SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

In terms of its biological heritage, South Africa is recognised as one

of the richest nations in the world.

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SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT8The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism’smission is to lead the sustain able development ofSouth Africa’s environ ment by:• conserving the country’s natural resources• protecting and improving the quality and safety

of the environment• promoting a global sustainable-develop ment

agenda.The provincial conservation agencies are major role-players, and independent statutory organisations suchas South African National Parks (SANParks) and theSouth African National Biodiversity Institute (Sanbi) arevaluable partners in the country’s total conservationeffort.

South Africa has made significant progress in thearea of environmental management in the lastdecade. Laws and strategies have been developedthat focus on key environmental areas such asbiodiversity, air quality, protected areas, urban andrural development, and waste and disastermanagement.

Improved environmental conditions includecertain fish stocks, which have recovered due togood management measures and a slowing ofhabitat loss in some areas of the country.

Programmes to rehabilitate ecosystems whilecreating jobs have received increased budgets.

Policy and legislationThe Nat ional Environmental Management:Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act 10 of 2004), provides aregulatory framework to protect South Africa’svaluable species, ecosystems and its biologicalwealth. It implements the White Paper on theConservation and Sustainable Use of South Africa’sBiological Diversity, and multilateral agreementssuch as the Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD).

South Africa is a signatory to the CBD, whichprovides the framework, norms and standards forthe conservation, sustainable use and equitablebenefit-sharing of South Africa’s biologicalresources.

The Act facilitated the transformation of theNational Botanical Institute (NBI) into Sanbi.

The National Environmental Management:Protected Areas Act, 2003 (Act 57 of 2003),provides for the protection and conservation of

ecologically viable areas that are repre sentative ofSouth Africa’s biological diversity, its naturallandscapes and seascapes, and the managementthereof. The Act envisages a national register ofprotected areas, with a simplified classificationsystem of special nature reserves, national parks,nature reserves and protected environments.

It also introduces the concept of biological-diversity protection and ecosystem manage ment.Biodivers i ty, conserva t ion and eco systemmanagement are noted as important aims in policyand legislation that govern marine and coastalresources, fresh water and natural forests.

The Act also proposes a new system of protectedareas, linking various kinds of protected environ-ments to replace the existing frag mented system.

In addition, the Act enables the Minister ofEnvironmental Affairs and Tourism to acquire privateland by purchasing land rights for the creation ofprotected areas.

Based on experience with biosphere reserves,and informed by the new bio regional approach toconservation (linking the pro tected-area networkalong mountains, rivers, wetlands, the coastlineand other areas of natural vegetation), the Act willresult in an inter locking system of protected areasthat explicitly encourages the inclusion of privateland.

It recognises that people are the custodians ofthe land, that they need to be involved in themanagement of the protected land and that theyshould benefit from it.

The Act caters for concurrent competence in themanagement of protected land. For example, an areawith national-park status can now be managed byanother agency, for example, a provincial parksauthority. Steps have been taken to ensure thatstandards are upheld.

Regulations in terms of the National Environ-mental Management: Protected Areas AmendmentAct, 2004 (Act 31 of 2004), provide for the properadministration of specific nature reserves, nationalparks and world heritage sites.

South Africa is one of only two countries in the worldto have promulgated legislation specifically related tothe World Heritage Convention (the other beingAustralia). The country’s World Heritage ConventionAct, 1999 (Act 49 of 1999), stipulates that all world

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heritage sites must have an integrated managementplan in place to ensure cultural and environmentalprotection and sustain able development of the site.

In February 2007, the Minister of EnvironmentalAffairs and Tourism, Mr Marthinus van Schalkwyk,announced regulations pertaining to threatenedand protected species.

The regulations were expected to come intoeffect on 1 February 2008.

The regulations will introduce a uniform nationalsystem for the registration of captive breedingoperations, commercial exhibition facilities, gamefarms, nurseries, scientific institutions, sanctuariesand rehabilitation facilities.

These institutions will be required to meet strictcriteria. For the first time, provision will be made forthe recognition of hunting organisations, and theapplication of codes of ethical conduct and goodpractice.

The introduction of game-farm hunting andnursery-possession permits is aimed at stream-lining the permit-issuing process. It will alsocompel permit holders to provide critical infor-mation to the authorities, which will assist inassessing the status of biodiversity in the country.

To meet South Africa’s commitments to theConvention on International Trade in EndangeredSpecies (Cites), a new national scientific authoritywill enable uniform implementation and provideaccess to scientific information beyond just Citesspecies.

The regulations specifically prohibit huntinglarge predators and rhinoceros that are “put andtake” animals, in other words a captive-bredanimal that is released on a property for thepurpose of being hunted within 24 months.

The regulations include prohibit ions andrestrictions on certain activities and methods ofhunting. For example, hunting thick-skinnedanimals and large predators with a bow and arrowwill be prohibited, and hunting from vehicles will nolonger be allowed.

State of the environmentSouth Africa’s second National State of Environ-ment Report, released in June 2007, includes anumber of new components, namely a section onhuman vulnerability to environmental change,alternative environmental futures and recom-mendations for action.

Specialist studies focusing on a number ofthemes include atmosphere and climate, land,waste, biodiversity, inland water, marine andcoastal ecosystems, human settlements, energy,

environmental governance, and human vulnerabilityto environmental change.

While the report outlined a general decline in thestate of the environment, government is confidentthat its response strategies will continue to ensurethat South Africa is a leader in sound managementand sustainable resource use.

World Summit on SustainableDevelopment (WSSD)Johannesburg hosted the WSSD in September2002. The agreements reached in Johannesburgare a guide to action that will take forward theUnited Nations (UN) Millennium Summit Declara-tion’s goal of halving world poverty by 2015, andwill incorporate decisions taken by world bodiessince the Rio Earth Summit in 1992.

Among the victories of the WSSD was the launchof over 300 partnerships, including 32 energyinitiatives, 21 water programmes and 32 program-mes for biodiversity and ecosystem management.

The biggest success was getting the world toturn the UN Millennium Declaration into a concreteset of programmes and to mobilise funds for theseprogrammes. The WSSD focused on the mostmarginalised sectors of society, including women,the youth, indigenous people and people withdisabilities. The Implementation Plan includes pro -grammes to deliver water, energy, healthcare,agricultural development and a better environmentfor the world’s poor. It also incorporates targets forthe reduction of poverty and the protection of theenvironment.

Targets set at the summit will have an enormousimpact, including the following:• the number of people without basic sanitation

and access to safe drinking water will be halvedby 2015

• biodiversity loss is to be reversed by 2010, andcollapsed fish stocks restored by 2015

• chemicals with a detrimental health impact willbe phased out by 2020

• energy services will be extended to 35% ofAfrican households over the next 10 years.

National Strategy for SustainableDevelopment (NSSD)South Africa is committed to meeting the agreementsreached at the WSSD, including the development ofthe NSSD.

The NSSD is intended to be a powerful tool foraddressing important issues such as water qualityand quantity, climate change, waste management,soil loss and pollution, food production and

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SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT8strategic biodiversity manage ment, while attendingto development priorities associated with tacklingpoverty and basic human needs.

Biological diversitySouth Africa enjoys the third-highest level of bio-diversity in the world. The country’s rich naturalheritage is vast and staggering in its proportions.

Although the country covers only 2% of theworld’s land area, nearly 10% of the world’s plantsand 7% of its reptiles, birds and mammals arefound here.

The three internationally recognised bio diversityhotspots in South Africa are the Cape Floral Regionin the south, the Succulent Karoo that the countryshares with Namibia, and that of Maputoland-Pondoland in the east, which extends into Swazilandand Mozambique.

South Africa’s marine life is similarly diverse,partly as a result of the extreme contrast betweenthe water masses on the east and west coasts.Three water masses – the cold Benguela current,the warm Agulhas current, and oceanic water –make the region one of the most oceanographicallyheterogeneous in the world. According to the WhitePaper on the Conservation and Sustainable Use ofSouth Africa’s Biological Diversity, over 10 000plant and animal species – almost 15% of thecoastal species known worldwide – are found inSouth African waters, with about 12% of theseoccurring nowhere else.

The country’s natural heritage is best describedaccording to a systematic classifica tion of regions,or biomes. A biome is a broad ecological unitrepresenting a major life zone, which extends over alarge area, and contains relatively uniform plant andanimal life closely connected with environmentalconditions, especially climate.

The White Paper states that South Africa is one ofsix countries in the world with an entire plantkingdom within its national confines. The CapeFloral Kingdom has the highest-recorded speciesdiversity for any similar-sized temperate or tropicalregion in the world.

Other biomes in the country are also of globalconservation significance. For example, one-thirdof the world’s succulent plant species are found inSouth Africa.

There are eight major terrestrial biomes, orhabitat types, in South Africa, which can, in turn, bedivided into 70 veld types.

The degree to which each of these biomes isthreatened varies, depending on the fertility of thesoil, the economic value derived from use of thearea, human population pressures and the extent towhich the biome is con served in protected areas.

Savanna biomeThis biome is an area of mixed grassland and trees,and is generally known as bushveld.

In the Northern Cape and Kalahari sections ofthis biome, the most distinctive trees are the camelthorn (Acacia erioloba) and the camphor bush(Tarchonanthus camphoratus). In Limpopo, theportly baobab (Adansonia digitata) and thecandelabra tree (Euphorbia ingens) dominate. Thecentral bushveld is home to species such as theknob thorn (Acacia nigrescens), bushwillow(Combretum spp.), monkey thorn (Acacia galpinii),mopani (Colophospermum mopane) and wild fig(Ficus spp.). In the valley bushveld of the south,euphorbias and spekboom trees (Portulacaria afra)dominate.

Abundant wild fruit trees provide food for manybirds and animals in the savanna biome. Greyloeries, hornbills, shrikes, flycatchers and rollersare birds typical of the northern regions. Thesubtropical and coastal areas are home to Knysnaloeries, purple-crested loeries and green pigeons.

World Wetlands Day: 2 FebruaryNational Water Week: 19 to 25 MarchEarth Day: 20 March World Water Day: 22 March World Meteorological Day: 23 MarchWorld Environment Day: 5 June World Oceans Day: 8 JuneWorld Desertification Day: 17 June National Arbour Week: 1 to 7 September International Day for the Protection of the Ozone Layer: 16 September World Tourism Day: 27 September World Habitat Day: 4 October National Marine Day: 20 October.

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Raptors occur throughout the biome. The largermammals include lion, leopard, cheetah, elephant,buffalo, zebra, rhinoceros, giraffe, kudu, oryx,waterbuck, hippopotamus and many others.

About 8,5% of the biome is protected. TheKruger National Park, Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park,Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park, Isimangaliso WetlandsPark (formerly Greater St Lucia Wetlands Park) andother reserves are located in the savanna biome.

Nama-Karoo biomeThis biome includes the Namaland area of Namibia,and the Karoo area of South Africa.

Because of low rainfall, rivers are non-perennial.Cold and frost in winter and high temperatures insummer demand special adaptations from plants.The vegetation of this biome is mainly lowshrubland and grass, with trees limited to watercourses.

The bat-eared fox, black-backed jackal, ostrich,suricate and ground squirrel are typical of the area.

Only 1% of the Nama-Karoo biome falls withinofficially protected areas, of which the Karoo andAugrabies national parks are the largest.

Overgrazing and easily eroded soil sur faces arecausing this semi-desert to creep slowly in on theneighbouring savanna and grassland biomes.

Grassland biomeThis biome is a summer-rainfall area with heavythunderstorms and hail in summer, and frost inwinter.

A number of perennial rivers such as the Orange,Vaal, Pongola, Kei and Umzimvubu originate in, andflow through, the area.

Trees are scarce and are found mainly on hillsand along riverbeds.

Karee (Rhus lancea), wild currant (Rhus pyroides),white stinkwood (Celtis africana) and severalacacia species are the most common.

The grassland biome has the third-largestnumber of indigenous plant species in the country.

Eight mammal species endemic to South Africaoccur in a wild state in this biome. Two of these,namely the black wildebeest and the blesbok, occurmainly in the grassland biome.

The area is internationally recognised as an areaof high species endemicity as far as birds areconcerned. Birds commonly found in the areainclude the black korhaan, blue crane, guinea-fowland other grassland birds.

Only 1,1% of the grassland biome is officiallyprotected. The wilderness areas of the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg are the most significant.

Succulent Karoo biomeOne of the natural wonders of South Africa is theannual blossoming of the Namaqualand wildflowers (mainly of the family Asteraceae), whichtransforms the semi-desert of the Northern Capeinto a fairyland. After rain, the drab landscape issuddenly covered from horizon to horizon with amulticoloured carpet (from August to October,depending on the rainfall).

This is a winter-rainfall area with extremely dryand hot summers. Succulents with thick, fleshyleaves are plentiful. Most trees have white trunks toreflect the heat.

The quiver tree (Aloe dichotoma) and the human-like elephant’s trunk (Pachypodium namaquanum)are prominent in the Richtersveld. Grass is scarce.

The animal life is similar to that of neigh bouringbiomes (fynbos and Nama-Karoo).

The Richtersveld, Tankwa Karoo and Namaquanational parks have improved the conservationstatus of this biome considerably.

Fynbos biomeThe fynbos biome is one of the six accepted floralkingdoms of the world. This region covers only0,04% of the land surface of the globe.

Fynbos is found mainly in the Western Cape. Thisis a winter-rainfall area and the fynbos vegetation issimilar to that of mediter ranean regions.

Fynbos is the name given to a group of ever-green plants with small, hard leaves (such as thosein the Erica family). It is made up mainly of theprotea, heathers and restio, and incorporates adiversity of plant species (more than 8 500 kinds,over 6 000 of which are endemic).

The fynbos biome is famous for the protea, forwhich South Africa is renowned. The biome also

The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, inpartnership with its stakeholders, observed NationalEnvironment Week, from 4 to 8 June 2007, with a series ofenvironmental-awareness activities. These included theglobal celebration of World Environment Day on 5 June.

World Environment Day was established by the UnitedNations (UN) General Assembly in 1972, making it the 35thanniversary to mark the opening of the StockholmConference on the Human Environment. This ground-breaking conference gave rise to the UN EnvironmentProgramme, which has provided a crucial platform for theexpression of environmental concerns internationally.

The event was celebrated under two overarching themesof climate change, Today's Actions – Shaping Tomorrow'sEnvironment and Strengthening the Partnership for SharedGrowth Through Environment and Tourism.

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SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT8contains flowering plants, now regarded as gardenplants, such as freesia, tritonia, sparaxis and manyothers.

Protected areas cover 13,6% of the fynbosbiome and include the Table Mountain and Agulhasnational parks.

This biome is not very rich in bird and mammallife, but does include the endemic Cape grysbok,the geometric tortoise, Cape sugarbird and theprotea seed-eater. The mountains are the habitat ofthe leopard, baboon, honey-badger, caracal,rhebuck and several types of eagle and dassies.

Forest biomeSouth Africa’s only significant forests are those ofKnysna and Tsitsikamma in the Western andEastern Cape, respectively.

Other reasonably large forest patches that areofficially protected are in the high-rainfall areas ofthe eastern escarpment, and on the easternseaboard. Forest giants such as yellowwood(Podocarpus spp.), ironwood (Olea capensis) andlemonwood (Xymalos monospora) dominate.

The indigenous forests are a magical world offerns, lichens, and colourful forest birds such as theKnysna loerie, the endangered Cape parrot and therameron pigeon. Mammals include the endangeredsamango monkey, bushpig, bushbuck and thedelicate blue duiker.

Thicket biomeSubtropical thicket ranges from closed shrub land tolow forest, dominated by evergreen succulenttrees, shrubs and vines.

It is often impenetrable and has little herbaceouscover. Roughly 20% of the species in the thicketbiome are endemic to it.

Desert biomeTrue desert is found under very harsh environ-mental conditions, which are even more extremethan those found in the succulent Karoo and theNama-Karoo biomes. The climate is characterisedby summer rainfall, but also by high levels ofsummer aridity. Rainfall is highly variable from yearto year. Desert is found mostly in Namibia, althoughit does occur in South Africa in the lower OrangeRiver Valley.

The vegetation of the desert biome is charac-terised by the dominance of annual plants (oftenannual grasses). This means that after a rareseason of abundant rain, the desert plains can becovered with a sea of short annual grass, whereasin drier years, the plains appear bare with theannual plants persisting in the form of seeds.

Perennial plants are usually encountered inspecialised habitats associated with local con-centrations of water. Common examples of suchhabitats are broad drainage lines or washes. Nearerthe coast, the role of coastal fog also governs thed is t r ibut ion o f cer ta in spec ies commonlyassociated with the desert.

The desert biome incorporates an abun dantinsect fauna, which includes many tenebrionidbeetles, some of which can use fog water. Thereare also various vertebrates, including reptiles,springbok, ostrich, gems bok, snakes and geckos.

Some areas in the desert biome are formallyprotected in the Richtersveld National Park.

Preserving biodiversityBiodiversity plays a crucial role in sustainabledevelopment and poverty eradication. Fundamentalchanges to the legislative, policy and institutionalframework for natural resource management haveresulted in a shift in focus from an elitist conser-vation approach to a management approach basedon South Africa’s recognition of the contribution ofbiological resources to food security, science,economy, cultural integrity and well-being.

The country’s conservation areas contri bute tojob creation and socio-economic upliftment, andcontinue to serve as a foundation of the tourismindustry.

South Africa is a very popular tourist destina tion.The main attractions are nature-based tourismfacilities such as national parks and private gamereserves. There are some 9 000 privately ownedgame ranches in South Africa, covering about 13%of the country’s total land area. The contribution ofthese areas towards maintaining South Africa’sunique biodiversity is incalculable.

The publication in 2006 of the National SpatialBiodiversity Assessment by the Department ofEnvironmental Affairs and Tourism and Sanbi,revealed that 34% of South Africa’s ecosystems are

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threatened, with 5% critically endangered; while82% of the 120 main rivers are threatened and44% critically endangered. Of the 13 groups ofestuarine biodiversity, three are in critical dangerand 12% of marine biozones are under seriousthreat.

Because of the geographic spread and diversityof South Africa’s plant and animal species – up to80% of significant bio diversity lies outside existingprotected areas – a traditional approach toconservation is inadequate. Biodiversity prioritieshave to be integrated with all policies, plans andprogrammes.

Minister van Schalkwyk launched South Africa’sNational Bio diver sity Strategy and Action Plan(NBSAP) in June 2006. It aims to guide conser-vation and the management of biodiversity toensure sustain able and equitable benefits for allcommunities.

The NBSAP highlights five strategic objectives,such as the need for a network of protected areasthat conserve a sample of all South Africa’s bio-diversity; specifies how these are to be realised;and sets five- and 15-year targets for each.

The NBSAP also provides for the entrenchmentof biodiversity concerns in production sectors, suchas mining and forestry, by focusing on the inclusionof biodiversity priorities in guidelines and codes ofbest practice, and on measures to encouragesustainable production practices.

The NBSAP informs the creation, in law, of theNational Biodiversity Framework to ensure anintegrated, co-ordinated and consistent approachto biodiversity manage ment by organs of state in allspheres of government, non-governmentalorganisations (NGOs), the private sector, localcommunities, other stakeholders and the public.

South African Biodiversity InformationFacility (Sabif)The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) isa mega-science facility which was established in2001, through collaborations among countries andinternational organisations. It aims to make theworld’s biodiversity data freely and openly availableon the Internet.

South Africa became a voting participant of theGBIF in April 2003, thereby committing itself toestablishing national nodes that are linked to theGBIF.

Launched in June 2005, Sabif represents apartnership of more than four South African data-providers, including other role-players such as theCouncil for Scientific and Industrial Research, South

African Integrated Spatial Information System,South African Society for Systematic Biology,Endangered Wildlife Trust, Biobank South Africa orWildlife Biodiversity Resources, the Biomap ini-tiative and museums.

Through Sabif, South Africa will be able torespond to pertinent biodiversity challengesthrough innovative applications of informationtechnology.

Sabif intends to create an enabling platform forend users to discover and put to use vast quantitiesof global biodiversity data to:• advance scientific research in many disciplines • promote technological and sustainable develop-

ment • facilitate the equitable sharing of the benefits of

biodiversity• enhance the quality of life of members of society.

South African Biosystematics Initiative(Sabi) Sabi, which was established in 2002, aims to take aleading role in the application of innovativeapproaches to systematics and taxonomy as funda-mental sciences underpinning biological research.

In this way, it plans to unlock the full potential ofSouth Africa’s biological and human resourcesthrough the enhanced practice of biosystematicscience, and to use modern technology to build onan existing rich historical scientific legacy, includingindigenous knowledge systems.

Some of Sabi’s primary objectives include establishing a framework and strategy to:• address the diminishing national capacity in

biological systematics and taxonomy• provide leadership and co-ordination to promote

innovative research in the field of biosys-tematics

• empower South African biosystematics toemploy and develop modern scientific techno-logies and approaches regarding the documen-tation and use of biological resources

• enhance the ability of South African biosys-tematics to contribute to the National System ofInnovation and the information society, and thusrespond to national priorities in agriculture,health, sustainable development and conser-vation.

South African Environmental ObservationNetwork (SAEON)The SAEON is a facility of the National ResearchFoundation (NRF). Its main aim is to establish andmaintain environmental observatories, field

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SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT8stations and sites, linked by an information-management network, to serve as research andeducation platforms for the long-term study ofecosystems. It provides for incremental advancesin understanding ecosystems and the ability todetect, predict and react to environmental changes.

The SAEON satisfies the need for public-decisionsupport by generating long-term informationrelevant to the sustainable management of naturalresources and habitats over a spectrum of eco-regions and land uses, ranging from pristine tourbanisation-transformed landscapes.

Wildlife Biodiversity Resources or BiobankSouth AfricaWith the growing global market in biomaterial andbiodiversity informatics, developing countries suchas South Africa face the enormous challenge ofsetting up systems for governing access tobiodiversity and the sustainable use of theirbiodiversity heritage.

The biosciences field is recognised as the drivingforce behind the next revolutionary wave of scientificand technological advancement.

Biobank facilities (genebanks) are increasinglybecoming a key strategic research infrastructure forcountries worldwide. Their importance in theconservation and sustainable use of biodiversity has,among other things, been emphasised in the Consoli-dated Plan of Action for Science and Technology.

This has led to the Department of EnvironmentalAffairs and Tourism collaborating with WildlifeBiodiversity Resources or Biobank South Africa tohelp facilitate, through its member organisations,an integrated and co-ordinated drive to access,collect, enhance and bank a representative rangeof biomaterial from key South African and Africanwildlife and indigenous livestock species forconservat ion, research and biotechnologydevelopment purposes.

This facility also provides general custodianshipto South Africa’s wildlife biomaterial and/or geneticresources.

GenebanksThe Department of Science and Technology and theAgricultural Research Council (ARC) support themaintenance, management and development of

national public assets for the benefit of the broaderscience community.

They are national repositories of geneticinformation and terrestrial data related to theenvironment, and include the specimens of andfacilities that house all insects, support arachnids,nematodes, fungi and various other genebanks.

South Africa has international obligations thatcompel it to keep reference collections of allagricultural specimens regarding the import andexport of agricultural produce.

The national collections and genebanks housethese reference collections and make an importantcontribution to scientific studies, biodiversityreplenishment, sustainable development andproduction, food security and invader-pest identifi-cation.

South African National BiodiversityInstitute Sanbi was established on 1 September 2004 withthe renaming of the NBI in terms of the NationalEnvironmental Management: Biodiversity Act,2004.

Sanbi, with its head office based at the PretoriaNational Botanical Garden, is an autonomous state-aided institute whose vision is to be the leadinginstitution in biodiversity science in Africa,facilitating conservation and the sustainabledevelopment of living resources and human well-being. In addition to new biodiversity-relatedinitiatives linked to the Act, traditional activitiesundertaken by Sanbi include:• collecting, displaying and cultivating plants

indigenous to South Africa• undertaking and promoting research into

indigenous plants and related matters• studying, researching and cultivating threatened

plant species• promoting the economic potential of indigenous

plants• running environmental-education programmes.Sanbi manages nine national botanical gardens infive of South Africa’s nine provinces. The gardenscollectively attract over 1,25 million visitors a year,are signatories to the International Agenda forBotanic Gardens in Conservation, and are foundingmembers of the African Botanic Gardens Network.

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The largest garden is Kirstenbosch, situated onthe eastern slopes of Table Mountain in Cape Town.It displays 5 300 indigenous plant species, and wasvoted one of the top-seven botanical gardens in theworld at the International Botanical Congress heldat Missouri Botanical Garden, United States ofAmerica, in 1999.

Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, as partof the Table Mountain National Park (TMNP), wasincluded in the Cape Floral Region World HeritageSite in 2004, becoming the first botanical garden inthe world to be included within a natural worldheritage site.

Kirstenbosch receives more than 750 000 visitorsannually. The Kirstenbosch National Botanical Gardenhouses the Kirstenbosch Research Centre, theRufford Maurice Laing Centre for BiodiversityConservation, Gold Fields Environmental EducationCentre, the Botanical Society Conservatory, tworestaurants, a conference venue, gift shops, a coffeebar, concert venues, sculpture exhibits and the Centrefor Home Gardening, which includes an indigenousplant retail nursery.

The other gardens in the national network arethe Karoo Desert in Worcester, Harold Porter inBetty’s Bay, Free State in Bloemfontein, KwaZulu-Natal in Pietermaritzburg, Lowveld in Nelspruit,Walter Sisulu in Roodepoort/Mogale City, and thePretoria National Botanical Garden.

The Pretoria National Botanical Garden housesthe National Herbarium of South Africa, the largestherbarium in the southern hemisphere.

The Harold Porter National Botanical Gardenboasts Disa uniflora in its natural habitat (floweringfrom mid-December to the end of January), andSouth Africa’s national flower, the king protea(Protea cynaroides).

The Walter Sisulu National Botanical Gardenaccommodates more than 600 naturally occurringplant species, over 230 bird species, and a numberof reptiles and small mammals. These includejackal and antelope, which occur in the naturalareas of the garden.

This garden receives some 180 000 visitorsannually and is the fastest-growing of the Sanbi-managed gardens. It covers over 275 hectares (ha)and consists of landscaped and natural areas. All thegarden’s plants are indigenous to Southern Africa.

South Africa’s ninth national botanical garden,the Nieuwoudtville National Botanical Garden, wasunveiled in August 2007.

The garden covers 6 300 ha of land on theBokkeveld Plateau, which is famous for its range

and density of bulbous plants, to the extent thatNiewoudtville is often referred to as the “bulb of theworld”.

Some 40% of the local flora consist of bulbs thatcreate spectacular displays every autumn andspring. The garden also incorporates large naturalpatches of renosterveld fynbos and succulentKaroo vegetation. Almost a third of the speciesendemic to the Bokkeveld Plateau are threatenedwith extinction.

Sanbi operates environmental-educationprogrammes within its national botanical gardens,and outreach greening programmes focused onpromoting indigenous gardening at disadvantagedschools in surrounding areas.

Herbaria and taxonomic researchSanbi researches the evolution, diversity, distribu-tion and relationships of southern Africa’s 24 000species of plants, based on the Sanbi collection ofover 1,8 million specimens in its three herbaria.There are also regional herbaria in Durban(KwaZulu-Natal Herbarium) and at the KirstenboschResearch Centre (Compton Herbarium).

Recent products of plant taxonomic researchwithin Sanbi have included a national plant checklistand the first-ever flowering plant checklist for sub-Saharan Africa. There are 50 136 plant taxa recordedfor sub-Saharan Africa and some 19 581 indigenousplant species recorded for South Africa. South Africa,with its 11 700 endemic plant species, has the richesttemperate flora in the world.

Biodiversity researchIn addition to herbarium and taxonomic research,the Kirstenbosch Research Centre in Cape Town isa centre of excellence for biodiversity research.

The research programme focuses on the impactof climate change, invasive alien species and land-use on biodiversity, and the development ofconservation plans for threatened ecosystems andspecies.

The centre has developed a new vegetation mapfor South Africa and maintains the Protea AtlasDatabase, one of the most comprehensive plantdatabases in the world.

The Leslie Hill Molecular Systematics Laboratoryis one of the facilities at the Kirstenbosch ResearchCentre. A DNA bank has been established at thelaboratory, in collaboration with the Royal BotanicGardens, Kew, in the United Kingdom (UK).

The objectives of the bank, which is funded bythe UK-based Darwin Initiative, are to archive the

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SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT8DNA of at least one species of all 2 200 genera ofSouth Africa’s flowering plants, to train SouthAfrican researchers and students in high-profilebiotechnologies and to produce a tree of life ofSouth African plants.

Millennium Seed BankThe Millennium Seed Bank Project in South Africa ispart of a 10-year international programme thataims to collect and conserve 10% of the world’sseed-bearing plant species (some 24 000 species)in the Millennium Seed Bank facility of the RoyalBotanic Gardens in Kew by 2010.

Sanbi jo ined the Mi l lenn ium Seed BankInternational Programme in 2000. The South Africancollaboration aims to contribute by collecting theseed of about 2 500 plant species indigenous to theregion for storage in this long-term conservationfacility.

Greening of the NationThe Greening of the Nation Project, managed bySanbi, is a new government-funded programmethat has been initiated in various provinces forcommunity and school greening projects. Itsactivities include the greening of towns (roadislands and entrances), schools, crèches, day-carecentres, community parks, cemeteries, policestations, and cultural villages, and the developmentof community nurseries.

Many projects include the development ofindigenous and vegetable gardens. The programmeworks closely with Food and Trees for Africa, thefirst national non-governmental, non-profit,greening organi sation in South Africa, establishedin 1990.

Working for WetlandsSanbi also manages the Working for WetlandsProgramme, with its offices based at the PretoriaNational Botanical Garden.

Biodiversity planning and assessmentSanbi has assessed the contribution of municipalnature reserves to meeting national biodiversitytargets, which highlighted the crucial role thatmunicipal nature reserves play in conservingbiodiversity, and the need for supporting the

development of municipal capacity to managethem effectively.

Sanbi supported the initiation of provincialbiodiversity plans in the Eastern Cape and NorthWest. These plans will form the basis for publishingbioregional plans in terms of the Biodiversity Act,2004. North West and the Eastern Cape joinGauteng, KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga asprovinces that have systematic spatial biodiversityplans that identify priority areas for biodiversity,using the best available science.

Policy supportIn 2006/07, Sanbi provided support to the Depart-ment of Environmental Affairs and Tourism onpolicy development and implementation, includingdeveloping the National Biodiversity Framework,preparing for the listing of threatened or protectedecosystems in terms of the Biodiversity Act, 2004and developing guidelines for publishing bio-regional plans in terms of the Act.

New tools in the Biodiversity Act, 2004, such aslisted ecosystems and published bioregional plans,will enable integrated management of priorityterrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, many of whichfall outside the protected area network, and willhelp to streamline environmental authorisations,ensuring outcomes that support both conservationand development.

Bioregional programmesSanbi co-ord ina tes a su i te o f b ioreg iona lprogrammes that focus on partnership projects tomainstream biodiversity in socio-economicdevelopment.

The most recent addition to the suite is the MarineBiodiversity Programme, initiated in partnership withthe World Wide Fund for Nature South Africa (WWF-SA) and Marine and Coastal Management. Theprogramme focuses on facilitating the establishmentof a network of offshore marine protected areas(MPAs) in South Africa’s waters, and engaging withthe fisheries and mining sector.

The Grass lands Programme focuses onmainstreaming biodiversity in production sectors.Demonstra t ion pro jects underway includerehabilitating river ecosystems in the Free State,wetland mitigation banking with the coal-mining

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industry in Mpumalanga, securing pr ior i tybiodiversity sites within urban areas in Gauteng,b iod ivers i t y s tewardsh ip on fa rms in theWakkerstroom area in Mpumalanga, working withthe forestry industry to secure 35 000 ha of highbiodiversity priority forestry-owned land andensuring that expansion of small-grower plantationforestry is underpinned by biodiversity conside-rations.

The Succulent Karoo Ecosystem Programme(Skep) has established innovative partnerships withDe Beers on the Namaqualand coast and with AngloAmerican Base Metals as part of the BushmanlandConservation Initiative in the Northern Cape,securing mine-owned land in conservationagreements that contribute to national biodiversitytargets.

In partnership with the Development Bank ofSouthern Africa (DBSA), Conservation Internationaland the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, Skephas established Skeppies, the first-ever small grantfund enabling synergy between conservation andlocal economic development activities.

The Subtropical Thicket Ecosystem Programme(Step) focuses on integrating maps of biodiversitypriorities into municipal planning and land-usedecision-making in the Eastern Cape, includingpublishing a fully revised Step handbook andmapbook.

Step has initiated four biodiversity-relatedintegrated development plan (IDP) projects inmunicipalities in the Fish River valley.

Cape Action for People and the Environment(Cape) closed off its US$6-million investment fromthe Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, havingfunded 65 civil society-led projects in the CapeFloral Region over the five-year investment period.Cape continues to rol l out the BiodiversityConservation and Sustainable Development Projectwith an investment of US$11 million from theGlobal Environment Facility (GEF), with a key focuson strengthening co-operative governance forimproved biodiversity management in this globalbiodiversity hotspot.

Sanbi gave extensive input into the developmentof the Woolworths Biodiversity Strategy, through theCape, Skep, Step and Grasslands programmes.

Assessing and monitoring indigenous fauna andflauraSince 2004, Sanbi has responded to its newmandate through the initiation of a suite of projectsthat will assess and monitor the status of SouthAfrica’s indigenous fauna. As part of its Threatened

Species Programme, Sanbi co-ordinates severalatlas projects, which capture records of speciesoccurrences across the country through theparticipation of hundreds of volunteer members ofthe public. Highlights include the following:• The South Afr ican Rept i le Conserva t ion

Assessment received much public attention in2006/07. More than 20 volunteers joined thefield team on various outings and 2 200 photo-graphic records from more than 100 amateurphotographers have been submitted to theburgeoning on l ine v i r tua l museum (seewww.reptiles.sanbi.org).

• The launch of the South African National Surveyof Arachnida took place in September 2006. Thiscollaboration between the ARC and Sanbi isprogressing well and has garnered muchattention and support from the public andconservation and scientific communities.

• Sanbi’s Custodians of Rare and EndangeredWildflowers has been so successful in its aim toinvolve local communities in monitoring andconserving their rare and threatened plants thatit has now established offices in Pretoria andPietermaritzburg.

• Sanbi’s Birds and Environmental Change inSouth Africa Programme has progressed with itsaim of using birds as indicators of ecosystemchange and human well-being.

Knowledge and information managementSanbi’s strategic objectives include being thepreferred source for biodiversity knowledge andinformation management in South Africa. Sanbi isactively consolidating its information resources andservices, with the aim of supporting research,planning, implementation and monitoring by arange of partners and stakeholders.

In June 2007, the Minister of Environmental Affairs andTourism, Mr Marthinus van Schalkwyk, announced thatSouth African National Parks (SANParks) had been allocatedR574,9 million for infrastructure development and toimprove facilities in the country's nature reserves, inpreparation for the 2010 FIFA World CupTM and beyond.

Coupled with the R600 million that is being spent on theinfrastructure component of the Expanded Public WorksProgramme, total expenditure on upgrading, as well as newrest camps, roads, fences and other infrastructure, will haveexceeded R1 billion by 2010.

SANParks has signed an agreement with the FIFAaccommodation and ticketing company, Match, providingfootball fans with the chance to have a truly unique SouthAfrican experience during the World Cup.

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SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT8In 2006, Sabif was transferred from the NRF to

Sanbi with support from the Department of Scienceand Technology.

Sanbi’s Biodiversity Geographical InformationSystem (BGIS) Unit is expanding its services toprovide easy access to biodiversity planning andrelated information for all South Africa’s biomes. In2006/07, the amount of freely available spatialbiodiversity information on the BGIS website(www.bgis.sanbi.org) had increased substantially.Some 1:30 000 satellite imagery for southernAfrica, together with a species-mapping tool, hasbeen added to the site.

Conservation areasSouth Africa is committed to meeting the WorldConservation Union (IUCN) target of 10% of landarea under protection.

There are a number of management categoriesof protected areas in South Africa, which conformto the accepted categories of the IUCN.

Scientific reservesScientific reserves are sensitive and un disturbedareas managed for research, moni toring andmaintenance of genetic sources. Access is limitedto researchers and staff. Examples of such areasare Marion Island and the Prince Edward islandsnear Antarctica.

Wilderness areasThese areas are extensive in size, uninhabited and underdeveloped, and access is strictlycontrolled with no vehicles allowed. The highestmanagement priority is the main tenance of theintrinsic wilderness character.

Examples of wilderness areas are the CederbergWilderness Area and Dassen Island in the WesternCape, and the Baviaanskloof Wilderness Area in theEastern Cape.

Marine protected areas South Africa has 23 MPA’s, which cover almost19% of the coastline.

The World Parks Congress recommended that by2012 a global system of effectively managed MPAsbe implemented. The accepted target is to protect20% of each habitat.

MPAs conserve natural environments and assistin the management of fisheries by protecting andrebuilding economically important stocks. Many ofthe new MPAs will be used to further develop andregulate coastal ecotourism opportunities.

National parks and equivalent reservesSANParks manages several national parks through-out South Africa, excluding in Gauteng, North Westand KwaZulu-Natal. The system of national parks isrepresentative of the country’s important eco-systems and unique natural features.

Commercial and tourism-conservation develop-ment and the involvement of local communities areregarded as performance indicators. These areasinclude national parks proclaimed in terms of theNational Environmental Management: ProtectedAreas Act, 2003, provincial parks, nature reservesand indigenous state forests.

Some of these natural and scenic areas areextensive and include large representative areas ofat least one of the country’s biomes. Since 1994,five new national parks have been established and379 000 ha have been added to the parks system. South Africa’s national parks are:• Addo Elephant National Park• Agulhas National Park• Augrabies Falls National Park• Bontebok National Park• Blyde River National Park• Camdeboo National Park• Golden Gate Highlands National Park• Groenkloof National Park• Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (part of the

Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park)• Karoo National Park• Knysna National Lake Area • Kruger National Park, which celebrated its 109th

birthday on 1 June 2007• Marakele National Park• Mapungubwe National Park• Mokala National Park• Mountain Zebra National Park• Namaqua National Park• Richtersveld National Park• TMNP (which incorporates the Cape of Good

Hope, Table Mountain and Silvermine naturereserves)

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• Tankwa Karoo National Park• Tsitsikamma National Park• Wilderness National Park• West Coast National Park• Wild Coast National Park.The new Mokala National Park, which was pro-claimed in June 2007, boasts 19 611 ha and issituated south-west of Kimberley.

The Department of Environmental Affairs andTourism has invested about R120 million in social responsibility funding for infra structuredevelopment in the Mapungubwe National Park,and a further R30 million has been spent on landacquisition.

During 2006/07, portions of the new Wild CoastNational Park, located in a globally recognisedbiodiversity hotspot with more than 1 500 plantspecies alone, were declared. It is expected to drawmore than 245 000 tourists by 2008, and 270 000by 2013, creating some 3 260 direct and indirectjobs. The new Blyde River National Park wasdeclared on Heritage Day, 24 September 2006. Itlies in an area with over 2 000 plant species (ofwhich 163 are Red Data plants), which is more thanin the entire Kruger National Park.

The park is in the Blyde River Canyon, which hasone of the richest troves of plants and animals insouthern Africa. Some R18 million has beenallocated for infra structure for the park over thenext three years, starting with a R10-million luxuryhiking trail. The park is expected to boost the localeconomy by R500 million over the next decade.

Transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs)A TFCA is a cross-border region. The conservationstatus of the areas within it ranges from nationalparks, private game reserves and communalnatural-resource management areas to hunting-concession areas.

Although fences, highways, railway lines or otherbarriers separate the constituent areas, they aremanaged jointly for long-term sustainable use ofnatural resources. Unlike in transfrontier parks, freemovement of animals between the components ofa TFCA is not always possible.

TFCAs aim to facilitate and promote regionalpeace , co-opera t ion and soc io-economicdevelopment. The success of TFCAs depends oncommunity involvement. In turn, TFCAs are likely toprovide local communities with opportunities togenerate revenue.

TFCAs are expected to allow tourists easymovement across international boundaries intoadjoining conservation areas.

The six identified TFCAs are as follows:• Ai-Ais/Richtersveld TFCA• Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park• Limpopo/Shashe TFCA• Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park• Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation and

Resource Area• Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation

and Development AreaIn June 2006, a memorandum of understanding(MoU) between South Africa, Botswana andZimbabwe was signed for the establishment of theLimpopo/Shashe TFCA. The proposed Limpopo/Shashe TFCA is 1 950 km2 in extent, of which270 km2 are in South Africa, 720 km2 are inBotswana and 960 km2 are in Zimbabwe.

Biosphere reservesThe National Environmental Management: ProtectedAreas Amendment Act, 2004 protects South Africa’sbiosphere reserves, which are generally formedaround existing core conservation areas.

Biosphere reserves include outstanding naturalbeauty and biological diversity, exist in partnershipwith a range of interested landowners, and canincorporate develop ment, as long as it is sustain-able, while still protecting terrestrial or coastalecosystems.

South Africa’s four biospheres are the:• Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve, which was

registered with the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organisa tion (Unesco) in1998.

• Cape West Coast Biosphere Reserve, which waslisted in 2000. It covers 376 900 ha that includea number of threatened vegetation types andimportant bird-breeding sites.

In July 2007, Cabinet approved the Integrated CoastalManagement Bill for tabling in Parliament. The purpose of the Bill is to:• provide a legal and administrative framework that will

promote co-operative, co-ordinated and integrated coastaldevelopment

• preserve, protect and enhance the status of the coastal environment as the heritage of all

• ensure coastal resources are managed in the interests of the whole community

• ensure there is equitable access to the opportunities and benefits derived from the coast

• give effect to certain of South Africa’s international law obligations.

• ensure that existing access points to the coastal area are reinstated and properly maintained

• allow for the demarcation of access land.

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SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT8South Africa has eight world heritage sites

proclaimed by Unesco, namely Robben Island; theIsimangaliso Wetlands Park; the hominid sites atSwartkrans, Sterkfontein and Kromdraai (known asthe Cradle of Humankind); the Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (a mixed natural and culturalsite); the Mapungubwe Heritage Site; the CapeFloral Kingdom; the Vredefort Dome; and theRichtersveld Cultural and Botanical Landscape.

The Vredefort Dome is an ancient extra terrestrialimpact site spanning the Free State and North Westprovinces. Formed two billion years ago, it is theworld’s most ancient meteorite impact site and thethird-largest, measuring 140 km wide.

The world heritage status of Sterkfontein’s fossilhominid sites was extended in July 2005 to includethe Taung skull fossil site in North West and theMokopane Valley in Limpopo.

The Cradle of Humankind has one of the world’srichest concentrations of hominid fossils, evidenceof human evolution over the past 3,5 million years.

Found in Gauteng and North West, the fossil sitescover an area of 47 000 ha. The remains of ancientforms of animals, plants and hominids are capturedin a bed of dolomite deposited around 2,5 billionyears ago.

Although other sites in south and east Africahave similar remains, the cradle has producedmore than 950 hominid fossil specimens. TheR347-million Cradle of Humankind development,initiated by the Gauteng Provincial Govern ment, isthe first public-private partnership of its kind inSouth Africa. The aim is to develop and manage theWorld Heritage Site as a premier tourist destination.

Other partners include the University of theWitwatersrand, which owns the Sterkfontein cavesand is the major excavator of the cradle site.

In June 2007, the Richtersveld Cultural andBotanical Landscape was declared a world heritagesite. It covers an area of 160 000 ha of dramaticmountainous desert in the north-west part of SouthAfrica. It is the only area where the Nama stillconstruct portable rush-covered domed houses, orIharu oms.

Habitat- and wildlife-management areasThese areas are subject to human intervention,based on research into the requirements of specificspecies for survival. They include conservancies;

Through the Kids in Parks Programme, the Department ofEnvironmental Affairs and Tourism makes South Africa’scultural and biodiversity assets more accessible to theleaders of tomorrow.

Over the past three years, approximately 8 000 learnersand 330 teachers were introduced to 14 of South Africa’snational parks.

• Waterberg Biosphere Reserve in Limpopo, whichwas listed in 2001. It covers 1,4 million ha thatinclude the Marakele National Park and theNylsvlei Ramsar Site.

• Kruger-to-Canyons Biosphere Reserve, whichwas also listed in 2001, and covers more than3,3 million ha that span the boundary betweenLimpopo and Mpumalanga. The core areascomprise 13 declared protected areas, with amajor portion of the Kruger National Park as thelargest core area.

National and cultural monumentsThese are natural or cultural features, or both, andmay include botanical gardens, zoo logical gardens,natural heritage sites and sites of conservationsignificance.

World heritage sitesBy September 2007, there were 851 world heritage sites in 141 countries. Africa had 77 sites. A total of166 were natural sites, 660 were cultural sites and25 were mixed sites.

In May 1997, South Africa ratified the WorldHeritage Convention. The South Africa WorldHeritage Convention Committee is responsible foridentifying possible world heritage sites in SouthAfrica and co-ordinating the convention. The WorldHeritage Convention Act, 1999 (Act 49 of 1999),allows for cultural and natural sites in South Africato be granted world heritage status. The conventionobliges the South African Government to guaranteeits implementation, ensure legal protection, anddevelop management plans and institu tionalstructures for periodic monitoring.

The Act makes the principles of the conventionapplicable to South Africa’s world heritage sites,and further provides for the adequate protectionand conservation of these sites to promote tourismin a culturally and environmentally responsible way.

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WetlandsWetlands include a wide range of inland andcoastal habitats – from mountain bogs and fens tomidland marshes, swamp forests and estuaries,linked by green corridors of stream bank wetlands.

South Africa became a contracting party to theRamsar Convention in 1975. The country’s Ramsarsites include Nylsvlei Nature Reserve, Blesbokspruit,Barberspan, Seekoeivlei, Ukhahlamba-DrakensbergPark, Ndumo Game Reserve, the Kosi Bay System,Lake Sibaya, the turtle beaches and coral reefs ofTongaland, the St Lucia System, Wilderness lakes,De Hoop Vlei, De Mond State Forest, Langebaan,Verlorenvlei, the Orange River Mouth Wetland andthe Makuleke Wetland.

The Directorate: Biodiversity Management of theDepartment of Environmental Affairs and Tourism isresponsible for the South African WetlandsConservation Programme. The programme ensuresthat South Africa’s obligations in terms of theRamsar Convention are met.

The programme aims to protect wetlands inSouth Africa against degradation and destruction,while striving for the ideal of wise and sustainableuse of resources, to ensure that the ecological andsocio-economic functions of wetlands are sustainedfor the future.

South Africa is a member of Wetlands Inter-national, an international body dedicated toconserving the world’s wetlands.

The Working for Wetlands Programme focuses onwetland restoration, while maximising employmentcreation; support for small, medium and micro-enterprises (SMMEs); and transfer of skills to thebene ficiaries of the programme’s projects.

The programme contributes directly to theobjectives of the Expanded Public Works Programmeand is a partnership between the departments ofenvironmental affairs and tourism, of water affairsand forestry, and of agriculture. It is managed bySanbi.

World Wetlands Day marks the date of the signingof the Convention of Wetlands on 2 February 1971 inthe Iranian city of Ramsar. The theme for WorldWetlands Day 2007 was Wetlands and Fisheries.

Zoological gardensFounded in 1899, the National Zoological Gardens(NZG) of South Africa in Pretoria is the only zoo inSouth Africa with national status and membershipof the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums, theAfrican Association of Zoological Gardens, theInternational Union of Zooculturists and theInternational Association of Zoo Educators.

provincial, regional or private reserves created forthe conservation of species habitats or bioticcommunities; marshes; lakes; and nesting andfeeding areas.

Protected land and seascapesThese areas are products of the harmoniousinteraction of people and nature, and includenatural environments protected in terms of theEnvironment Conservation Act, 1989 (Act 73 of1989), scenic landscapes and historical urbanlandscapes.

Sustainable-use areasThese areas emphasise the sustainable use ofprotected areas such as the Kosi Bay Lake Systemin KwaZulu-Natal.

Nature areas in private ownership are pro-claimed and are managed to curtail undesirabledevelopment in areas with high aesthetic orconservation potential.

Conservancies are formed to involve theordinary landowner in conservation. Landownerscan establish a conser vancy where conservationprinciples are integrated with normal farmingactivities.

In September 2007, South African National Parks (SANParks)announced the launch of the first South African NationalParks Week.

This inaugural event, which was held from 18 to 24September, and annually henceforth, is supported by FirstNational Bank (funding patron).

The theme for the event was Know your National Parksand the main objectives of the week were to createawareness; instil a sense of pride in South Africa’s natural,cultural and historical heritage; educate the public on theimportance of nature and biodiversity; and give the public abroader understanding of the custodianship role played bySANParks in conservation issues. This initiative is in linewith the organisation’s efforts to bring national parks closerto the people. Some of the preceding initiatives are the Kidsin Parks, Kruger to Kasie and Imbewu programmes, whichare all aimed at developing a strong stakeholder base fornational parks through awareness and education.

The public had free access to all national parks duringthe National Parks Week. Events included career-guidanceexhibitions, hiking trails, photography competitions,exhibitions on various activities around the parks, gamedrives, evening boma braais, storytelling sessions andsports activities.

The highlight of the week’s activities was the 75thanniversary celebration of the former Kalahari GemsbokNational Park, which now forms part of the KgalagadiTransfrontier Park with Botswana.

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The NZG, considered one of the 10 best in theworld, extends over an area of about 85 ha. In2006, the zoo attracted more than 600 000 visitors.

On 1 April 2006, the zoo’s collection included 2 889 specimens of 213 mammal species, 1 418specimens of 221 bird species, 4 639 specimens of217 fish species, 118 specimens of 12 invertebratespecies, 529 specimens of 113 reptile species, and88 specimens of five amphibian species.

These figures comprised the animals housed atthe NZG in Pretoria, the two biodiversity conser-vation centres in Lichtenburg and Mokopane, andthe satellite zoo and game park at the EmeraldAnimal World in Vanderbijlpark.

In April 2004, the NZG was declared a nationalresearch facility, subject to the provisions of theNRF.

The NRF is a government agency responsible forsupporting and promoting research, and providingresearch facilities to encourage the creation ofknowledge, innovation and development in all fieldsof science and technology. (See Chapter 17:Science and technology.)

In 2001, the NZG established the 203 ha EmeraldAnimal World housed at the Emerald Casino inVanderbijlpark. The facility comprises a 189 hagame park and a 14 ha zoo.

The Emerald Animal World facility houses morethan 760 animals representing 127 species ofmammals, birds and reptiles. Animals that can beviewed there include white rhinoceros, hippo-potamus, lion, cheetah, giraffe, various antelopeand reptile species, and Cape fur seals. Most of theanimals were provided by the national zoo’sbiodiversity conservation centres in Lichtenburgand Mokopane.

The Johannesburg Zoological Gardens, orJohannesburg Zoo, celebrated its centenary in2004. The core business of Johannesburg Zoo,which is registered as a non-profit company, is the

accommodation, enrich ment, husbandry andmedical care of wild animals.

It is also renowned for its successful breedingprogrammes involving several endangered SouthAfrican bird species such as the wattled crane andground hornbill. The zoo covers 54 ha and houses2 070 animals of 365 species.

Breeding centresThere are a number of game-breeding centres inSouth Africa. The NZG of South Africa is responsiblefor the management of the Lichtenburg BiodiversityConservation Centre, which covers an area of some6 000 ha, and the Makopane B iod ivers i tyConservation Centre, covering an area of 1 333 ha.

The two centres supplement the zoo’s breedingprogramme for various endangered animals, andthe zoo’s own animal collection.

The Lichtenburg Biodiversity Conservation Centrehouses, among other animals, Père David’s deer,pygmy hippopotamus, white rhinoceros, theendangered addax, and scimitar-horned andArabian oryx. Large herds of impala, springbok,zebra, blesbok and red hartebeest also roam thearea.

About 32 ha of the wetland area at the centrehave been developed into a system of dams andpans, which serve as a natural haven for waterbirdssuch as spoonbills, kingfishers, ibises and herons.

The Mokopane Biodiversity Conservation Centreis home to an abundance of exotic and indigenousfauna such as lemur, the rare tsessebe, roanantelope and black rhino.

De Wildt Cheetah-Breeding and ResearchCentre, situated near Pretoria, is best known for itshighly successful captive-breeding programme thatcontributed to the cheetah being removed from theendangered list of the South African Red Data Book– Terrestrial Mammals in 1986.

De Wildt also breeds a number of rare and en-dangered African species. The most spectacular ofthese is the magnificent king cheetah, which is atrue cheetah, but with a variation of coat patternsand colouring. De Wildt also plays a major role inbreeding and releasing wild dogs. It has donatedbreeding nucleuses of the highly endangeredriverine rabbit and suni antelope to the KrugerNational Park.

The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism hassecured an investment of R500 million over the next threeyears, to ensure that all South Africa’s national parks areexemplary energy-efficient showcases.

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The De Wildt Vulture Unit is a rehabilitation andholding facility for injured, poisoned and disabledvultures. The Hoedspruit Endangered SpeciesCentre in Mpumalanga was initially established as abreeding programme for the then endangeredcheetah. Following the success of the cheetah-breeding programme, it has evolved into a breedingprogramme for other endangered African animalspecies. The centre caters for, among other things,five species of vulture: Cape griffins, and white-backed, hooded, whiteheaded and lappetfacedvultures. The centre is also known for its wild-dog-breeding programme.

The Hoedspruit Research and Breeding Pro-gramme also includes the rare black-footed cat, thevulnerable African wild cat, ground hornbills (in co-operation with the NZG in Pretoria), bald ibis andthe endangered blue crane. Elephant, white rhino,buffalo, caracal. Sable antelope, bushbuck andtsessebe have also been cared for and rehabilitatedthere.

AquariaThere are well-known aquaria in Pretoria, PortElizabeth, Cape Town and Durban.

The Aquarium and Reptile Park of the NZG is thelargest inland aquarium in Africa, with the largestcollection of fresh water fish. It is also the onlyaquarium in South Africa that exhibits a largevariety of marine fish in artificial sea water.

The Port Elizabeth Oceanarium is one of the city’smajor attractions. Exhibits include an underwaterobservation area, a dolphin-research centre, varioussmaller tanks of 40 different species of bony fish andtwo larger tanks that display sharks and stingrays.East London has a smaller aquarium.

At the Two Oceans Aquarium situated at theVictoria and Alfred Waterfront, Cape Town, morethan 3 000 specimens represent some 300 speciesof fish, invertebrates, mammals, birds and plantssupported by the waters in and around the Capecoast.

UShaka Marine World in Durban incorporatesboth fresh and sea water, and is the fifth-largestaquarium in the world by water volume. I tcomprises Sea World, Dolphin World, Beach World,and Wet and Wild World.

Sea World incorporates a unique ship wreck-themed aquarium, a penguin rookery and a 1 200-seater dolphin stadium (the largest dolphinarium inAfrica).

It also offers edutainment tours and specialinteractive activities such as snorkelling and scubadiving. In addition, it features a rocky touch-pool,where visitors can touch a starfish or sea cucumberwith the help of specially trained guides.

Snake parksThe Transvaal Snake Park in Midrand, betweenPretoria and Johannesburg, houses up to 150species of snakes and other reptiles and amphibiansfrom southern Africa and elsewhere. The emphasis ison the develop ment of breeding programmes foranimals in captivity.

The Fitzsimons Snake Park in Durban housesabout 250 snakes, including the world’s longest(reticulated python), most venomous (boomslang,puff adder and black mamba) and rarest (long-nosetree snake and Madagascar tree boa) snakes.

Up to 500 snakes hatch at the park each year. TheAdventure Walk enables visitors to view a largevariety of snakes that are kept in secure glass-viewing enclosures. The park also offers educational,interactive snake demonstrations, and junior andadvanced herpetology (study of reptiles) classes.

The Port Elizabeth Snake Park at Bayworld has awide variety of South African and foreign reptiles,including tortoises, boa constrictors, pythons,crocodiles, lizards and deadly venomous snakessuch as cobras, mambas and rattlers.

Rare and threatened species, including theMadagascar ground boa, are housed safely inrealistically landscaped glass enclosures.

The Aquarium and Reptile Park situated at theNZG in Pretoria houses 80 reptile species from allover the world.

The Hartbeespoort Dam Snake and Animal Parknear Pretoria features one of the finest reptilecollections in southern Africa. It offers seal showsand snake-handling demonstrations.

Marine resourcesThe South African coastline covers more than 3 200 km, linking the east and west coasts ofAfrica. South Africa’s shores are particularly rich inbiodiversity with some 10 000 species of marineplants and animals having been recorded.

In May 2007, South Africa's first world heritage site, theGreater St Lucia Wetland Park, was renamed IsimangalisoWetland Park.

The new name, meaning “wonder”, became effective on1 November 2007. The 220 000-hectare wetland park’sconsolidated boundaries now include a third of the length ofthe KwaZulu-Natal coastline and destinations such as KosiBay, Lake Sibaya, Sodwana Bay, uMkhuze Game Reserve,False Bay, Fannies Island, Charters Creek, Lake St Lucia,Cape Vidal and Mapelane.

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SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT8ever marine aquaculture policy for South Africa. Thepolicy aims to create an enabling environment thatincludes transforming and broadening participationin the industry through SMME initiatives andfacilitating finance and skills development.

The policies are also intended to improve themanagement and control of environmental impactsand increase the resource base to include a morediverse suite of species. Four marine aquacultureprojects were expected to be initiated in eachcoastal province in 2007/08.

Aquaculture production in South Africa is in theregion of 4 000 tons (t) a year, of which muchis attri-butable to abalone and mussel production.

Abalone-farming was initiated in South Africa inthe early 1990s, and by 1996, a number of smalloperators had entered the industry. The first 10 twere produced in 1997, and by 2003, productionhad increased to 515 t.

In 2006, some 900 t were produced and by April2007, there were 15 commercial farms inoperation. The industry continues to grow, andduring 2006, the department issued 23 permits toculture the species.

While most of the farms are located in theWestern Cape, most notably along the South Coastbetween Hermanus and Danger Point, and aroundthe Saldanha Bay/St Helena Bay area on the WestCoast, farms are also located as far north as PortNolloth in the Northern Cape, and as far east asHaga-Haga in the Eastern Cape.

Abalone-farming has the highest economic valuewhen compared with other farmed products and isthe highest employer within the marine aquaculturesector.

The sector employs more than 800 people, consti-tuting more than 80% of total marine-aquacultureemployment. During 2006, the economic value ofabalone was just above R141 million, while the totalvalue of the sector was around R150 million.

This sector continues to grow while the wildabalone stocks continue to diminish. For example,the total allowable catch for abalone during 2006was 223 t and was reduced to 125 t for 2007.

In October 2007, Cabinet supported a recom-medation by the Department of EnvironmentalAffairs and Tourism to suspend commercial wildabalone fishing from February 2008.

The productive waters of the west coast supporta variety of commercially exploited marine life,including hake, anchovy, sardine, horse mackerel,tuna, snoek, rock lobster and abalone.

On the east coast, squid, linefish and a wide rangeof intertidal resources provide an important source offood and livelihood for coastal communities. Marinelife that is not harvested, such as whales, dolphinsand seabirds, is increasingly recognised as avaluable resource for nature-based tourism.

The South African fishing industry, which wasonce concentrated in the hands of a few, largelywhite-owned companies, has under gone intensivetransformation over the past 10 years.

New fisheriesPartnerships with industry and communities haveenabled the Department of Environmental Affairsand Tourism to make major progress with theallocation of fishing rights.

Following the 2001 allocation of medium-termfishing rights of two to four years, in 2006/07 thedepartment allocated long-term commercial fishingrights of eight to 15 years in 20 fishing sectors.

The biggest challenge in the rights-allocationprocess was to balance declining and migratingmarine living resources with the high demand foraccess to these resources.

A total of 2 542 long-term commercial fishingrights were allocated, significantly improving thetransformation profile of the industry. The estimatedwholesale value of production in the fishing industrywas approximately R4,5 billion in 2006/07.

AquacultureMarine aquaculture is an integral part of thedepartment’s strategy to diversify the fishingindustry. In 2007, the department published the first-

In September 2007, the Minister of Environmental Affairsand Tourism, Mr Marthinus van Schalkwyk, published thePolicy for the Development of a Sustainable MarineAquaculture Sector In South Africa, following the completionof a two-year intensive stakeholder engagement process.The main purpose of the policy is to accelerate thedevelopment of the marine aquaculture industry.

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4x4 regulationsFollowing the successful implementation of the 4x4 regulations that provide for the controlled useof off-road vehicles in coastal zones, the monitoringof certain stretches of coast has indicated that thebanning of off-road vehicles has enabled severalshore-breeding birds, especially Damara tern andAfrican black oystercatcher, to breed successfullyon beaches once again.

According to conservationists from EzemveloKwaZulu-Natal Wildlife, the number of loggerheadand leatherback turtles hatching successfully onthe beaches of northern KwaZulu-Natal has alsoincreased since the ban was enforced.

Following the release in February 2007 of areport on the ecological and socio-economicimpact of the beach-driving ban, Minister vanSchalkwyk declared that for ecological reasons,South African beaches would not be re-opened topublic recreational vehicles.

Interpretive and Informative Marine andCoastal Signage ProgrammeAs part of its education and training programme,the department seeks to raise awareness in coastalareas. Following extensive consultation, more than90 different themed interpretive and informativeboards were developed and erected at beaches allalong the coastline after the reproduction of morethan 1 000 copies. These are valuable tools forincreasing coastal and marine-environ mentawareness among beach visitors.

Adopt-a-BeachThe Adopt-a-Beach Programme was initiated toencourage groups of people to adopt or help look aftera piece of coast in their region and link with others aspart of a national project. Adopt-a-Beach is part of theoverall Coastcare Programme and contributestowards the implementation of the awareness,education and training goals of the White Paper forSus tainable Coastal Development in South Africa.More than 250 groups have been registered and arebeing supported by the department.

Blue Flag ProgrammeBlue Flag is an international annual award given tobeaches that meet excellence in the areas ofsafety, amenities, cleanliness and environmentalstandards.

South Africa is the first country outside Europe towin Blue Flag accreditation for its beaches. Sincethe inception of the programme in South Africa, a

75% growth rate in full status and pilot Blue Flagbeaches has been achieved.

The Blue Flag beaches for 2007/08 were:• Bronze Beach, Umhlanga• Umhlanga Rocks Main Beach• North Beach, Durban• Bay of Plenty, Durban• Westbrook Beach, north of Durban• Addington Beach, Durban• Margate Beach, south of Durban• Ramsgate Main Beach, south of Durban• Marina Beach, Southbroom• Kelly’s Beach, Port Alfred• Wells Estate, Port Elizabeth• Humewood Beach, Port Elizabeth• King’s Beach, Port Elizabeth• Dolphin Beach, Jeffrey's Bay• Lappiesbaai Beach, Stilbaai• Grotto Beach, Hermanus• Kleinmond Beach, near Hermanus• Hawston Beach, near Hermanus• Bikini Beach, Gordon’s Bay• Mnandi Beach, Strandfontein • Clifton Fourth Beach, Cape Town.

Conservation challengesSouth Africa faces many of the problems expe-rienced by developing countries, in which rapidindustrialisation, population growth and urbani-sation pose a threat to the quality of the environ-ment. The department is reforming environ mentallaw to introduce reform in biodiversity conser-vation, pollution, waste management and environ-mental planning.

Urban environmental managementSouth Africa is an urbanised economy with 58% ofthe population living in cities and towns. By 2015, itis expected that 68% of the population will live inurban areas due to con tinued migration from ruralareas mainly to the larger cities, which will lead tomany environ mental challenges in South Africa’scities.

The launch of the five-year Danish-funded UrbanEnvironmental Management Programme (UEMP) inJune 2006 marked a milestone in environmentalco-operation between Denmark and South Africa.With their latest donation of R275 million, Denmarkpassed the R1-billion mark in donations madetowards improving environmental quality in SouthAfrica. Five key municipalities have been chosen aspilots for this programme, namely Cape Town,Durban, Ekurhuleni, Johannesburg and Sedibeng

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SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT8(Vaal Triangle). The three provincial partners areGauteng, Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal.

Some R85 million has been earmarked for directsupport to these cities with a reserve for other“hotspots” in future. People living in air-pollutionhotspots such as the Vaal Triangle and SouthDurban can expect noticeable improvements overthe next five years.

It is expected that the UEMP will lead to animprovement in the quality of life of nearly twomillion poor households in these five municipalities,whose health is affected by inadequate wasteremoval, and poor air quality and planning. It willcontribute to economic growth by assisting cities to develop energy strategies and IDPs. Theprofessional development of environ mental healthofficers will also receive special attention.

Climatic and atmospheric changeIn South Africa, climate change is evident and willcontinue, even if greenhouse gas (GHG) concen-trations are stabilised. As such, it will continue toundermine sustainable development.

Expanded desertification in the semi-arid areasof the country is already a feature of the SouthAfrican landscape. Climate-change modellingsuggests a reduction of the area covered by thecurrent biomes in South Africa by 35% to 55% inthe next 50 years.

The Energy Research Centre at the University ofCape Town has estimated that the yearly cost toSouth Africa of not acting to adapt to the effects ofclimate change now will be about 1,5% of grossdomestic product (GDP) by 2050.

Achieving the 2013 additional renewable energytarget of 10 000 giga watt hours could have apositive impact on GDP of more than R1 billion, leadto additional government revenue of almost R300 million, provide additional income to low-income households of R128 million, and producewater savings of up to 16,5 million kilolitres peryear, while creating just over 20 000 new jobs.

Over the longer term, climate change willexacerbate environmental degradation, deserti-fication, biodiversity loss and resource scarcity.These are all sources of potential instability andconflict.

Africa is at risk from increasing water stress,especially in southern Africa. By 2020, between 75million and 250 million people are likely to experiencewater shortages as a result of climate change.

In combination with increased demand, this willadversely affect livelihoods, freshwater fishresources and agricultural production. In somecountries, yields from rain-fed agriculture could bereduced by up to 50% by 2020.

National Climate-Change Response StrategyThe strategy provides a comprehensive frameworkfor dealing with climate-change issues in SouthAfrica. The approach used in developing thisstrategy ensures, as far as possible, that climate-change response actions in South Africa facilitatesustainable development.

Government approved accession to the KyotoProtocol of the UN Framework Convention onCl imate Change (UNFCCC) in March 2002,demonstrating South Africa’s commitment to furtherenhancing the effectiveness of environmentallegislation. The Kyoto Protocol, which entered intoforce on 16 February 2005, is a legally bind inginstrument whereby developed countries undertaketo reduce GHG emissions by at least 5% of their1990 levels.

One of the protocol’s features is the incorporationof market-based mechanisms designed to allowdeveloped countries to achieve their requiredemission reductions at the lowest possible cost.

The Climate Change Summit was held on 8 June2007 at the Cape Town International ConventionCentre. The South African roadmap for a nationalclimate policy recognises that the solution to thecritical challenges the country faces should beaddressed through integrated government plan-ning, in collaboration with stakeholders through theNational Cl imate Change Committee and astrengthened multilateral regime. To this end, theInter-Ministerial Committee on Climate Change, ledby the Department of Environmental Affairs andTourism, initiated the Long-Term MitigationScenario process. This process will outline therange of ambitious but realistic scenarios of futureclimate action, notably long-term emissionscenarios and their cost implications.

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In addition, various national departments,provinces and cities are refining their sector plansin line with the National Climate Change ResponseStrategy. Working closely with industry, thedepartment will also be finalising the updated GHGInventory. All this will inform the first-ever Long-Term National Climate Policy, planned to bepublished during 2008/09.

South Africa is introducing the first carbon-development mechanism projects that use cleanerdevelopment to generate revenue from developednations, to support the country’s actions inresponse to climate change. Government alsointends implement ing the agreement it has withBusiness Unity South Africa on emissions, andusing the National Environment Management: AirQuality Act, 2004 (Act 39 of 2004), to regulate thereporting of GHG gas emissions, and encouragecleaner production.

Erosion and desertificationMost South African soil is unstable. The countryloses an estimated 500 mt of topsoil annuallythrough erosion caused by water and wind.

About 81% of the total land area of South Africais farmed. However, only 70% of this area issuitable for grazing. Overgrazing and erosiondiminish the carrying capacity of the veld and leadto land degradation. This process has alreadyclaimed more than 250 000 ha of land in SouthAfrica. The Department of Agriculture administersthe Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act,1983 (Act 43 of 1983), in terms of which variousmea-sures are being implemented to prevent orcontain soil erosion.

In January 1995, South Africa signed theConvention to Combat Desertification, which wasratified on 30 September 1997. The main objectivesof the convention include co-operation betweengovernments, organisa tions and communities toaccomplish sustainable development, especiallywhere water resources are scarce.

The convention aims to support membercountries in Africa to prevent desertification and itsconsequences. These countries support one anotherat technical and scientific level, as they sharesimilar climatic conditions.

South Africa also acts as co-ordinator for theValdivia Group for Desertification. The groupconsists of countries in the southern hemisphere,namely Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Chile,Uruguay, South Africa and Brazil, whose aim it is,among other things, to foster scientific andtechnological co-operation.

The country has introduced legislation such asthe Biodiversity Act, 2004 to promote the conser-vation of biodiversity, and fight desertification andland degradation.

The Department of Environmental Affairs andTourism has also initiated projects to care for andprotect the environment such as the Community-Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM).The CBNRM has already led to the MachubeniCatchments Management Project. Other similarprojects exist in Madibaneng, in Sekhukhune inLimpopo, and Mkhuzi in KwaZulu-Natal. Thesepro jects have been funded to the tune of R40 million and further projects are expected to berolled out throughout the country.

By mid-2007, the department was finalising apartnership agreement with the DBSA for increasedfunding for CBNRM projects.

Waste managementThe Department of Environmental Affairs andTourism has prioritised four projects within theframework of the National Waste ManagementStrategy. They are: • recycling• a waste information system• healthcare waste• capacity-building.Central to these are pilot projects that are being setup countrywide. The department welcomespartnerships with business to ensure that theseprojects are successful and become a core of betterwaste management in South Africa.

The National Environment Management: WasteBill was approved by Cabinet in July 2007.

Government aims to reduce the amount of “bigfive” wastes – plastics, cans, paper, glass and tyres– that reach landfills, by 70% by 2022, and hasplans for minimising and treating the remaining30%. National initiatives embarked on to realise thegoal of zero waste include agreements signed bygovernment and members of priority waste-streamsectors such as the manufacturers of plastic bagsand the waste-glass industry, and an MoU with thewaste-tyre sector.

An agreement containing regulations governingplastic shopping bags was signed in September2002 by the Minister of Environmental Affairs andTourism and representatives from various labourand business organisations.

The agreement, which came into effect on 9 May 2003, stipulates that the thickness of plasticbags be 30 microns. However, manufacturers wereallowed to continue using their existing machinery

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SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT8to make bags of 24-micron thickness for thefollowing five years before having to comply withthe 30-micron standard.

The agreement states that printing will only beallowed on 25% of the surface area of plastic bagsif the ink is not environmentally friendly. Insituations where the ink is acceptable, this area canbe increased to 50%. The depart ment has a toll-free line to deal with queries about plastic bags.

The plastic bags agreement and supportingregulations have dramatically decreased theenvironmental impact of this highly visible wastestream, with a 50% reduction in the consumption ofplastic bags since the introduction of the regu-lations.

As part of the implementation of the plastic bagregulations, Buyisa-e-Bag, a non-profit companywas set up to promote waste minimisation andawareness initiatives in the plastics industry. Thecompany is expected to expand collector networksand to create jobs, as well as to kick-start ruralcollection SMMEs and create additional capacity inNGOs.

Work is in progress to follow this success withtargeted and customised agreements in respect ofother problem waste streams, including tyres andglass. The compliance and enforcement of theregulations have been assigned to the South AfricanBureau of Standards.

The Radioactive Waste Management Policy,which assures citizens that there is a nuclearwaste-management plan and strategy, is beingimplemented, starting with the creation of theNat ional Committee on Radioact ive WasteManagement.

Water-quality managementThe Directorate: Water-Quality Management of theDepartment of Water Affairs and Forestry isresponsible for the quality management of nationalwater resources in South Africa.

Water-quality management involves maintainingwater resources for use on a sustained basis, byachieving a balance between socio-economicdevelop ment and environmental protection. From aregulatory point of view, water-quality manage-ment entails the ongoing process of planning,developing, implementing and administering water-

quality management policy; authorising water-usesthat have, or potentially have, an impact on waterquality; as well as the monitoring and auditing ofthe aforementioned.

The National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998),further enables the Department of Water Affairs andForestry to manage water quality through source-directed and resource-directed measures. Source-directed measures include the issuing of licences towater users with a potential impact on the resource.

The Act requires that all significant waterresources be classified in accordance with theprescribed classification system. (See Chapter 22:Water affairs and forestry.)

Air pollutionThe National Environment Management: Air QualityAct, 2004 was promulgated in 2005. The Act, whichrepealed the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act,1965 (Act 45 of 1965), gives effect to the integratedpollution and waste-management policy to ensurethat all South Africans have access to clean air.

In 2007, as part of implementing the Air QualityAct, 2004, registration certificates issued in termsof the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act, 1965were reviewed.

To this effect, it has prioritised the key sectorswhose permits require review. These include thepetrochemical sector (seven operations); primarysteel manufacture (nine operations); primaryaluminium production (two operations); ferro-alloyindustries, specifically chromium, vanadium andmanganese (ferro-silicon) production (27 to 30operations); pulp and paper industries (nineoperations); and coal-fired power stations (nationalgrid) (20 operations).

The Department of Environmental Affairs andTourism has made significant strides in addressingair-pollution problems. In addition to the DurbanMultipoint Plan for Air Quality Management, it hasdeclared the Vaal Triangle air-shed as a priority arearequiring urgent intervention by government and allstakeholders. It has established an air-qualitymonitoring system in the area, and six air-qualitymonitoring stations have been procured andinstalled to generate data. In addition, it hasgazetted its intention to declare the Highveld thesecond national priority area in the near future.

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Marine pollution, poaching andsustainabilitySouth Africa has one of world’s busiest ship pingroutes and has experienced many oil spills over theyears. It is estimated that 80% of the world’s tankertraffic passes South Africa’s coast.

The department developed the National Contin -gency Plan for the Prevention and Combating ofPollution from Ships, in consultation with the SouthAfr ican Mar i t ime Safety Author i ty and theDepartment of Transport. This includes disposing,recover ing or s tab i l i s ing the sp i l t o i l andrehabilitating the environment.

The department successfully responded toseveral pollution incidents, which included, amongother things, spil ls from the Sea Elegance,Sealander Express, Cape Africa and BBC China.

The department established the National BallastWater-Management Task Group to developmeasures aimed at regulating discharges of ballastwater in South Africa’s marine and coastal waters.

Sustainable Coastal Livelihoods Programme(SCLP)The SCLP seeks alternative livelihood options forcommunities along the South African coast tominimise pressure on marine resources.

Subsistence fishingThe implementation of the Marine Living ResourcesAct, 1998 (Act 18 of 1998), has facilitated theallocation of formal rights to fishers in this sector forthe first time.

It is an important part of the overall transformationof fisheries in South Africa. A primary goal is to allowsubsistence fishers to obtain their food, or foodsecurity, through the harvesting of local resources.Consequently, the need to ensure that exploitation issustainable is vital.

Identifying and working with fisher communitiesto promote orderly access has been emphasised.Implementation involves co-operation between allspheres of government and civil society.

Protecting South Africa’s seasTo counter illegal activities along the 3 000-kmcoastline, as well as the country’s 1 155 000-km2

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), the Department ofEnvironmental Affairs and Tourism has boosted itscompliance unit with the appointment of more than80 fishery-control officers (FCOs) and 100 honoraryFCOs, after the imple mentation of the HonoraryFishery Control Officers Policy. The department hasalso taken delivery of four new environ mental-

protec tion vessels as part of measures to protectmarine and coastal resources.

Three of the four new protection vessels, LillianNgoyi, Ruth First and Victoria Mxenge, have beenbuilt to patrol up to the 200 nautical-mile limit fromthe shore. A fourth vessel, Sarah Baartman, patrolsthe most remote reaches of the EEZ and around thePrince Edward islands in the Southern Ocean. Thevessels also conduct multilateral patrols in theSouthern African Development Community (SADC)coastal states.

International co-operationInternational alliances are essential for encouragingregional and international compliance with marinefisheries legislation.

South Africa has played a positive role inresponding to international requests to help whendealing with alleged illegal, unreported andunregulated vessels. The request at the end of2003, from Australia, to assist in the pursuit of theViarsa I is the most prominent example of this kind.The vessel was alleged to have been involved withillegal harvesting of Patagonian toothfish in Australiabefore she fled to the high seas in the direction ofSouth Africa.

Vessel monitoringThe department is making it obligatory for fishingvessels to have satellite technology on board so thatit can monitor their movements. Five coastal nationsin the SADC have taken the innovative step of linkingtheir vessel-monitoring systems. South Africa,Namibia, Angola, Mozambique and Tanzania havesigned an MoU that will allow them to shareinformation about the movement of licensed boatsalong the Southern African coast.

PartnershipsTo further counter illegal fishing and corrup tion, thedepartment entered into partnerships with a broadspectrum of agencies, including national, provincialand local government, as well as NGOs.

Co-operation ensures that resources are usedmore effectively, resulting in a number of high-profile prosecutions and convictions.

In 2006/07, social-responsibility and poverty-relief programmesrun by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourismcreated 13 887 job opportunities, exceeding the target of12 500. The permanent job-creation target was also exceededby almost 15%.

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SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT8Other important partnerships have been forged

with specialised units of the South African PoliceService. In addition, SANParks and a number ofprovincial nature-conser vation agencies conductmonitoring, control and surveillance activitieswithin the MPAs.

Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management(EAFM)In line with the Johannesburg Plan of Imple -mentation, the department has begun to exploreimplementation of the EAFM.

The purpose of the EAFM is to plan, develop andmanage fisheries in a manner that addresses themultiplicity of societal needs and desires, withoutjeopardising the options for future generations tobenefit from the full range of goods and services(including fisheries and recreational opportunities)provided by marine ecosystems.

Good progress has been made through nationaland regional initiatives in imple menting practicalmeasures to mitigate the negative effects offisheries on the ecosystem.

Transboundary research collaborationsThe department has launched a project (as part of aregional initiative) to investigate the feasibilityof an EAFM in the Benguela Current Large MarineEcosystem (BCLME) region, by examining theexisting issues, problems and needs related toEAFM, and developing different managementoptions to achieve sustainable management ofresources at an ecosystem level.

The BCLME Programme is a management-orientated programme aimed at boosting theinfrastructure necessary to address cross-boundary problems associated with fishing, mining,oil exploration, coastal development, biodiversityand pollution.

Another programme implemented by the depart-ment is the scientific arm of BCLME, the BenguelaFisheries Interaction Training (Benefit) Programme.

Benefit is a joint initiative between South Africa,Namibia and Angola to address fisheries and othermarine scientific investigations of important living-marine resources and their interactions with theenvironment. Training staff to undertake researchand to achieve the levels of expertise necessary to

provide advice to fisheries’ management is also animportant objective of Benefit.

Both the BCLME and the Benefit programmes areseen as New Partnership for Africa’s Development(Nepad) initiatives, and are supported by SADC asregional projects.

West Indian Ocean Land-Based ActivitiesProject (WIO-LaB)WIO-LaB was launched at Robben Island on 5 November 2004. The WIO-LaB Project deals withthe protection, prevention and management ofmarine pollution from land-based activities.

The commitment given to this project by themain donors, the United Nations EnvironmentalProgramme (UNEP) and the GEF, resulted in theappointment of a regional project manager inFebruary 2000.

The department is assessing the effect that litterfrom rivers has on the oceans, is raising awarenesso f and educa t ing communi t i es about theimportance of protecting the marine environmentfrom pollution resulting from land-based activities,and has created task teams to deal with municipalwater and the physical alteration and destructionof habitats.

National Policy for Seals and Seabirds The National Policy for Seals and Seabirds in SouthAfrica, and the National Plan of Action for Seabirds,aimed at reducing the incidental catch of seabirdsin longline fisheries, have been finalised.

This follows growing concern over the numbersof seabirds, especially albatrosses, being killed bylongline vessels in southern Africa. The plan setsout the required mitigation measures to reducemortality of seabirds to below an interim targetlevel of 0,05 birds/thousand hooks by SouthAfrica’s longline fisheries for hake, tuna, sword fish,Patagonian toothfish and sharks.

South Africa ratified the Agreement on theConservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP) inNovember 2003. It is a multilateral agree ment thatseeks to conserve alba trosses and petrels by co-ordinating inter national activity to mitigate knownthreats to albatross and petrel populations. SouthAfrica played a key role in negotiating the ACAP, andis home to many important populations of these

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seabirds, including those on the sub-AntarcticPrince Edward islands.

Research observer schemeThe department introduced a formal researchobserver scheme for the following fisheries: deep seahake trawl; inshore hake trawl; hake longline; pelagicpurse seine; South Coast rock lobster; KwaZulu-Natalprawn trawl; large pelagics (experimental); horsemackerel midwater trawl; and deep sea experimentalfisheries. This observer scheme provides valuableresearch data on, among other things, thesefisheries’ influence on the ecosystem.

ChemicalsAlthough relatively small by international standards,the chemical industry is a signi ficant player in theSouth African economy, contributing about 5% toGDP and providing employment to about 200 000people. The industry produces 1 301 t of primaryand secondary process chemicals annually, making itthe largest of its kind in Africa.

Several steps have been taken to align currentlegislation with the Constitution of the Republic ofSouth Afr ica, 1996, as wel l as with globalchemicals management:• A special unit has been set up in the Department

of Environmental Affairs and Tourism to imple-ment a system aimed at preventing majorindustrial accidents, as well as systems foremergency prepared ness and response.

• The minister has initiated an integrated safety,health and environment approach for themanagement of chemicals in South Africa. Thisgovernment-level initiative, funded by the UNInstitute for Training and Research, will involve amultistakeholder forum, including labour repre-sentatives, aimed at integrating legislation.

South Africa has signed the Stockholm Conventionon Persistent Organic Pollutants and the RotterdamConvention on Prior Informed Consent Procedurefor Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides inInternational Trade. It also played a part in theprocess o f deve lop ing gu ide l ines fo r theimplementation of the Globally Harmonised Systemof Classification and Labelling of Chemicals.

At the Reduce, Reuse and Recycle MinisterialConference in 2005, South Africa agreed to managewaste in a holistic manner, and became one ofseven countries to sign a grant agreement onthe African Stockpile Programme (ASP) with theWorld Bank, worth US$1,7 million. The country isalso developing guidelines for the implementationof the Globally Harmonised System of Classification

and Labelling of Chemicals. The funding was for thedisposal of obsolete pesticides as part of the ASP.The department has begun implementing thisprogramme throughout the country. Further workon training workers to handle chemicals wasexpected to be undertaken in 2007. By mid-2007, apilot project for the collection of all obsoletepesticides possessed by farmers in Limpopo hadbegun. This pilot project is expected to serve as abenchmark for the roll-out of projects in otherprovinces.

RecyclingSince 1993, Collect-a-Can has been driving therecovery of used beer and cold drink cans inSouthern Africa. About 750 000 t of used beveragecans have since been recovered for recycling.Collectors have earned R375 million in the processand the living environment has improved. Therecovery rate of cans has increased from a mere18% in 1993 to 67,5% in 2006 – placing southernAfrica among the top can recyclers in the world.Collect-a-Can’s unique schools competition hasbeen running uninterrupted since 1993, contri-buting to continued environmental education.Theefforts of Collect-a-Can have motivated manyind i v i dua l s , compan ies , NGOs and o the rorganisations to become more environmentallyconscious.

Environmental injusticesThe negative effect of asbestos on the environ mentand other environmental-injustice issues are apriority for the Department of Environmental Affairsand Tourism. Efforts being undertaken by the SouthAfrican Government to deal with the asbestosproblem include:• eradicating mine-dumps• developing occupational health and safety

regulations on asbestos• developing safety standards and establish ing a

single compensation office• formulating a code of best practice for the

maintenance, demolit ion and disposal ofasbestos-containing material

• abolishing the use of asbestos in road construction• gradually phasing out asbestos-use in housing.

In September 2007, a new state-of-the-art marine researchvessel, the Ellen Khuzwayo, was officially named. The vesselwill play a key role in gathering scientific research on inshoremarine resources and the marine environment.

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SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT8In September 2007, proposed regulations for theprohibition of the use, manufacturing, import andexport of asbestos were published for comment.

International co-operationThe department promotes South Africa’s interests bypart ic ipa t ing in a number of inter na t ionalcommissions, such as the Inter national Commissionfor the Conservation of At lantic Tunas, theCommission for the Conservation of Antarctic MarineLiving Resources, and the International WhalingCommission.

The following important instruments have beenacceded to, or ratified:• Agreement for the Implementation of the

Provisions of the UN Convention on the Law ofthe Sea on 10 December 1982 relating to theConservation and Manage ment of StraddlingFish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks(Straddling Stocks Agreement)

• ACAP• Convention for the Protection, Management and

Development of the Marine and CoastalEnvironment of the East African Region andRelated Protocols (Nairobi Convention)

• Convention for Co-operation in the Protectionand Development of the Marine and CoastalEnvironment of the West and Central AfricanRegion and Related Protocol (Abidjan Convention)

• SADC Protocol on Fisheries.South Africa, as the vice-chair for both the Abidjanand Nairobi conventions, accepted UNEP’s requestto host a joint meeting for these conventions inSeptember 2007.

The ultimate goal of this joint meeting was todevelop a long-term vision for coastal and marinemanagement in sub-saharan Africa, and promoteprogrammes that strengthen the implementation ofthese conventions.

One of the key programmes in this regard is theWIO-Lab, which South Africa will continue toimplement in coastal areas to combat pollutionfrom land-based activities.

United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate ChangeSouth Africa ratified the UNFCCC in 1997. Theconvention is a global commitment to take

collective responsibility for climate change, and is amandate for action to address the problem.

The convention was signed at the Rio EarthSummit in 1992 by heads of state and other seniorrepresentatives from 154 countries (and theEuropean Community), and came into effect on 21 March 1994.

Since mid-1998, some 175 states have ratifiedor acceded to the convention.

The objective of the convention is to stabiliseGHG concentrations in the atmo sphere at a levelthat will not have an adverse effect on the climate.

The convention aims to control this level over aperiod of time, to:• allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate

change• ensure that food production is not threatened• enable economic development to proceed in a

sustainable manner.All countries that have ratified the convention arerequired to:• develop, update and publish national inventories

of anthropogenic emissions by sources, andremovals by sinks of GHG (the GHG excludesthose listed in the Montreal Protocol)

• formulate, implement and update national andregional programmes containing measures tomitigate climate change

• promote and co-operate in the develop ment andtransfer of technology that controls, reduces orprevents anthro pogenic emissions of GHG

• promote sustainable management, conservationand enhancement of sinks and reservoirs ofGHG

• co-operate in preparing for the adaptation to theimpact of climate change

• take climate-change considerations into accountwhere feasible, in relevant social, economic andenvironmental policies and actions, to minimisethe adverse effects on the economy, on publichealth and on the quality of the environment

• promote and co-operate in the timeous andtransparent exchange of information, includingscientific, technological, socio-economic andlegal information and research

• promote and co-operate in education, trainingand public awareness

• report to the Conference of the Parties.

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Convention on International Tradein Endangered Species Cites, also known as the Washington Convention,was negotiated in 1973 when it was realised thatinternational trade in wildlife and wildlife productscould lead to the overexploitation of certainspecies, thereby threatening them with extinction.

Cites came into force in South Afr ica on 13 October 1975. South Africa, together with theother 149 member countries, acts by regulatingand monitoring international trade in species whichare, or may be, affected by this trade.

Montreal ProtocolSouth Africa, as a signatory to the MontrealProtocol, has a national obligation to safe guard theozone layer from depletion. South Africa hasphased out chloro fluorocarbons (CFCs), halons,methyl chloroform and carbon tetrachloride -making it the only developing country in the worldthat has achieved so much in line with the phase-out schedule for developed countries. AlthoughSouth Africa is classified as a developing country,its consumption of these substances is equal tothat of some developed countries.

To demonstrate the country’s commitmenttowards the phasing out of ozone-depletingsubstances (ODS), the following control measuresconstitute the overall position of South Africa on theMontreal Protocol:• working groups were constituted to assist

government in implementing the protocol• regulated ODS can only be imported or exported

after applying for an import/export permitthrough the Department of Trade and Industryunder the Import and Export Control Act, 1963(Act 45 of 1963)

• ODS can only be imported after an environ-mental levy of R5 per kg of CFC has been paid

• information is disseminated to interested andaffected parties

• Africa network meetings, as arranged by theUNEP, are attended, where views, experiencesand problems are shared to improve co-operation within the region and as per Nepadrequirements.

Obligations include: • ensuring that South Africa, as a party to the

protocol, protects human health and theenvironment against harm from human activities

that modify or are likely to modify the ozonelayer

• ensuring the protection of the ozone layer bytaking precautionary measures to equitablycontrol total global emissions of substances thatdeplete the ozone layer, with the ultimateobjective of totally eliminating them

• reporting and sending to the Ozone Secretariatdata on production, imports, exports andconsumption of regulated ODS as collected fromdealers and relevant departments.

The Department of Environmental Affairs andTourism has embarked on a national project toestablish methyl bromide consumption trends, anda database of suitable, feasible and economicallyviable alternatives to methyl bromide.

This document will form the basis for anintensive research/evaluation project to phase out,in the short term, 20% of methyl bromide usage,mainly in the agri cultural sector. As of 1 January2005, all developing countries were to have reducetheir respective methyl bromide consumption by20%, as per the phase-out timetable.

Private-sector involvementNumerous p r i va te bod ies a re invo lved inconservation activities. There are more than 400organisations in the country concen trating onconservation, wildlife and the general environment,as well as more than 30 botanical and horticulturalorganisations. Among these are:• BirdLife South Africa• Botanical Society of South Africa• Centre for Rehabilitation of Wildlife• Conservation International• Delta Environmental Centre• Dolphin Action Protection Group• EcoLink• Endangered Wildlife Trust• Green Trust• Keep South Africa Beautiful• National Conservancy Association of South Africa• Peace Parks Foundation• South African National Foundation for the

Conservation of Coastal Birds • Trees and Food for Africa• Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa• WWF-SA.

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AcknowledgementsBuaNewsBeeldDepartment of Environmental Affairs and TourismEstimates of National Expenditure 2007, published by National TreasuryNational Zoological Gardens of South AfricaSouth African National Biodiversity InstituteSouth African National Parkswww.southafrica.infowww.collectacan.co.zawww.gov.za

Suggested readingHauf, T. Essence of a Land: South African and its World Heritage Sites. Pretoria: Green Vision Foundation, 2006. Hinz, M. Without Chiefs There Would Be No Game: Customary Law and Nature Conservation. Windhoek: Out of

Africa Publishers, 2003.Hugo, ML. Environmental Management: An Ecological Guide to Sustainable Living in South Africa. Pretoria:

Ecoplan, 2004.Joubert, L. Scorched: South Africa’s Changing Climate. Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 2006.Karoo Veld: Ecology and Management, edited by K Esler et al. Pretoria: Briza, 2006. Le Grange, M. The Capture, Care and Management of Wildlife. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 2006.Spence, C. ed. Ten Days in Johannesburg: A Negotiation of Hope. Pretoria: Department of Environmental Affairs

and Tourism, and the United Nations Development Programme, 2004. Van Wyk, B and Gericke, N. People’s Plants: A Guide to Useful Plants of Southern Africa. Pretoria: Briza, 1999.Weinberg, P. ed. and photographer. Once We Were Hunters: A Journey with Indigenous People. Cape Town:

David Philip, 2000.

8 SA YEARBOOK 2007/08 | ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT