, This paper reports the

results of the investigation of heavy metals concentration in road dust in the selected sites along Benha-Cairo

expressway as a result of vehicular pollution. Pollution levels were estimated based on Contamination Factor,

Pollution Load Index, Degree of Contamination, Geo-accumulation index and Potential ecological risk index.

All the indices for the metals under consideration were either low or corresponded to heavy level of

pollution. The pollution level is expected to increase due to the increase of the populations, vehicles and

industrial activities around the Benha-Cairo Expressway. The potential ecological risk index values showed

low ecological risk as Benha Bridge, at 40km from Cairo, at 25km from Cairo, at 20km from Cairo, at

Qalyeob Bridg and12 km from Cairo and moderate ecological risk at Tokh Bridge, Daaery road inlet, EL-

Moassasa Station and at Abbod Station.

KEY WARDS: Benha-Cairo Expressway – pollution –vehicles- Road dust

1. INTRODUCTION

Roads serve as major link among communities through which foods and other important commodities

are transported. It is an essential amenity that plays a major role in enhancing social and economic activities.

However, road construction has also resulted in heavy environmental pollution especially on soils [1].Dust is

the small solid particles, conventionally taken as those particles below 75 μm indiameter, which settle out

under their own weight but which may remain suspended for some time". According to the "Glossary of

Atmospheric Chemistry Terms" IUPAC.[2], "Dust: Small, dry, solid particles projected into the air by natural

forces, such as wind, volcanic eruption, and by mechanical or man-made processes such as crushing,

grinding, milling, drilling, demolition, shovelling, conveying, screening, bagging, and sweeping. Dust

particles are usually in the size range from about 1 to 100 μm in diameter, and they settle slowly under the

influence of gravity."

Solid matter, which is composed of soil, anthropogenic metallic constituents and natural biogenic

materials, is called dust [3,4]. Dust deposits and accumulates on ground surfaces, along roadsides, are called

road dust, which is contaminated by heavy metals and organic matters. Anthropogenic sources of heavy

metals in urban road dusts include traffic emission (vehicle exhaust particles, tire wear particles, weathered

street surface particles, brake lining wear particles), industrial emission (power plants, coal combustion,

metallurgical industry, auto repair shop, chemical plant, etc.), domestic emission, weathering of building and

pavement surface, atmospheric deposited and so on [5,6,7,8]. In the 21st century, millions of people are

working daily in a dusty environment. They are exposed to different types of health hazards such as fume,

gases and dust, which are risky factors in developing occupational disease. Dust is a sort of air pollution and

is a general name for solid particles with diameters less than 500 micrometers.

Road dust does not remain deposited in place for long. It is easily re-suspended back into the

atmosphere, where it contributes a significant amount of trace elements. Particles of different fraction sizes

have different modes of transport [9]. Strong wind is an important factor in transport of dust particles to

affect regional environment and harm human health, as well as cause significant impacts on global

biogeochemical cycle [10,11].Dust borne heavy metals accumulate in topsoil due to atmospheric deposition

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EL-Bady, 2014

by sedimentation, impaction, and interception [12,5; 13,14].The most common heavy metals released from

vehicles on road are Cadmium (Cd), Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni) and Zinc (Zn) [4,5,14,15,16,17].

Many heavy metals become bound to the surface of soil and roadside dust. To keep the environment clean and protect lives from heavy metal contaminants, it is important to have thorough understanding of the nature

and extent of heavy metal pollution. Increasingly, airborne particles emitted from geologic media pose threats to

human health and the environment [18].Environmental contamination and human exposure have dramatically

increased during the past one hundred years [19].The persistence of heavy metals in soils is a long process,

Topsoils and roadside dusts in urban area are indicators of heavy metal contamination from atmospheric

deposition. It has been noted that roadside soils near heavy traffic are polluted by Pb and other metals [20].

Road dusts and top roadside soils in urban area are indicators of heavy metal contamination from

atmospheric deposition. Key heavy metals are thereby Pb from leaded gasoline, Cu, Zn and Cd from car

components, tire abrasion, lubricants, industrial and incinerator emissions [21,22]. The source of Ni and Cr in

street dust is believed to be corrosion of cars [23,24] and chrome plating of some motor vehicle parts [25]

respectively. Emission from heavy traffic were reported to contain Lead, Cadmium, Zinc and Nickel which

are present in fuel as anti-knock agent [26,27], while tire wear and corrosion of roadside safety fences contribute to Zn pollution [28]. Cu is mainly released from the wear of brake linings, which is also an

important source of Pb and Zn.Matthews-Amunem and Kingsley [29] stated that in the absence of any major

industry, the motor vehicles on the roads considered the point sources of heavy metals to the roadside soils

and plants. Children are exposed to road dust through three main pathways: ingestion of dust particles,

inhalation of dust particles, and dermal contact with dust particles[3]. In developing countries improved road

accessibility creates a variety of ancillary employment which range from vehicle repairs, vulcanizer and welders to auto-electricians, battery chargers and dealers in other facilitators of motor transportation. These

activities send the heavy metals into the air and are subsequently deposited into nearby soils which are

absorbed by plants [30,31]. Heavy metals in the soil can also generate airborne particles and dust which may

affect the quality of air [32]. The number of private vehicles has dramatically growth in last decades. Cairo is

a rapidly expanding city, which has led to many environmental problems. Cairo occupies about 214.2 km2 stretching along the banks of the River Nile.Roadway dust, in Cairo, receives varying inputs of

anthropogenic metals from a variety of mobile or stationary sources, such as vehicular traffic, industrial

plants, power generation facilities, residential oil burning, waste incineration, construction and demolition

activities and re-suspension of surrounding contaminated soils. The road dust within Cairo contain higher

concentrations of elements reflecting the contribution of vehicular traffic and the industrial activities

[33].Abdel-Latif and Saleh [33] stated that Potential ecological risk indexes (RI) in Cairo road dust was

suffering from serious metal contamination. Pb and Cd presented higher ecological risks than any other

metals, and the contamination factors (Cf) revealed that road dust is highly contaminated by Pb, Zn, Cd, As

and V than that contaminated by Ni, Cr, Co and Ag. This study was therefore carried out to determine the

concentration of common heavy metals Pb, Cu, Co, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Zn in road dust along the expressway

between Benha and Cairo cities.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Study Area and Sampling

Benha-Cairo Expressway is about45 km long, started from Benha city (at the first bridge of Benha) to

Cairo city (at Abbod station) (Fig. 1). The Expressway is the busiest and most heavily loaded traffic pathway

from Benha to Cairo. Most of the vehicles running on this road use fossil fuel (compressed natural gas,

gasoline, and diesel). A large number of people traveling daily on this highway are subjected to its dusty

environment. The region surrounding this highway is a rapidly developing residential and business area

where high-rise buildings are also under construction

The samples of road dust were collected from ten sites along Benha-Cairo Expressway in summer

season 2013. The sampling points are given in Table 1 and marked on the map shown in

Fig.1.Approximately 300 g of road dust particles was collected from each site as a surface dust on the

roadsides. The sampling used topographic maps at a scale of 1:50,000, Landsat images and GPS instruments. Sampling sites are characterized by different traffic density, different congestions and braking frequency of

traffic, different component of vehicles, and also with different influences of industrial sources and natural

sources and different pollution sources.

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Fig. (1). Location map and the sites of sampling

Table.(1). Heavy metals concentrations in road dust of Benha-Cairo Expressway

Samples Locations Pb Cu Co Cd Cr Ni Zn

1 Benha Bridge 212 84 5.2 0.8 45 19 288

2 At 40km from

Cairo

126 54 2.3 0.2 23 11 121

3 Tokh Bridge at 34

km from Cairo

233 69 4.3 0.9 36 19 249

4 At 25km from

Cairo

198 44 2.1 0.1 22 10 136

5 At 20km from

Cairo

187 43 1.6 0.1 24 12 188

6 14km from

Cairo(at Qalyeob

Bridge)

244 77 4.5 0.6 39 22 299

7 12 km from Cairo 188 46 2.6 0.4 25 18 200

8 10 km from Cairo

at Daaery road

inlet

255 89 6.5 0.9 55 24 458

9 7 km from Cairo

at EL-Moassasa

Station

259 89 7.5 1 59 24 569

10 At Abbod Station 279 95 7.9 1.1 62 27 588

Means 218.1 69 4.45 0.61 39 18.6 309.6

Average Shale 20 45 19 0.3 90 68 95

Tr 5 5 5 30 2 3 1

- Average shale, after Turekian and Wedepohl (1961)

- Tr:toxic-response factor of Håkanson (1980)

2.2. Laboratory Analysis

The use of flame atomic absorption spectrometer is still regarded as the most convenient and

appropriate technique for the purpose of heavy metal analysis in most cases. The road dust samples were air

dried, and then sieved to separate the < 63μm fraction. This fraction is used by several workers to eliminate

the effect of particle size and to obtain a more homogeneous grain distribution [34]. This fraction which

consists of silt and clay is known to entrap most of the trace elements [35]. One gram of the powdered

sample was digested with a mixture of H2O2, HCl and HNO3 according to the method described by Page et

al. [36]. Pb, Cu, Co, Cd, Cr, Ni and Zn were determined in the sample solution using atomic absorption

spectrophotometry (Perkin Elmer, Model 2380).

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EL-Bady, 2014

2.3. Pollution Indices Calculations:

In this article, we classified the commonly used pollution indices into two types: (i) single indices and (ii)

integrated indices in an algorithm point of view. Single indices are indicators used to calculate only one metal contamination, which include contamination factor, ecological risk factor, and index of geo-accumulation.

Integrated indices are indicators used to calculate more than one metal contamination, which were based on the

single indices. Each kind of integrated index might be composed by the single indices separately.

Contamination indices and ecological risk indices were analyzed to assess heavy metal contamination of

road dust using single and integrated indices. In this study, contamination factor (Cf), ecological risk factor (Er)

and index of geo-accumulation (Igeo), as single indices, and the pollution load index (PLI), the degree of

contamination (DC) and the potential ecological risk index (RI), as integrated indices, were calculated.

2.3.1. Contamination factor (CF) and Pollution load index (PLI)

The level of contamination can be expressed by the contamination factor (CF); [37]. The CF is the ratio

obtained by dividing the concentration of each metal in the sediment by the baseline or Background value.

The background value corresponds to the baseline concentrations reported by (Turekian and Wedepohl, [38] and is based on element abundances in sedimentary rocks (shale). The following terminologies are used to

describe the contamination factor: CF<1, low contamination factor; 1≤ CF <3, moderate contamination

factors; 3≤ CF <6, considerable contamination factors; and CF ≥6, very high contamination factor.

The PLI proposed by Tomlinson et al. [39] provide some understanding to the public of the area about

the quantity of a component in the environment. The PLI of a single site is the nth root of n number of

multiplied together Contamination factor (CF) values. A PLI value of zero indicates perfection, a value of one indicates the presence of only baseline levels of

pollutants, and values above one would indicate progressive deterioration of the site and estuarine quality

[39]. The PLI value > 1 is polluted whereas PLI value < 1 indicates no pollution [40,41].

PLI = (CF1 × CF2 × CF3 ×······ ×CFn)1/n

Where, n is the number of metals (seven in the present study) and CF is the contamination factor.

2.3.2. Degree of contamination (DC)

Another index that can be derived from the CF values is the Degree of contamination (Dc) defined as

the sum of all contamination factors for a given site [37]:

DC= ∑ ��

�

where CF is the single contamination factor, and n is the count of the elements present. Dc values less than n would indicate low degree of contamination; n≤Dc<2n, moderate degree of contamination; 2n≤Dc<4n,

considerable degree of contamination; and Dc>4n, very high degree of contamination [42,43].

For the description of the degree of contamination in the study area the following terminologies have

been used: Dc < 7 low degree of contamination; 7<Dc<14 moderate degree of contamination; 14≤Dc<28

considerable degree of contamination; Dc > 28 very high degree of contamination. Where, n=7= the count of

the studied heavy metals.

2.3.3. Index of geo-accumulation

An index of geo-accumulation (Igeo) was originally defined by Müller in 1969, in order to determine

and define metal contamination in sediments [44,45,46, 40]. It can be calculated by the following equation

Igeo= Log2 (Cn/1.5Bn)

Where, Cn is the measured concentration of a heavy metal in stream sediments, Bn is the geochemical

background value in average shale of element n and 1.5 is the background matrix correction due to

Terrigenous effects or the factor 1.5 is introduced to minimize the effect of the possible variations in the

background or control values which may be attributed to lithogenic variations in the sediment [47]. The geo-

accumulation index (Igeo) was distinguished into seven classes Igeo≤0, class 0, unpolluted; 0<Igeo≤1, class

1, from unpolluted to moderately polluted; 1<Igeo≤2, class 2, moderately polluted; 2<Igeo≤3, class 3, from moderately to strongly polluted; 3<Igeo≤4, class 4, strongly polluted; 4<Igeo≤5, class 5, from strongly to

extremely polluted; and Igeo>5, class 6, extremely polluted [48,49,50,51].

180


2.3.4. Ecological risk factor

An ecological risk factor (Eri) to quantitatively express the potential ecological risk of a given

contaminant also suggested by Håkanson [37].

Er =Tr × Cf

where Tr is the toxic-response factor for a given substance, and Cf is the contamination factor. The Tr

values of heavy metals suggested by Håkanson [37]. The Tr values of Pb, Cu, Co, Cd, Cr, Ni and Zn are 5, 5,

5, 30, 2, 3, and 1, respectively. The following terminologies are used to describe the risk factor: Er<40, low

potential ecological risk; 40≤Er<80, moderate potential ecological risk; 80≤Er<160, considerable potential

ecological risk; 160≤Er<320, high potential ecological risk; and Er≥320, very high ecological risk.

The potential ecological risk (RI) of the heavy metals is quantitatively evaluated by the potential

ecological risk index (Er) Håkanson, [37]; Zhu et al[52], which takes into account both contamination factor

(Cf), and the “toxic-response” factor.

The potential ecological risk values obtained were compared with categories grade of Er and RI of

metal pollution risk on the environment suggested by Håkanson [37] and Shi et al. [53].The potential ecological risk index (RI) was in the same manner as degree of contamination defined as the sum of the risk

factors.

RI = ∑ ��

�

where Er is the single index of ecological risk factor, and n is the count of the heavy metal species. The

following terminology was used for the potential ecological risk index: RI<150, low ecological risk;

150≤RI<300, moderate ecological risk; 300≤RI<600, considerable ecological risk; and RI>600, very high

ecological risk [37].Where, Er and RI denote the potential ecological risk factor of individual and multiple

metals, respectively.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Heavy metal distributions in road dust:

Concentrations of Pb, Cu, Co, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Zn were measured in all 10 road dust samples (Table.1).

Worldwide concentration values of these elements in road dust have been compiled from literature and are

given in Table 2. The two main sources of street dust, and consequently of the trace elements found therein,

are deposition of previously suspended particles (atmosphere aerosol) and displaced urban soil [3,11].Mean

value concentrations were obtained by averaging the results of the samples collected from different roads

sites. The results obtained for each element are discussed in the following sections.

3.1.1. Lead:

Lead is ubiquitous in industrialized societies, and evidence of the negative affects of Pb on humans has been noted for centuries. Lead is released into the atmosphere from natural and anthropogenic sources.

From Table 1 and Fig. 2, it can be seen that the Pb concentration is in the range of 126–279 mg kg-1

with a mean value of 218.1 mg kg-1 in the road dust samples. The highest Pb concentrations in road dust

samples were found at sample sites 1,3,6,8,9 and 10 where the traffic load is heavy throughout the day. The

variations in the Pb concentration at some points may be due to traffic burden, brick kilns, and usage of

leaded gasoline. The Pb concentration is very high at Benha Bridge, Tokh Bridge, Qalyeob Bridge, EL-

Moassasa Station and at Abbod Station along the expressway .The mean concentration of Pb in the road dust

samples is comparable with that of the popular cities given in Table 2. It is evident that there is a great

variation in Pb concentration from city to city; the concentration is varying from 104 to 1927 mg kg−1

.

Among the 14 places reported, 7 places(Madrid, Istanbul, Avilés , Paris, Calcutta, Amman and Luanda) have

higher and 7 places (Ottawa, Hermosillo, Oslo, Birmingham, Islamabad, and Beijing in 2007 and 2013) have

lower concentration of Pb than that determined along Benha - Cairo Expressway. The percentages of Pb in

all sites along Benha-Cairo Expressway in the following order : Pb in site 10> Site 9> Site 8>Site 6 =Site

3>Site 1>Site 4>Site 5>Site 7 >Site 2 (Fig. 3).

3.1.2. Copper:

Copper occurs naturally in elemental form and as a component of many minerals. Copper is an essential

trace element that is widely distributed in the environment.

The average concentration of Cu in the road dust samples from Benha-Cairo Expressway, as given in

Table 1and Fig. 2, is 69 mg kg-1with a range of 43-95 mg kg−1

. The highest Cu concentration (95 mg kg−1)

in

the dust samples was found at Abbod Station in Cairo city and the lowest Cu concentrations (43 mg kg−1

)

were found at the middle of Expressway between Benha and Cairo. The measured average concentration of Cu is comparable to the global concentration of Cu as reported in Table 2, varies from 26.34-1075 mg kg

−1.

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EL-Bady, 2014

Among the 14 places reported, 9 places have higher and 5 places have lower concentration of Cu than that

determined along Benha - Cairo Expressway. The concentrations of Cu in Ottawa and Beijing are nearly

comparable to that in the dust of Benha-Cairo Expressway. The percentages of Cu in all sites along Benha-

Cairo Expressway in the following order: Cu in site 10> Site 9> Site 8=Site 1>Site 6>Site 3>Site 2>Site

7>Site 4 =Site 5 (Fig. 3).

Table. (2). Comparison of heavy metal concentration in Road dust from some popular cities of the

world with data from Benha-Cairo Expressway City Pb Cu Co Cd Cr Ni Zn

Luanda/Angola a 351.3 41.78 2.9 1.15 26 10 316.6

Amman/Jordanb 210–1131 66.5–350 - 3.1–11.2 - 43–88 166–410

Beijing/Chinac 126 42 - 1.67 - 72 167

Beijing/Chinad 201.82 72.13 - 0.64 69.33 25.97 219.20

Calcutta/Indiae 536 44 - 3.12 42 159

Istanbul/Turkeyf 105–556 49-234 - 1.5-2.3 - 30-33 447-594

Islamabad/Pakistang 104 52 - 5.0 - 23 116

Birmingham/UKh 48 466.9 - 1.62 - 41.1 534

Madrid/Spain i 1927 188 3 - 61 44 476

Avilés (Spain) j 514 183 - 22.3 41.6 27.5 4892

Oslo/Norway i 180 123 19 1.4 - 41 412

Paris/Francek 1450 1075 - 1.7 - 25 840

Hermosillo/Mexicol 36.15 26.34 - 4.25 - 4.70 387.98

Ottawa/Canadam 39.05 65.84 8.31 0.37 43.3 15.2 112.5

Present study 218.1 69 4.45 0.61 39 18.6 309.6

a:Ferreira-Baptista and DeMiguel, (2005), b:Al-Khashman, (2007), c:Han, et al., (2007), d:Du, et al., (2013), e:Chatterjee and

Banerjee, (1999),f: Sezgin, et al., (2003), g:Faiz, et al., (2009),h: Charlesworth, et al.,(2003), i: DeMiguel, et al., (1997),j: Ordońez et al.

(2003),k:Pagotto, et al., (2001), l:Meza-Figueroa, et al., (2007),:Rasmussen, et al.,(2001).

Fig. (2). Concentrations of heavy metals in Road Dust of Benha-Cairo Expressway

3.1.3. Cobalt:

The significant sources of Co in soils are (i) parent materials from which the soils are derived and (ii)

the deliberate application of Co salts or treated phosphate fertilizer [54]. Other anthropogenic sources of

cobalt include coal combustion, electroplating, stainless steel, paints, glass, plastic hardeners, fertilizers and

lead as well as iron and silver mining and processing [55].

The average concentration of Co in the road dust samples from Benha-Cairo Expressway, as given in

Table 1and Fig. 2, is 4.45 mg kg-1with a range of 1.6 -7.9 mg kg−1

. The highest Co concentration (7.9 mg

kg−1

) in the dust samples was found at Abbod Station in Cairo and the lowest Co concentrations (1.6 mg

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Co

nce

ntra

tio

ns

Samples

Pb Cu Co Cd Cr Ni Zn

182


kg

−1) were found at the middle of Expressway between Benha and Cairo.The measured average

concentration of Co is comparable to the global concentration of Co as reported in Table 2, varies from 2.9-

19 mg kg−1

. Among the 14 places reported, 4 places only detected. Where, 2 places have higher and 2 places

have lower concentration of Co than that determined along Benha - Cairo Expressway. The concentrations of

Co in Madridis nearly comparable to that in the dust of Benha-Cairo Expressway. The percentages of Co in

all sites along Benha-Cairo Expressway in the following order : Co in site 10> Site 9> Site 8>Site 1>Site

6=Site 3>Site 7>Site 4 = Site 2 >Site 5 (Fig. 3).

3.1.4. Cadmium

Cadmium is a relatively rare heavy metal, which occurs naturally in combination with other metals.

Cadmium has been observed in road dust due to its presence in automobile fuel and in soil. Cadmium is

released into the atmosphere by natural and anthropogenic means.

The average concentration of Cd in the road dust samples from Benha-Cairo Expressway, as given in

Table 1 and Fig. 2, is 0.61 mg kg-1with a range of 0.1-1.0 mg kg−1

. The highest Cd concentration (1.1 mg

kg−1

) in the dust samples was found at Abbod Station in Cairo and the lowest Cd concentrations (0.1 mg

kg−1

) were found at the middle of expressway between Benha and Cairo. The measured average

concentration of Cd is comparable to the global concentration of Cd as reported in Table 2, varies from 0.37-

22.3 mg kg−1

. Among the 14 places reported, 12 places have higher and 1 places have lower concentration of

Cd than that determined along Benha - Cairo Expressway. The concentrations of Cd in Ottawa is nearly

comparable to that in the dust of Benha-Cairo Expressway. The High values of Cd on expressway due to the

heavy traffic burden as well as higher frequency of stop and start-up of vehicles. The percentages of Cd in all

sites along Benha-Cairo Expressway in the following order : Cd in site 10> Site 9> Site 8>Site 3>Site 1>Site

6>Site 7>Site 2>Site 4 =Site 5 (Fig. 3).

3.1.5. Chromium

The anthropogenic sources of Cr include alloys, chrome plating, pigments, chemical catalysts, dyes,

tanning, wood impregnation and refractory bricks [55].In Egypt the average chromium contents in different

soil types range between 11.6 to 179 ppm, depending on soil types and land management [56]. Abdel Sabour

et al. [57] reported that the main contamination source of Cr pollution arises from prolonged irrigation with

contaminated waste water. In the Nile Delta Shaheen [58] documented that the total chromium content of the

soil irrigated by fresh Nile water is 160.7 mg/kg in surface layers and this value increases with depth.

The average concentration of Cr in the road dust samples from Benha-Cairo Expressway, as given in

Table 1and Fig. 2, is 39 mg kg-1with a range of 22 - 62 mg kg−1

. The highest Cr concentration (62 mg kg−1

)

in the dust samples was found at Abbod Station in Cairo and the lowest Cr concentrations (22 mg kg−1) were

found at the middle of Expressway between Benha and Cairo. The measured average concentration of Cr is

comparable to the global concentration of Cr as reported in Table 2, varies from 26-69.33 mg kg−1

. Among the

14 places reported (9 places not detected and 5 places detected), 4 places have higher and 1 places have lower

concentration of Cr than that determined along Benha - Cairo Expressway. Higher concentration of Cr in traffic

roads and industrial areas, may reflect common traffic source and brake lining, as well as variety of industrial

sources (Rodríguez et al., 2004).The percentages of Cr in all sites along Benha-Cairo Expressway in the

following order : Cr in site 10> Site 9> Site 8>Site 1>Site 6 >Site 3>Site 7=Site 4=Site 2 =Site 5 (Fig. 3).

3.1.6. Nickel

Nickel combined with other elements occurs naturally in the earth's crust. It is found in all soils. In the

environment, it is primarily found combined with oxygen or sulfur as oxides or sulfides. Nickel is also

released into the atmosphere by oil and coal burning power plants, and trash incinerators. The concentration

of Ni as given in Table 1 and Fig. 2 varies between 10 and 27 mg kg−1

whereas the average value of this

element is 18.6 mg kg−1

in road dust. The highest Ni concentration 27 mg kg−1

was found at Abbod Station in

Cairo whereas the lowest concentration of 10 mg kg−1 was obtained at the middle expressway between

Benha and Cairo. The concentration of Ni measured at various places around the world is given in Table 2

(14 places), which varies from 4.7 to 88 mg kg−1

. There are 11 places in the world where the concentration of

Ni is greater and 3 places where it is lower than that in Benha – Cairo Expressway; whereas there is one

place (Ottawa/Canada) where the concentration of Ni is nearly equal to that in Benha-Cairo Expressway.

From these results it can be suggested that there is a higher contribution of Ni from sediment and soil in

roadside dust than traffic emissions. The percentages of Ni in all sites along Benha-Cairo Expressway in the

following order: Ni in site 10> Site 9= Site 8>Site 6>Site 1>Site 7= Site 3>Site 2=Site 5 >Site 4 (Fig. 3).

183

EL-Bady, 2014

The increased concentration of Ni in some sites in Benha-Cairo Expressway emitted from the fuel

combustion for urban and industrial activities, higher frequency of stop and start-up of vehicles as well as

from the soil and sediments beside the expressway.

Fig.(3) The percentages of heavy metals in the expressway between Benha and Cairo

1

10%

2

6%

3

11%

4

9%

5

8%

6

11%

7

8%

8

12%

9

12%

10

13%

Pb 1

12%

2

8%

3

10%

4

6% 5

6%

6

11%

7

7%

8

13%

9

13%

10

14%

Cu

1

12% 2

5%

3

10%

4

5% 5

3% 6

10%

7

6%

8

14%

9

17%

10

18%

Co 1

13% 2

3%

3

15%

4

2% 5

2% 6

10%

7

6%

8

15%

9

16%

10

18%

Cd

1

12% 2

6%

3

9% 4

6%

5

6% 6

10%

7

6%

8

14%

9

15%

10

16%

Cr 1

10% 2

6%

3

10%

4

5%

5

6% 6

12%

7

10%

8

13%

9

13%

10

15%

Ni

1

9% 2

4% 3

8%

4

4% 5

6%

6

10%

7

7%

8

15%

9

18%

10

19%

Zn

184


3.1.7. Zinc

Zinc is an essential trace element, which is present in soil. Soil microbial processes are particularly

sensitive to Zn.

In Table 1and Fig. 2, it can be seen that the Zn concentration in road dust samples has a range of 121-

588 mg kg−1

with an average concentration of 309.6 mg kg−1

. Zn concentration was the highest of all of the

elements studied. The highest Zn concentration 588 mg kg−1

was found at Abbod Station in Cairo whereas

the lowest concentration of 121 mg kg−1

was obtained at the middle expressway between Benha and Cairo.

The concentration of Zn measured at various places around the world is given in Table 2 (14 places), which

varies from 112.5 to 4892 mg kg−1

. There are 9 places in the world where the concentration of Zn is greater

and 5 places where it is lower than that in Benha – Cairo Expressway; whereas there is one place

(Luanda/Angola) where the concentration of Zn is nearly equal to that in Benha-Cairo Expressway. The

percentages of Zn in all sites along Benha-Cairo Expressway in the following order : Zn in site 10> Site 9>

Site 8>Site 6>Site 1>Site 3>Site 7>Site 5>Site 4 =Site 2 (Fig. 3).

As mentioned before, Hien et al. [59] commented that the road dust is enriched with traffic- related

elements such as Cu. Zn is used as a vulcanization agent in vehicle tyres and tyre wear has been reported to

contribute significantly to Zn in street dust [60]. Also higher frequency of stop and start-up of vehicles may

emit more Cd, Ni, and Zn into the road dust [61]. As well as the most common heavy metals released from

vehicles on road are Cadmium (Cd), Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni) and Zinc (Zn) [12,15,14; 11,16,17].

Table. (3) Contamination Factors, Pollution Load Index and Degree of Contamination Samples CF Dc PLI


1 at Benha 10.6 1.86 0.27 2.66 0.5 0.27 3.03 19.21 1.29

2 6.3 1.2 0.12 0.66 0.25 0.16 1.27 9.97 0.61

3 11.65 1.53 0.22 3 0.4 0.27 2.62 19.71 1.19

4 9.9 0.97 0.11 0.33 0.24 0.14 1.43 13.14 0.56

5 9.35 0.95 0.08 0.33 0.26 0.17 1.97 13.14 0.58

6 12.2 1.71 0.23 2 0.43 0.32 3.14 20.05 1.23

7 9.4 1.02 0.13 1.33 0.27 0.26 2.10 14.54 0.83

8 12.75 1.97 0.34 3 0.61 0.35 4.82 23.85 1.59

9 12.95 1.97 0.39 3.33 0.65 0.35 5.98 25.65 1.72

10 at Cairo 13.95 2.11 0.41 3.66 0.68 0.39 6.18 27.41 1.84

3.2. Pollution indices:

Many calculation methods have been proposed for quantifying the level of metal pollution in road dusts. In

the present study, Contamination factor (CF) and Pollution load index (PLI), Degree of contamination (DC),

Index of geo-accumulation (Igeo, Ecological risk factor (Er)and potential ecological risk (RI) have been used to

assess the heavy metal contamination level in the road dust samples collected from Benha-Cairo Expressway.

The contamination factors (Table 3) were calculated for all metals in all samples, where they showed

that the contamination factor of Pb in all samples showed very high contamination (6 ≤ CF). The CF of Cu

showed moderate contamination in all samples, except in samples 4 and 5 showing low contamination factor.

The CF of Co showed low contamination factors in all samples. The CF of Cd showed low contamination

factor ( samples 4 and 5); moderate contamination factors (samples 1,3,6,7 and 8) and considerable

contamination factors (samples 9 and 10). The CF of Cr and Ni showed low contamination factors in all sites.

The CF of Zn showed moderate contamination factors (samples 2,3,4,5 and 7); considerable contamination

factors ( samples 1,6,8 and 9); and very high contamination factor as in sample 10 at Cairo. The PLI values >

1 in sites 1,3,6,8,9 and 10 indicated that these sites are polluted at Benha and Cairo whereas PLI value < 1 in

sites 2,4,5 and 7 indicates no pollution as at the middle sites between Benha and Cairo (Table 3 and Fig. 4).

For the description of the degree of contamination in the study area the following terminologies have

been used: 7<Dc<14 moderate degree of contamination as in sites 2,4 and 5; 14≤Dc<28 considerable degree

of contamination as in sites 1,3,6,7,8,9 and 10 as at Benha and at Cairo. Where, n=7= the count of the studied

heavy metals (Table 3 and Fig. 4).

The results of Geo-accumulation Index (Igeo) in road dust calculation are shown in Table 4 and Fig. 5. The

negative values of Ni, Cr, and Co according to contamination classification of Müller (1969), indicated that

the road dust was not polluted by these metals. Based on the results of Geo-accumulation Index, Igeo values

for Pb of road dust showed Moderately/Heavily pollution as in samples 1,2,3,4,5 and 7 (Benha Bridge, at

40km from Cairo, at Tokh Bridge at 34 km from Cairo,at 25km from Cairo,at 20km from Cairo and at12 km

from Cairo) and Heavily/Extremely pollution as in 6,8,9 and 10 (at QalyeobBridg, at Daaery road inlet, at

185

EL-Bady, 2014

EL-Moassasa Station and at Abbod Station). Igeo values for Cu showed Unpolluted as in 2,4,5 and 7 and

Unpolluted/Moderately polluted as in 1,3,6,8,9 and10 as at Benha and Cairo cities. Igeo values for Cd

showed Unpolluted as in samples 2,4,5 and 7 and Unpolluted/Moderately as in samples 1,3,6 and 8 (Benha

Bridge, Tokh Bridge , Qalyeob Bridge and at Daaery road inlet ) as well as Moderately polluted as in

samples 9 and 10 (at EL-Moassasa Station and at Abbod Station. Igeo values for Zn showed Unpolluted as in

samples 2 and 4, Moderately polluted as in samples 1,6,8 and 9 (Benha Bridge, at Qalyeob Bridge, at Daaery

road inlet and at EL-Moassasa Station), Unpolluted/Moderately at 12 km from Cairo (sample 7) and

Moderately/Heavily at Abbod Station (sample 10).

Fig.(4). Degree of Contamination, Pollution Load Index and potential ecological risk index

of Benha-Cairo Expressway Road Dust

The ecological risk assessment results of toxic metals in road dust, summarized in Table 5, showed that the

potential ecological risk factor of individual metal values (Er) varied belonging the studied metals in road dust

in different sites. Er values of Pb showed moderate contamination ecological risk in all samples except sample 2

showed low individual ecological risk. Er values of Cd showed low ecological risk in samples 2,4 and 5,

moderate contamination ecological risk (samples 1,6 and 7) and showed Considerable ecological risk as in 3,8,9

and 10 (at and near Cairo). Er values of Cu, Co, Ni, Cr and Zn showed low ecological risk in all sites of the

study area.In order to quantify the overall potential ecological risk of observed metals in road dust, RI was

calculated as the sum of all calculated risk factors (Table 5 and Fig. 4).RI could characterize sensitivity of local

ecosystem to the toxic metals and represents the ecological risk resulted from the overall contamination [53]. RI

Values showed low ecological risk as in samples 1,2,4,5,6 and 7 (Benha Bridge, at 40km from Cairo, at 25km

from Cairo, at 20km from Cairo, at QalyeobBridg and12 km from Cairo) and moderate ecological risk as in

3,8,9 and 10 (at Tokh Bridge, Daaery road inlet, EL-Moassasa Station and at Abbod Station).

Table.(4). Geo-accumulation index of Road Dust of Benha-Cairo Expressway Samples Igeo


1 2.82 0.31 -2.45 0.83 -1.58 -2.42 1.01

2 2.07 -0.32 -3.63 -1.16 -2.55 -3.21 -0.23

3 2.95 0.03 -2.72 1 -1.90 -2.42 0.80

4 2.72 -0.61 -3.76 -2.16 -2.61 -3.35 -0.06

5 2.64 -0.65 -4.15 -2.16 -2.49 -3.08 0.39

6 3.02 0.18 -2.66 0.41 -1.79 -2.21 1.06

7 2.64 -0.55 -3.45 -0.16 -2.43 -2.50 0.48

8 3.08 0.39 -2.13 1 -1.29 -2.08 1.68

9 3.10 0.39 -1.92 1.15 -1.19 -2.08 1.99

10 3.21 0.49 -1.85 1.28 -1.12 -1.91 2.04

0.1

1

10

100

1000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Samples

Dc PLI RI

Cairo Benha

186


Table.(5).Risk factors (Er) and risk indices (RI) of Benha-Cairo Expressway Road Dust Samples Er RI


1 53 9.33 1.36 80 1 0.83 3.03 148.57

2 31.5 6 0.60 20 0.51 0.48 1.27 60.37

3 58.25 7.66 1.13 90 0.8 0.83 2.62 161.30

4 49.5 4.88 0.55 10 0.48 0.44 1.43 67.30

5 46.75 4.77 0.42 10 0.53 0.52 1.97 64.99

6 61 8.55 1.18 60 0.86 0.97 3.14 135.72

7 47 5.11 0.68 40 0.55 0.79 2.10 96.25

8 63.75 9.88 1.71 90 1.22 1.05 4.82 172.45

9 64.75 9.88 1.97 100 1.31 1.05 5.98 184.97

10 69.75 10.55 2.07 110 1.37 1.19 6.18 201.14

Fig. (5). Geo-accumulation Index (Igeo) of Benha-Cairo Expressway Road Dust

4. CONCLUSIONS

1- The Pb, Cu, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni and Zn concentrations is high at Benha Bridge, Tokh Bridge, Qalyeob

Bridge, EL-Moassasa Station and at Abbod Station along the expressway, where the traffic load is heavy

throughout the day.

2- The Pb, Cu, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni and Zn concentrations is low at 40km from Cairo, at 25km from Cairo, at

20km from Cairo and at 12 km from Cairo, where the traffic load is low to median throughout the day.

3- The PLI values > 1 in sites 1,3,6,8,9 and 10 (Benha Bridge, Tokh Bridge, at Qalyeob Bridge, at Daaery

road inlet , EL-Moassasa Station and At Abbod Station) indicated that these sites are polluted, whereas

PLI value < 1 in sites 2,4,5 and 7(at 40km from Cairo, at 25km from Cairo, At 20km from Cairo and 12

km from Cairo) indicates no pollution as at the middle sites between Benha and Cairo.

4- Based on the results of Geo-accumulation Index, Igeo values for Pb of road dust showed

Moderately/Heavily pollution as in samples 1,2,3,4,5 and 7 (Benha Bridge, at 40km from Cairo, at Tokh

Bridge at 34 km from Cairo, at 25km from Cairo,at 20km from Cairo and at12 km from Cairo) and

Heavily/Extremely pollution as in 6,8,9 and 10 (at Qalyeob Bridg, at Daaery road inlet, at EL-Moassasa

Station and at Abbod Station).

5- Igeo values for Cd showed Unpolluted/Moderately as in samples 1,3,6 and 8 (Benha Bridge, Tokh

Bridge , Qalyeob Bridge and at Daaery road inlet ) as well as Moderately polluted as in samples 9 and

10 (at EL-Moassasa Station and at Abbod Station.

6- Igeo values for Cu showed Unpolluted/Moderately polluted as in 1,3,6,8,9 and10 as at Benha and Cairo

cities. Igeo values for Cd showed Unpolluted as in samples 2,4,5 and 7 and Unpolluted/Moderately as in

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Samples


Benha Cairo

187

EL-Bady, 2014

samples 1,3,6 and 8 (Benha Bridge, Tokh Bridge, Qalyeob Bridge and at Daaery road inlet ) as well as Moderately polluted as in samples 9 and 10 (at EL-Moassasa Station and at Abbod Station

7- Igeo values for Zn showed Unpolluted as in samples 2 and 4, Moderately polluted as in samples 1,6,8 and 9 (Benha Bridge, at Qalyeob Bridge, at Daaery road inlet and at EL-Moassasa Station), Unpolluted/Moderately at 12 km from Cairo (sample 7) and Moderately/Heavily at Abbod Station (sample 10).

8- The negative values of Ni, Cr, and Co according to contamination classification of Müller (1969), indicated that the road dust was not polluted by these metals.

9- The potential ecological risk index (RI) Values showed low ecological risk as in samples 1,2,4,5,6 and 7 (Benha Bridge, at 40km from Cairo, at 25km from Cairo, at 20km from Cairo, at QalyeobBridg and12 km from Cairo) and moderate ecological risk as in 3,8,9 and 10 (at Tokh Bridge, Daaery road inlet, EL-Moassasa Station and at Abbod Station)

10- nThe most common heavy metals released from vehicles on road are Cadmium (Cd), Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni) and Zinc (Zn) agreement with many authors [12,15,14; 11,16,17].

11- . Also higher frequency of stop and start-up of vehicles may emit more Cd, Ni, and Zn into the road dust [61]. The High values of Cd on expressway due to the heavy traffic burden as well as higher frequency of stop and start-up of vehicles. The variations in the Pb concentration at some points may be due to traffic burden, brick kilns, and usage of leaded gasoline.

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