Russia

Dictatorship and Conflict, 1928 - 53

The Leadership Struggle

1924 - 28

Timeline– 1922: Lenin suffers a stroke, leaving him paralyzed. Writes his testament

later in the year– Blames Stalin and Trotsky for the split in the Party– Stalin had “unlimited power”, but did not know how to use it. Endorsed

Trotsky instead– 1923: Lenin suffers another stroke.

– Rightists, led by Bukharin, believe that the NEP should be continued– Leftists (Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky) strongly disagree with the NEP,

want to focus on industrialization instead– 21st January 1924: Lenin dies. Politburo convenes to chose the next leader

of the USSR. – May 1924: Lenin’s Testament is read to the Central Committee

– Stalin’s position is weakened: the public now knows Lenin clearly did not support him

– However, Zinoviev comes to Stalin’s aid, and as a result the Committee decides to leave Stalin at his post.

Timeline (cont.)– May – December 1925: Stalin and Trotsky have a fierce argument over

Permanent Revolution – 1925: Trotsky Resigns as Commissar for War– 1925: Stalin allies himself with the Rightists (Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky) in

an effort to drive out Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev, his former allies.– By the end of the year, Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev are all expelled

from the Politburo– 1927: Trotsky and Zinoviev are expelled from the party

– 1928: Stalin betrays the Rightists, arguing in favor of ending the NEP and moving towards rapid industrialization. Trotsky is deported to Soviet Central Asia– Despite resistance, Stalin has already created a major power base

within the Politburo, and thus the Rightists lose their power– 1929: Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky resign from the Politburo. Trotsky is

exiled from the USSR. Stalin effectively becomes the supreme leader of the USSR.

StalinStrengths Weaknesses

Had managed to post his supporters at every level of the party through his position as General Secretary

Was Georgian, not Russian

Constantly strived to have a majority of supporters: first in his alliance with Kamenev and Zinoviev against Trotsky, then again with the Rightists.

Did not have Lenin’s support

Made it appear that he was very close to Lenin by carrying his coffin and making speeches at his funeral

His Russian was quite poor

Stalin’s successful “Socialism in One Country” policy gained him popularity

Was disliked by many of the Politburo

TrotskyStrengths Weaknesses

He and Lenin were instrumental in the October Revolution. Lenin’s Testament proved that he was the favored candidate.

Most party members disliked the idea of Permanent Revolution and Comintern (Communist International), which had failed at several attempts at revolution in European countries in the past 5 years.

Trotsky had military knowledge and experience, as Commissar for War.

He was absent from Lenin’s funeral.

Was disliked by many other members of the Politburo: Kamenev, Zinoviev and Stalin all allied themselves to prevent him from rising to power

Five Year Plans

1928 - 1937

Stalin’s motives for industrialization

– The Theory of Productive Forces: before real communism can be achieved, technological advances must be made.

– The USSR was heavily behind other European countries in terms of industry (50 – 100 years)

– USSR was under threat of attack from several countries– Hitler’s rise to power in 1933: anti - Russian and anti - communist– USSR was surrounded by countries which disliked communism (Poland,

Finland, etc.)– In order to show that communism was a valid economic principle, industry

needed to become more productive

The Five Year Plans– 1st Five Year Plan: 1928 – 32 (only 4 years)– 2nd Five Year Plan: 1932 – 37– 1917: Vesenkha (the Supreme Council of National Economy) is set up. – 1921: Gosplan (State Planning Commission) is created. – Stakhanovites: A group of workers who were extremely skilled and efficient

at their work– Originated with Alexei Stakhanov, when he extracted over 100 tons of

coal in a single shift– Stakhanovites were given better housing; appeared in the news; and

were given medals– Many were badly treated by fellow workers, some were murdered– The movement was abandoned in the late 30s

– Key Achievements– Dnieper Dam– Moscow Metro– Belomor Canal

Living Conditions– Significant lack of consumer goods– Housing was in extremely high demand, apartments were often shared by

several families, with each family getting one room– Husbands and wives found it difficult to spend time with each other due to

7 day work weeks.– Religion was abolished as the Cult of Stalin began to emerge.– Workers who worked harder were given significant benefits, such as tickets

to the opera and extra pay.

Working Conditions– Workers worked 7 days a week– Absenteeism was severely punished– Many workers lacked basic training and equipment, as they previously

were peasants– Working conditions were dangerous and unsafe (12 - 15,000 died in the

construction of the Belomor Canal)– “Shock Brigades” began to emerge

– Groups of workers competed against each other to see who could produce the most output

– Their equipment and machinery were very well kept– Many worked on rest days– Some put pressure on workers they felt were not diligent enough– Members received special privileges, such as higher pay, better living

conditions, paid holidays, etc.

Role of Women– Collective nurseries were set up so that women could also take part in the

work– Some women became doctors and scientists, while others became canal

diggers and steel workers

Success/failureSuccesses Failures

• Employment was at 100%• Output increased tremendously• Increased the entire world’s

industrial output by 14% in 10 years

• The 2nd 5 year plan was more carefully considered and realistic

• Increased economic output allowed the USSR to defend their borders from Germany in WW2

• Russian infrastructure improved tremendously

• Massive famines in many areas due to opposition to collectivization

• The peasants who migrated to the towns had little experience in factory discipline and safety, as well as basic training

• Living conditions were very poor and consumer goods were severely under produced

• Many died during the process of industrialization (approximately 12,000 died during the construction of the Belomor Canal)

Collectivization

1928 - 37

Reasons for collectivization– By the end of the 1920s, it was clear that Russian agriculture was

inadequate. – Land was inefficiently cultivated, farming practices were outdated, with

little/no machinery used– A new class of peasant, the Kulak, was created by the NEP. Stalin wished to

liquidate them.– Kulaks owned more land and livestock than the average peasant– Many Kulaks hoarded grain

– In 1928 Stalin announced that the USSR was 2 million tons short of the grain needed to feed the growing number of industrial workers

Collectivization– 1929: Stalin begins the process of collectivization– Kolkhoz: communal farm. 50 – 100 families.– Peasants pooled their fields, livestock and tools.– Instead of selling the grain on the market, it was sold to the government,

and the peasants received wages– Collective farms were intended to be more efficient– One tractor for every 40 farms was provided.

The Kulaks– The Kulaks opposed collectivization as they had the most to lose– Many burnt their own crops and slaughtered their livestock– In 1929 there were around 5 million Kulaks. By the end of the year

approximately 1.5 million of them had been deported.– The land of deported Kulaks was given to the Kolkhoz– Around 25% of the deported Kulaks died due to harsh conditions

Ukrainian Famine: 1932-33– Most kulaks lived in Ukraine, the “breadbasket” of Russia– Many kulaks refused to give the government the quota of grain, choosing

instead to hoard it.– In response, Stalin sent the NKVD to confiscate their grain. – Stealing/hoarding grain resulted in death

– Causes– Collectivization was not popular among many peasants. Resistance in

the form of burning crops/killing livestock was common.– The First Five Year Plan forced peasants to cultivate unfamiliar crops– Poor administration and lack of planning caused large amounts of grain

to remain unharvested, and a significant proportion of grain was lost during transport

– 25,000 people died per day– 25% of the population starved to death– 6 – 10 million died– Evidence to suggest cannibalism

Success/Failure: Collectivization

Successes Failures

• By 1939 99% of land had been collectivized

• 90% of the population lived in Kolkhozes

• Grain production rose by nearly 100 million tons

• Large quantities of grain were sold to other countries

• 17 million people migrated from the countryside to urban areas, easing the pressure on the land and providing a workforce for industrialization

• Livestock levels never recovered

• Output was extremely low from 1928 – 32 due to opposition to collectivization

• Widespread famine due to a range of different factors.

• 5 – 6 million died in 1930, and 6 – 10 million died in 1923 – 33.

Purges & Show Trials

1934 - 1939

The Kirov Murder: 1934– Sergei Kirov: Member of the Politburo and Secretary of the Leningrad

branch of the Communist Party– 1st December 1934: Kirov is shot as he leaves his office

– At the time, his bodyguard is nowhere to be seen. A day later, he allegedly falls off a moving truck while riding with NKVD agents.

– The shooter: Leonid Nikolayev– Had been arrested by the NKVD a few days earlier with a gun and plans

of Kirov’s movements, but was released.– Nikolayev is tried, found guilty and executed. All relatives are arrested,

liquidated or sent to gulags– Stalin’s alleged motives

– Kirov: potential threat to Stalin’s leadership– Was handsome, popular, good speaker.– Received almost as much applause as Stalin at the 1934 Party

Congress

The Great Purges– Stalin claimed Kirov’s murder was part of a conspiracy against the Party

– Claimed that the Left Opposition was involved– Zinoviev, Kamenev and members of the old Left Opposition were

arrested and given long sentences.– The purges were aimed at expelling members of the Party who were

disloyal to Stalin– Mass Arrests: thousands of party members were arrested and forced to

confess to sabotage, treason, etc.– Even NKVD agents were not safe. In 1936 Genrikh Yagoda, leader of

the NKVD, was arrested and tried at the 3rd Moscow Show Trial– He was replaced by Nikolai Yezhov, who famously said “better that 10

innocent people should suffer than one spy get away”– He himself fell from Stalin’s grace and was executed in 1940, and

became a political unperson– 50 – 70% of the members of the Supreme Soviet (formerly the Central

Committee) were stripped of their titles and executed/exiled

The Show Trials: 1936 - 38– Public trials, which were filmed and shown in cinemas– The first show trial involved Zinoviev, Kamenev and 14 others– The 3rd Moscow Show Trial involved Bukharin, Rykov and 19 others– They were accused of being members of a “Trotsky – Rightist bloc”.– Almost all defendants “confessed” to sabotage, treason, etc. and were

either taken into forests and executed, or sent to gulags– Death toll: estimates extremely varied, 11 – 40 million

The Great Terror– The purge spread to the army in 1937– Marshal Tuchachevsky, a Russian war hero from WWI, as well as many

other Red Army generals, were arrested and executed– They were accused of treason and espionage

– By 1939 every admiral, 3/5 Red Army Marshals and around half the officers of the armed forces had been shot

– Anyone who denounced the NKVD/Stalin was labeled a Trotskyite– People often accused each other in order to settle debts– Some were even arrested for “failure to denounce”, thus further

encouraging the spread of the atmosphere of fear.

Cult of Personality

Lenin– After Lenin's death in 1924, a cult of personality was created around his

image.– Stalin actively promoted the cult of Lenin

– Posters and images appeared througout the USSR– Petrograd was renamed Leningrad.– Lenin's body was embalmed and put on public display

– This made it easier for Stalin to create his own cult of personality

Censorship

– Photos of Trotsky and Yezhov were altered so that their image was removed from official documents/publications

– Musicians could not play music with too much “Western influence”

– Writers could only write about the Five Year Plans, etc.

– It was illegal to listen to foreign radio

 

Propaganda– Prevalent in education and film– Emphasized role of women as workers as well as homemakers– Film was used to spread Stalin’s image to the illiterate– “Socialist Realism” – the theory that art, literature and music should reflect

and promote socialist ideals– Stalin was depicted as a godlike father figure

– The media was also controlled by Stalin– Soviet press maintained that Stalin and Lenin were close when he was

still alive– Any negative news about Stalin was not allowed to be printed

Education– In 1935, educations laws allowed teachers to use strict methods of

discipline– Report cards, school uniforms and test marks were brought back (abolished

in the 1920s)– Textbooks were rewritten to glorify Stalin – Every time a Party leader was arrested, students had to go through

textbooks and paste pieces of paper over their faces.– Propaganda was heavily utilized in the classroom: the youth were

encouraged to become Pioneers– By 1939, 94% in towns and 86% in the countryside could read and write

Impact of World War II

1941 - 54

Early German Success: 1941 - 42

– 22nd June 1941: Operation Barbarossa - German armed forces invade USSR– 3.2 million soldiers – In 1 week they had advanced deep into western Russia, destroying

much of their defenses– The Red Air Force was completely crippled, most planes were

destroyed before they could take off– 600,000 Soviets were taken prisoner

– 2 months after the initial invasion, the German army started what would become a 900 day siege on Leningrad

Russian Retaliation– Scorched earth policy – make Russia uninhabitable for the Germans

– Farmers burnt their crops, killed their livestock, destroyed all their farming equipment

– All forms of transportation were destroyed– Bridges, roads, etc. were all blown up

– Relocation of factories east behind the Ural mountains– Enabled USSR to continue production of essential war materials

– “General Winter”: Harsh conditions prevented the Germans from advancing further

– Help from USA: The ‘Lend-Lease’ scheme enabled Russia to sustain the war effort.– Over 1 billion dollars worth of war supplies (food, weapons, medical

supplies etc.) were transported to the USSR

Post War Reconstruction– Germans also utilized the scorched earth policy. By 1945, western USSR

was a wasteland.– In towns and villages, only chimney stacks remained

– Around 1/10th of the population was killed in the war – A 4th Five Year Plan was announced in 1946 to help boost war recovery.

– Factories over houses– Capital over consumer – Very successful: in 1950 output was as high as it was in 1940, in some

areas higher

Stalin’s Final Years– After WWII Stalin was harsher than before– Politburo and Supreme Soviet never convened between 1947 – 52. Instead,

Stalin made all the decisions himself– 1948: Stalin purged the Leningrad Branch because some officers there had

a tendency to ignore his commands– Over 1000 Party officials were arrested and shot– Stalin also purged Jewish intellectuals. Jewish magazines/papers were

banned– It was at this time a negative image of Stalin emerged. However, the cult

of personality countered this view.– Stalin eventually died of a stroke on the 5th of March, 1953