SAMPLE PAGES GCSE Design and Technology for · PDF fileThe GCSE Design and Technology full-course The GCSE Design and Technology full-course builds on the experience you had of all

This sample contains the contents page and 28 sample pages (SectionA) from GCSE Design and Technology for Edexcel: Graphic Productsstudent book, in PDF format. Because this advance material has not yetbeen through all checking stages, it may still contain minor errors.

Jeon Attwood, 2002

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SAMPLE PAGES

GCSE Design andTechnology for Edexcel:

Graphic ProductsJon Attwood

Student book ISBN: 0 435 41780 0

ContentsIntroduction 1

Section A: The classification and selection of materials and components 3Paper and board 4

Plastics 6

Wood 8

Metals 10

Graphic media 12

Choosing paper and board 14

Choosing plastics 16

Choosing wood 18

Choosing metals 20

Choosing glass 22

Components 24

Glass in packaging 26

Practice examination questions 28

Section B: Preparing, processing and finishing materials 29Corrugation 30

Laminating 32

Printing processes 1 34

Printing processes 2 36

Enhancing the format of paper and board 38

Preparation and manufacture 40

Testing prototypes 42

Cutting processes 44

Joining processes 46

Thermoforming plastics 48

Lay planning 50

Quality of manufacture 52

Health and safety 54

Computer-aided design 56

Designing with desktop publishing 58

Input devices and resources 60

Computer-aided manufacture 62

Output devices 64


Section C: Manufacturing commercial products 67One-off production 68

Custom-made vinyl graphics 70

Batch production 72

Batch production in the printing industry 74

Continuous production 76

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High volume (mass) production 78

Computer-integrated manufacture 80

Electronic point of sale 82

CAD/CAM case study 84

ICT within design and development 86

ICT within manufacturing 88


Section D: Design and market influence 91Consumer issues 92

Electronic communications 94

Smart materials 96

The impact of CAD/CAM 98

Moral issues 100

Environmental issues 102

Japanese design 104

Analyse and evaluate products and processes 106

Analysing brand identity 108

Analysing marketing issues 110

Analysing packaging 112

Product disassembly 114

Presenting the results of analysis 116


Section E: Full course coursework 119Coursework project design folder 120

Criteria 1 121

Criteria 2 124

Criteria 3 128

Criteria 4 130

Criteria 5 132

Criteria 6 134

Section F: Short course coursework 137Coursework project design folder 138

Criteria 1 139

Criteria 2 142

Criteria 3 144

Criteria 4 146

Criteria 5 148

Criteria 6 150

Hints and tips for coursework (short course) 152

Glossary 153

Index 156

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Introduct ionWelcome to this GCSE student book, which has beenspecially written to support you as you work throughyour Design and Technology course. If you arefollowing a short-course, check with your teacher tosee which sections of the book you need to cover.You can find out information about the full-courseand the short-course in the next couple of pages.

How to use this bookThis student book will help you develop knowledgeand understanding about the specialist materials area you have chosen to study within Design andTechnology. It includes sections on:

• the classification and selection of materials• preparing, processing and finishing materials• manufacturing commercial products• design and market influence.

As you work through each section, you will find‘Things to do’, which test your understanding of whatyou have learned. Your teacher may ask you toundertake these tasks in class or for homework.

At the end of each section you will find a number ofquestions that are similar in style to the ones in theend-of-course exam. In preparation for your exam it isa good idea to put down on a single side of A4 paperall the key points about a topic. Use sub-headings orbullet point lists and diagrams to help you organizewhat you know. If you do this regularly throughoutthe course, you will find it easier to revise for the exam.

The book also includes sections that cover thecoursework requirements of the full-course and theshort-course. These coursework sections will guideyou through all the important designing and makingstages of your coursework. They explain:

• how to organize your project• what you have to include• how the project is marked• what you have to do to get the best marks.

You should refer to the coursework sections as andwhen you need.

The GCSE Design and Technology full-courseThe GCSE Design and Technology full-course buildson the experience you had of all the five materialsareas at Key Stage 3:

• Food Technology• Textiles Technology

• Resistant Materials Technology• Graphic Products• Systems and Control Technology.

Each of the five materials areas will provideopportunities for you to demonstrate your design andtechnology capability. You should therefore specializein a materials area that best suits your particular skillsand attributes.

What will I study?Throughout the full-course you will have theopportunity to study:

• materials and components• production processes• industrial processes• social, moral, ethical and environmental issues

of products design• product analysis• designing and making processes.

The content of this student book will provide youwith all the knowledge and understanding you needto cover during the full-course.

You will then apply this knowledge and under-standing when designing and making a 3D productand when producing an A3 folder of design work. You should spend up to 40 hours on yourcoursework project, which accounts for 60 per centof your Design and Technology course.

At the end of the full course you will be examined onyour knowledge and understanding of your chosenmaterials area. There will be a 11–2 hour exam, worth40 per cent of the total marks. The exam will bemade up of four questions, each worth 10 per centof the marks.

The GCSE Design and Technology short-courseThe GCSE Design and Technology short-course isequivalent to half a full GCSE and will probably bedelivered in half the time of the full-course. It involvesthe study of HALF the content of the full GCSE, andthe development of HALF the amount of coursework.

The GCSE short-course allows you to work in thematerials area you feel best suits your own particularskills and attributes. You can choose from:

• Food Technology• Textiles Technology• Resistant Materials Technology• Graphic Products• Systems and Control Technology.

The content of this student book will provide youwith all the knowledge and understanding you needto cover during the short-course.

You will then apply this knowledge and under-standing when designing and making a 3D productand when producing an A3 folder of design work.You should spend up to 20 hours on your course-work project, which accounts for 60 per cent of yourDesign and Technology course.

At the end of the short-course you will be examinedon your knowledge and understanding of yourchosen materials area. There will be a 1-hour exam,worth 40 per cent of the total marks. The exam willbe made up of three questions.

Managing your own learning duringthe courseAt GCSE level you are expected to take some respon-sibility for planning your own work and managing yourown learning. The ability to do this is an essential skill atAdvanced Subsidiary (AS) and Advanced GCE level. It isalso highly valued by employers.

In order that you start to take some responsibility forplanning your own work, you need to be very clearabout what is expected of you during the course. Thisbook aims to provide you with such information.Helpful hints include:

• Read through the whole of the introduction beforeyou start the course so you fully understand therequirements of either the full-course or the short-course.

• Investigate the coursework sections that give you a‘flavour’ of what you are expected to do.

• Check out how many marks are awarded for eachof the assessment criteria. The more marks thatare available, the more work you will need toachieve them.

• Discuss the coursework deadlines with yourteacher so you know how much time is availablefor your coursework.

ICT skillsThere will be opportunities during the course for youto develop your ICT capability through the use ofCAD/CAM. You may have the opportunity to use:

• ICT for research and communications, such asusing the Internet, E-mail, video conferencing,digital cameras and scanners

• word-processing, databases or spreadsheets forplanning, recording, handling and analyzinginformation

• CAD software to model, prototype, test andmodify your design proposals

• CAM using computer controlled equipment.

Understanding industrial andcommercial practiceDuring your GCSE course you will have theopportunity to develop an understanding of thedesign and manufacture of commercial products byundertaking product analysis.

You should demonstrate your understanding ofindustrial practices in your designing and makingactivities, which could include:

• developing design briefs and specifications• using market research• modelling and prototyping prior to manufacture• producing a working schedule that shows how the

product is manufactured• making a high quality product that matches the

design proposal• testing and evaluating your product against the

specification to provide feedback on itsperformance and fitness-for-purpose.

You should also use the appropriate technical wordsto describe your work. Many of these words are to befound in this book. When the words first appear theyare in bold. This means that you can look up theirmeaning in the glossary that appears at the end ofthe book.

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Sect ion A: The classification and selectionof materials and components

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Exterior of Namiki House

Paper and boards are the most useful material for theproduction of graphic products. Wood is the primaryraw material for the manufacture of paper and boardsbecause it is widely available and relatively cheap.Other materials can be used such as cotton, straw andhemp, producing papers with different properties.

The production of woodpulpWood is made up of fibres that are bound together by amaterial called lignin. In order to make paper thesefibres must be separated from one another to form amass of individual fibres called woodpulp. This processis carried out at a pulp mill by using either mechanicalor chemical pulping. Mechanical pulping is used toproduce newsprint for newspapers and chemicalpulping produces printing and writing papers.

Quality papers require a pulp that is bright white andwill not discolour with age. It is therefore necessary tobleach the pulp using chlorine in order to remove allimpurities such as bits of tree bark. Packaging gradessuch as Kraftliner – used for corrugated board – are,however, left unbleached.

Machine-made paperThe main classification of paper refers to its methodof production. Machine-made paper is the mostcommonly used paper as it is widely available in arange of colours, sizes and finishes for various applica-tions including printing and art and presentation work.

The production of machine-made paper is a contin-uous process using Fourdrinier machines. Essentially,the woodpulp goes in at one end and passes througha series of rollers, pressers and dryers until eventuallyrolls of paper come out the other end. SomeFourdrinier machines can be about a mile long!

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Paper and board

Aims• To understand the process of making paper

from wood pulp.

• To understand that paper and board is availablein a range of weights, sizes and finishes.

The mechanical and chemical production of woodpulpThe production of paper using a Fourdrinier machine

Screening

Bleaching

Pulp Drying& Baling

Tissue PaperMachine

Neutralizing Fermenting

Distilling

Evaporating

Processing

TissueConvertingOperations

PulpCustomers

LigninProducts

Lignin Plant

EthylAlcohol

Products

Steam PlantSulphur

SulphurBurners

AcidTowers

Bark Fuel

Chip Silos

Trees(A renewable resource)

Chipping machine

During this process the opacity, texture, weight andcolour of the paper can be determined. For example,during the final stages of production the paper ispassed through a series of steel calender rollers. Thisoperation called calendering increases the smooth-ness and gloss of the paper – the more calenders, thehigher the gloss.

Texture and colour

Laid paper is produced by laying rolls of wet paper ona mesh of horizontal or vertical wires. When the paperdries out the striped impression is left. Wove paper isproduced in a very similar way but on a mesh ofwoven wires.

A watermark can be added to paper in order tocreate an individual and high quality effect. A raisedsymbol is placed on the dandy roll of the Fourdriniermachine and makes the paper thinner in that shape.Therefore, when held up to the light more light canpass through the watermark than the rest of the paper.

The finish on paper refers to the way its surface hasbeen treated. The roughest finish is called antiqueand is an uncoated paper. Coated papers includeegg-shell and machine finish (MF) paper.

Coloured dyes or pigments are added to the wood-pulp during the production of paper to produce awide range of colours.

Hand-made paperThe process of making this type of paper is very slowand expensive as each sheet has to be hand produced.It is usually used for very high quality applications suchas letterheads, limited edition books and artists’ paperwhere unique textures and patterning are important.

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■ Things to do ■

1 Try making your own hand-made paper.

2 Collect examples of laid and wove papers withwatermarks to add to your notes.

A range of hand-made papers

A5(148 ×

210 mm)

A4(210 × 297 mm)

A3(297 × 420 mm)

A2(420 × 594 mm)

A1(594 × 841 mm)

A5

Common ‘A’ sizes of paper and board

WeightPaper is available in different thick-nesses or weight which is meas-ured in grams per square metre(gsm). Most paper used in schoolswill weigh 80 gsm, which is fairlythin. Card and board, on the otherhand, are measured in microme-ters or microns for short. Mountingboard used for presentation workmay be as dense as 1000 micronswhich is pretty thick!

When does paper become a board?

Paper usually becomes a board when it is greaterthan 220 gsm and more often than not is made frommore than one ply (sheet). The thickness of card andboard can be gauged by the number of plys or sheetsit consists of.

Common sizesPaper and board are available in metric ‘A’ sizes. A4and A3 are the most commonly used in schools andoffices (A3 being twice the size of A4). In addition tothese there are many other sizes available, including‘B’ sizes and the old imperial measurements.

Sheets Microns

2 200

3 230

4 280

6 360

8 500

10 580

12 750

Common thicknesses of paperand board

There was a rapid growth in the use of plastics duringthe second half of the twentieth century. They haveprovided alternatives to or have completely replacedmany packaging requirements previously carried outby metal, glass and cardboard.

Historical backgroundPlastics were first commercially introduced in theearly twentieth century with a product called Bakelite.This was primarily used for the casings of electricalproducts such as radios as it had excellent electricalinsulation properties. Soon a whole host of commer-cial products was being produced using differenttypes of plastics.

crude oil produces monomers. Monomers areconverted into polymers which are then made intogranules of plastic. The plastic granules are processedin various different ways to produce plastic products.

Thermoplastics and thermosetting plasticsPlastics can be divided into two main groups due totheir specific properties once heated.

Thermoplastics

A thermoplastic is a plastic that once heated can beformed into a variety of interesting shapes usingdifferent forming techniques. The shape then remainspermanent once the plastic has cooled down. Thesame thermoplastic can be heated, softened, shapedand cooled many times over.

Thermosetting plastics

Production of plasticsPlastics are members of a family of substances calledpolymers which have very large chain-like molecules.Each molecule of a polymer contains smaller unitscalled monomers which are joined together. Polymersoccur in the natural world, for example amber, animalhorn and tortoiseshell. However, it is synthetic (man-made) polymers that are used for plastics.

Synthetic plastic is produced from crude oil. A systemof refining and processing the basic chemicals fromTh

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Plast i cs

Aims• To understand the importance of plastics.

• To understand the classification of plastics intothermoplastics and thermosets and to under-stand their characteristics.

• To understand the range of plastics available forpackaging, sheet and block modelling.

An early Bakelite radio

Soften

Cool

Harden

Heat

SoftenSoften

CoolCool

HardenHarden

HeatHeat

Thermoplastic heating cycle

BurnBurnBurn

Soften

Cool

Harden

Heat

SoftenSoften

CoolCool

HardenHarden

HeatHeat

Thermoset heating cycle

The main difference between a thermoplastic and athermosetting plastic is that once they are heated,shaped and cooled, they become permanently hard.A thermosetting plastic therefore, cannot be reheatedand reshaped.

Plastics in packagingThere are six main plastic materials used for theproduction of packaging (usually known by theirinitials): PET, HDPE, PVC, LDPE, PP and PS. All ofthese are thermoplastics.

Thermoplastics are ideal for use in packaging as theycan be reheated, reshaped and can therefore be recycled. Without these plastics we could not makemany of the unique and unusual designs in modernpackaging.

Plastics for sheet modellingPlastics are available in sheet form and can be usedfor a wide range of applications for graphic products.

Plastics for block modellingSheet plastics such as acrylic can be laminated (gluedtogether) in order to produce a thick block for theproduction of some models. It is, however, expandedpolystyrene and Styrofoam that are best used forblock modelling.

Expanded polystyrene

Expanded polystyrene can be obtained free from thepackaging of electrical products. Blocks can beachieved by gluing several pieces together using PVAglue. It is extremely easy to cut with hot wire cuttersbut tends to crumble when shaped or sanded.

Styrofoam

Styrofoam is a specialist modelling material forproducing concept models. The advantages of usingStyrofoam over laminated MDF are that it is easier tocut and shape. Because of its density, Styrofoam canbe sanded to a very smooth finish and painted usingacrylic paints.

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1 Collect examples of sheet plastics for your notes.

2 Make a concept block model of a computermouse using styrofoam.

Material Properties Applications

Acrylic Easily thermoformed, i.e. line Product prototypes and concept bending and vacuum forming modelsRange of colours available Structures such as interior andincluding transparent and translucent architectural modelsExcellent surface finish Point-of-sale displays, standsEasily joined using Tensol cement and leaflet holders

Corriflute Lightweight Structures and signage for

Easily joined using hot melt glue point-of-sale displays

Rigid Architectural and interior

Range of colours available models, etc.

Impact and heat resistant

Foamboard Easily cut Structures such as point-of-sale

Rigid and strong displays, architectural models,

Lightweightetc.

Easily joined using mapping pins and hot melt glue

Can be drawn on

High impact Can be vacuum formed easily Exhibition signagepolystyrene (HIP) Range of colours available Bubble packs

Easily joined using liquid solvent Product prototypes and cement concept models

Interior and architectural models

Acetate Transparent LCD display screen for

Available for photocopiers prototype models

Easily cut and scored Windows for architectural

Flexible models

Easily joined to a range of materials Windows in netsusing hot melt glue

Sheet plastics

Wood can be extremely useful for producing a rangeof graphic products from interior design models toproduct prototypes. It is available in a variety ofshapes and sizes with each timber having its ownproperties.

People have always known the special properties ofwood. Early humans used wood for fires, to buildshelters and to hunt with. As time went on, wood wasused for major engineering tasks such as architectureand shipbuilding and highly decorative uses such asfurniture and intricate carvings. Every culture in allparts of the world has used wood in some way tobenefit its society.

Woods can be divided into three main categories:

• hardwoods• softwoods• manufactured boards.

Both hardwoods and softwoods are produced fromnaturally growing trees, whereas manufactured boardsare man-made using natural timber.

HardwoodsHardwoods are produced from broad-leaved treeswhose seeds are enclosed. Examples include elm,oak, beech, balsa, mahogany and walnut.

Hardwood trees grow in warm climates such as Africaand South America and take about 100 years to reachmaturity. They are usually tough and strong andprovide highly decorative finishes. Because of theirage and where they grow, many hardwoods areexpensive to buy and may only be used in very highquality products. The exception is Balsa wood, whichhas been used to make models for many years as it isrelatively cheap and easy to work with.

SoftwoodsSoftwoods are produced from cone-bearing coniferswith needle-like leaves. Examples include Scots pine(red deal), parana pine and whitewood.

As softwoods grow more quickly than hardwoods (30years) they can be forested and replanted whichmeans they are cheaper. Softwoods are also easier towork with and lightweight which makes them moresuitable for model making.

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Wood

Aims• To understand that woods are classified into

three groups: hardwoods, softwoods and manu-factured board.

• To understand the characteristics of the threegroups.

Balancing kiwis made from farm Radiata Pine

Production of hardwoods and soft-woodsOnce a hardwood or softwood tree has been felled(chopped down), it is transported to the timber millwhere it is processed into planks or boards ready foruse. The first process is called the conversion oftimber where the tree trunk is sawn up into usablesizes using large circular saws.

plywood

blockboard

laminboard

particleboard

fibreboard (MDF)

Manufactured boards

The second stage involves the seasoning of thetimber by removing all moisture by drying it in either akiln or in the open air. This is carried out to increasethe strength and stability of the timber and its resist-ance to decay.

Manufactured boards

Manufactured boards can be made either from thinsheets (veneers) of wood sandwiched together orfrom wood particles glued together and compressed(squashed).

The advantages of using manufactured boards arethat they are available in wide boards which is notpossible with natural timbers where the widthdepends on the width of the tree trunk. By runningthe grain of the veneers at 90 degrees to one another,some boards are given added strength. They are alsovery much cheaper to buy than natural timber andhave greater uses in model making.

There are several types of manufactured boards:

• plywood• blockboard and laminboard• particleboard (e.g. hardboard)• fibreboard (e.g. medium density fibreboard

or MDF).

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logs are first quartered

Radial sawing is used to minimize the amount of wastage

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heating pipes

inlet valve outlet valve

fanbaffles

wood

A kiln allows the timber to be seasoned quickly


1 Collect samples of hardwoods, softwoods andmanufactured boards for your notes.

2 Investigate the standard sizes for a range ofboards using a timber catalogue.

Metals in packagingThe use of metal as a packaging material is extremelyimportant in the preservation of food. Fresh food canquickly decay and become rotten which was aproblem throughout history. During the early nine-teenth century, Napoleon (Emperor of France) hadthe problem of supplying fresh food to his armies indistant countries. Nicholas Appert discovered apreserving process by firstly cooking the food andthen storing it in a sealed tin canister – later short-ened to tins or cans. Soldiers could now enjoy ahealthier diet even when miles from home.

It wasn’t until the 1920s, however, that the canningindustry had real commercial success. During thistime the use of fast, automated production linesproducing over a thousand cans a minute was intro-duced. Today, over 13 000 million cans are boughtevery year!

These are some of the advantages of canned food:

• Cans have a long shelf life if stored in a cool, drycupboard.

• Cans do not need to be refrigerated, which savesenergy and money.

• Canning makes a wide range of foods available allyear round.

• Canning and cooking preserve the food soreducing the need for artificial preservatives.

The two main types of metals used in packaging are:

• aluminium• steel (coated with tinplate).

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Metals

Aims• To understand the importance of metals in

packaging.

• To understand the production of aluminium andsteel from ores.

Canned food

AluminiumAluminium is a pure metal which is a naturally occur-ring element that is mined from beneath the land andsea. It is the most plentiful metal element in theearth’s crust and is produced from the ore bauxite.

The production of aluminium requires large amountsof electricity due to the expensive electrolyticprocess involved. There are two main stages:

1 The production of alumina from bauxite

Once the bauxite has been mined, crushed and driedit is refined into alumina. This is done in two stages.First, the bauxite is dissolved in hot caustic soda andthen filtered to remove impurities – aluminium oxideis produced. Secondly, the aluminium oxide is‘roasted’ in a rotary kiln and a white powder isproduced called alumina.

2 The production of aluminium using an elec-trolytic reduction cell

In the reduction cell the alumina is dissolved in moltencryolite using a steel furnace. The furnace is lined withcarbon (forming a cathode) and additional carbon rods(forming anodes) are suspended above the furnace.When a powerful electric current is passed through theheated mixture, aluminium is liberated and isdeposited on the carbon lining. This pure aluminium isperiodically tapped off the bottom of the furnace andcast into ingots ready for further processing.

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1 At home, use a magnet to identify whether a canis made from a ferrous or non-ferrous metal.

2 Make a list of products made from aluminium anda list of those made from steel.

syphon ladlecarbon anode conductors

solid electolytealumina crust

carboncathodelining

cathodeconductormolten

aluminiummolten electrolyte

(cryolite)

thermal insulation

steelcasing

Electrolytic reduction cell

water-cooledoxygen lance

taphole

pouringposition

steel shell

refectorylining

fume extractionhood

molten metal

The production of steel using a basic oxygen furnace

The iron is added to an oxygen furnace where it isconverted into molten steel. This molten steel is castinto ingots ready for further processing. In the case ofthe canning industry, a strip mill will produce largecoils of steel as a raw material ready for the making of cans.

■ Hints and tips ■

Metals can be divided into two groups: ferrousand non-ferrous. There is a quite simple way ofidentifying them both:

Ferrous metals (i.e. steel) can be picked up witha magnet because they contain iron.

Non-ferrous metals (i.e. aluminium) do notcontain any iron and cannot be picked up with a magnet.

One of the main problems with steel is that it cancorrode (rust). This is obviously a problem whenmaking food containers, so to prevent it fromcorroding the surface of the steel is coated withtinplate.

SteelSteel is produced from iron ore which is also widelyfound and mined.

The production of steel

To produce steel iron ore must first be processed intoiron. The iron ore, limestone and coke are heated in ablast furnace using very high temperatures. Thelimestone is used to remove the impurities from theiron ore.

The pencilThe ‘lead’ of a pencil is not in fact made of lead but agraphite composite. This composite can be made invarying degrees of hardness and blackness to givehard (H) or soft (B) grade pencils.

Hard pencils

These are pencils that range from grades H to 9H. Ahard pencil will have more clay and less graphitecontent in its lead. This means that it can be sharp-ened to a fine point which will last a long time. Veryhard pencils will mostly be used for technical or moreprecise drawing where accuracy of line is important.

Soft pencils

These are pencils that range from grades 9B to HB. Asoft pencil will have more graphite and less claycontent in its lead. This means that the lead will bericher and darker but the point will soften easily. Softpencils will be used for sketching and shading. Ageneral purpose pencil that can be used for sketchingand drawing is the HB.

wide range of colours and nib styles including chisel,brush and bullet point. Some more expensive, profes-sional markers are double ended with both a chiseland brush point – there are even markers that containall three!

Marker pens are widely used to cover larger areas withcolour. A good quality, spirit-based marker will leave aflat and solid colour whereas less expensive, water-based types may ‘streak’ leaving marks of differentshades of colour.

Marker pens are excellent for producing presentationdrawings where a designer will want to communicatethe final look of a product.

Drawing-boardsIt is important that any designer has a firm, flat surfaceto work on. A drawing-board should hold your worksecurely and have a parallel motion (sliding rule)which will aid technical drawing. The standard papersize for GCSE Design and Technology portfolios is A3so your drawing-board must be able to accommodatethis size of paper. For the professional designer andarchitect, there are larger boards available as big as A0(3 times larger than A3!).

Drawing equipmentThere is a wide range of equipment available to aidthe drawing of technical graphics.

Computer software packagesComputers are increasingly being used to producetechnical graphics or illustrations using computer-aided design.

PhotocopierBlack and white photocopiers are extremely useful formaking multiple copies of documents. Specialfeatures on photocopiers also make it possible to

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Graphi c media

Aim• To understand a range of graphic media and

technical drawing equipment.

Fine-liner and marker pens

A range of pencils

Fine-liner pensFine-liner pens are popular because they have anumber of uses – from sketching like a pencil to‘inking-in’ technical drawings and from shading smallareas to adding notes and lettering to design sheets.Fine-liners will give a good quality line if used prop-erly, but over a period of time the nib can becomeworn and spread out resulting in a poor quality line.

Marker pensMarker pens are available in two main types: water-based and spirit-based. Both types are available in a

Name Equipment Description

Set squares A drafting aid available in 45° or 30/60° used with adrawing-board and parallel motion to produce technicaldrawings

Plastic rule A straight edge for drawing lines with a scale (mm) formeasuring. A transparent rule is useful for constructing aseries of evenly spaced parallel lines, i.e. for cross hatching

Compasses For drawing circles and arcs. A spring bow compass is idealfor drawing small circles and a pencil compass for largercircles. Adaptors can be fitted to some compasses allowingthem to hold fine-liners

Eraser Used to remove construction lines from technical graphicsor correcting pencil-drawn mistakes. Many types are avail-able, but always choose one that does not smudge

Templates A wide range of shapes and sizes available from simplecircle and ellipse templates to standard architecturalsymbols. Templates provide a quick and effective way ofdrawing rather than by freehand or technical constructionmethods

Curves French curves provide a means of repeating a particularcurve without having to construct it technically. Usuallyavailable in sets of three. A flexi-curve is a plastic strip witha lead core that can be bent into any desired curve

Drawing equipment

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enlarge and reduce your work to the required size.Documents with several pages can also be photo-copied back to back, sorted and stapled if necessary.Colour photocopiers are available for copying in fullcolour, but copies are quite expensive.

AirbrushAirbrushing can create many interesting and decora-tive finishes on a variety of materials. Airbrushesproduce areas of flat colour or intricate details and areideal for illustrating surface finishes. It requires greatskill and practise to achieve good results. Manyprofessional illustrators use airbrushes.

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1 Use technical drawing exercises to develop yourtechnical graphics.

2 Render simple 3D drawings using pencils andmarker pens to develop your illustration techniques.

An airbrushed illustration

PaperChoice of paper is important in how printed materialslook. Choosing the right paper for the job is a combi-nation of personal preference and common sense.The right paper must satisfy:

• the design requirements, i.e. surface finish, colour,size and weight

• the demands of the printing process or surfacedecoration

• economic considerations (price).

Grid papers

Grid papers are available in a range of styles and areextremely useful for generating design ideas whentraced through. Apart from the usual squared gridpapers used in maths, there are isometric and perspec-tive grid papers to aid drawing in three dimensions.

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Choosing paper and board

Aim• To understand the criteria for choosing paper

and board for various applications.

Paper Weight Description Uses Advantages Cost

Layout Around 50 gsm Thin translucent Outline sketches of Translucent property Relativelypaper with a smooth proposed page layouts. allows tracing through expensivesurface Sketching and onto another sheet.

developing ideas Accepts most drawing media (except paints)

Tracing 60/90 gsm Thin transparent paper Same as layout paper. Allows tracing through Heavier weightwith a smooth surface. Heavier weight preferred on to another sheet in can be quitePale grey in colour by draughtsmen order to develop design expensive

ideas

Copier 80 gsm Lightweight grade of Black and white Fairly cheap to buy in Inexpensive quality paper photocopying and printing large quantities. Bright when bought good from inkjet/laser printers. white and available in a in bulk

Smooth finish for colour range of coloursprinting. General use for sketching and writing

Cartridge 120–150 gsm Creamy-white paper. Good general purpose Completely opaque. More expensiveSmooth surface with drawing paper. Heavier Accepts most drawing than copier a slight texture weights can be used with media paper

paints

Drawing papers

InkjetPaper Weight Description Uses Advantages Cost

Coated 80–150 gsm Bright white, high Printing photo quality work Suitable for 1200 dpi Expensivedensity, ultra-smooth with a matte finish, i.e. colour inkjet and laser (usually sold incoated paper presentation materials, printing small packs)

reports, colour Quick dryingreproductions, etc. Recyclable

Photo 140–230 gsm Bright white, Vivid photo quality with Special coating makes it Expensiveglossy professional quality, maximum colour ideal for digital or scanned (usually sold in

specially coated high reproduction suitable for images with high small packs)gloss paper photo reproductions, resolution

graphic artwork and Quick dryingpresentation materials Photo quality

HeavyweightTwo-sided photo gloss paper also available

Inkjet papers


Gloss-coated inkjet papers have a major advantageover laminated paper because they can be recycled.

Inkjet papers

Although smooth finished copier paper can be usedfor black and white printing, there are a number ofpapers specifically designed for colour printing.

Card and boardThere is a wide range of card and boards for a varietyof applications. These range from stationery uses suchas drawing, writing, photocopying and printing tomore creative uses with speciality materials.

CartonboardCartonboards are usually used for retail packaging.These boards must be suitable for high quality, high

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Card/board Weight Description Uses Advantages Cost

Card 230–750 A thin variety of board, A range of uses from A large range of colours More expensivemicrons but thicker than paper printing and drawing to and surface finishes than paper.

3D modelling and available including bright Speciality cardspresentation work and fluorescent colours, are more

duo-tones and metallics expensive thanand corrugated card types simple white or

bright colours

Mounting 1000–1500 Extremely thick board Mounting work for presen- Very high quality, strong Expensiveboard microns with colour on one tations and displays. Work and rigid board. Available

side only (white can be mounted flat or in a range of colours (wide on back) behind a frame mounting range of pastel colours)

Card and board

speed printing and for cutting, creasing and glueingusing very high speed automated packaging equipment.

Advantages of using cartonboard include:

• total graphic coverage and excellent print quality• excellent protection in structural packaging nets• relatively cheap to produce and process• can be recycled.


1 Tear the board on a cereal or soap powder boxand you will see its layered structure quite clearly.

2 Collect samples of different types of paper andboard to add to your notes.

Board Description Uses Advantages Cost

Folding Usually has a top surface of bleached Widely used for the Excellent for scoring, Inexpensiveboxboard virgin pulp, middle layers made from majority of food packaging bending or creasing

unbleached pulp and a bleached and for all general carton without splittingpulp inside layer applications Excellent printing surface

Corrugated Made from sandwiching a fluted paper Protective packaging for Excellent impact resistance Inexpensiveboard layer between two paper liners fragile goods. The most Has excellent strength for

commonly used box its weightmaking material Low cost

Recyclable

White-lined Has top layer of bleached wood pulp Food packaging and Good for high-speed Inexpensivechipboard and a middle and back layer made general carton applications. printing of automatically

from waste paper White-back versions are packed cartonsknown as Triplex

Solid white Made entirely from pure bleached Packaging for frozen Very strong and rigid Expensiveboard wood pulp foods, ice-cream, Excellent printing

pharmaceuticals and surfacecosmetics

Cast-coated A heavier and smoother coating Luxury products requiring Very strong and rigid Expensiveboard applied to white-lined chipboard expensive looking Excellent printing surface

and solid-white board decorative effects Higher gloss finish after varnishing

Foil-lined Has a laminated foil coating (can be Cosmetic cartons, Foil available in matt or Expensiveboard used on all of the above boards) pre-packed food gloss finish and in silver

packages or gold coloursVery strong visual impactFoil provides an excellent barrier against moisture

Common cartonboards

Plastics in packagingPlastics are widely used in packaging because theyare:

• versatile• lightweight• low cost• energy saving• tough and durable• recycleable.

Plastics can be identified by a coding system usuallystamped on to the base of the package or on thelabel. This is an internationally recognized system thatenables plastics to be easily identified for recycling.

For example, a shampoobottle stamped with theopposite identification markwould be made out of ahigh density polyethyleneplastic and could thereforebe sorted visually.

Each plastic has its ownuseful properties that make it suitable for use indifferent areas of packaging (see table below).

Plastics versus glass

Glass, once one of the most common materials usedfor bottling, has increasingly been replaced by the useof plastics. In the obvious case of fizzy drinks bottles,glass is a suitable material, but plastics have provedmore successful because they are cheaper, lighter,durable and do not smash if dropped. In the case ofthe ketchup bottle, the development of a new type ofplastic made up of several layers makes it possible to have a squeezable bottle type – unthinkable with glass.

Expanded polystyreneWhen we look at a throw-away society we often looktowards the USA as a prime example. This is thehome of fast food with hundreds of fast-food chains

available including the major companies ofMcDonald’s and Burger King.

Polystyrene is used in fast-food packaging because it is:

• hygienic• strong, yet lightweight• efficient• economical• convenient.

Hygienic

Tests in the USA (Polystyrene Packaging Council) intothe use of disposable polystyrene food service waresuch as cups and plates have found that they aremore sanitary than reusable service ware. In otherwords, germs and bacteria are simply thrown awaywith the rubbish instead of multiplying in a chippedcoffee mug.

Strong, yet lightweight

Polystyrene protects against moisture and keeps itsstrength even after long periods of time. Containersand lids close tightly and prevent any leakage of thecontents. It can be moulded into a variety of structuralpackages which compliment its excellent cushioningproperties in protecting the contents of the package.

Efficient

Polystyrene provides excellent insulation. Therefore,hot food can be kept warm for longer periods of time.It also means that the package does not become sohot that it cannot be held in the hand.

Economical

Polystyrene food service products are generallycheaper to buy than disposable paper products andmuch cheaper than reusable service ware (e.g. china).This is because only about 5 per cent of the foampackage is actually plastic – the rest is simply air!

Convenient

This is arguably the major reason for the use of poly-styrene in fast-food packaging. With today’s busylifestyles people want food to be available instantly,and polystyrene is an economical way of servingpeople with their fast food.

Other uses

Expanded polystyrene has another important use inthe protective packaging of many products. It comesin two main forms: loose-fill ‘peanuts’ and shape-moulded packaging. Loose fill ‘peanuts’ allow varioussized products such as stationary to be transported inTh

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Choosing p last i cs

Aims• To understand why plastics are used for pack-

aging.

• To understand the uses of different plastics forpackaging.

• To understand the properties and uses ofexpanded polystyrene.

2HDPE

the same box without them being damaged. Shapemoulded packaging fits snugly around delicate prod-ucts and the manufacturer’s advertising is clearlyprinted on the cardboard box into which it fits.

Shop shelves are full of electrical products that areprotected by expanded polystyrene but did you knowthat a Formula 1 racing car can also be packaged for export?

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Thermoplastic ID code Properties Applications

PET Excellent barrier against atmospheric Carbonated (fizzy drinks bottles)Polyethylene gases and does not allow gas to escape Packaging for highly flavoured foodterephthalate Does not flavour the food or drink Microwaveable food trays

contained in itSparkling ‘crystal clear’ appearanceVery toughLight – low density

HDPE Highly resistant to chemicals Unbreakable bottles (for washing-up High density Good barrier to water liquid, detergents, cosmetics, polyethylene Tough and hard wearing toiletries, etc.) Very thin

Decorative when coloured packaging sheetsLight and floats on waterRigid

PVC Weather resistant – does not rot Packaging for toiletries, Polyvinyl chloride Chemical resistant – does not corrode pharmaceutical products, food

Protects products from moisture and and confectionery, watergases while holding in preserving gases and fruit juicesStrong, abrasive, resistant and toughCan be made either rigid or flexible

LDPE Good resistance to chemicals Stretch wrapping (cling film)Low density Good barrier to water but not to gases Milk carton coatingspolyethylene Tough and hard wearing

Decorative when colouredVery light and floats on waterVery flexible

PP Lightweight Food packaging – yoghurt and Polypropylene Rigid margarine pots, sweet and

Excellent chemical resistance snack wrappersVersatile – can be made stiffer than polythene or very flexibleLow moisture absorptionGood impact resistance

PS Rigid polystyrene: Food packaging, (e.g. yoghurt Polystyrene • Transparent (clear) pots), CD cases, jewel cases, audio

• Rigid (can be brittle) cassette cases, take-away food • Lightweight packaging, egg cartons, fruit, • Low water absorption vegetable and meat trays, cups, etc.

Expanded polystyrene (foam): Packing for electrical and fragile

• Excellent impact resistance products

• Very good heat insulator• Durable• Lightweight• Low water absorption

Common thermoplastics in packaging

1PET

(a)

2HDPE

(b)

3PVC

(c)

4LDPE

(d)

5PP

(e)

6PS

(f)


1 Compile a chart of household plastic bottles andthe type of plastics they are made of. Why do youthink they are made of this plastic?

2 Expanded polystyrene is a useful packaging mate-rial for fast food, but what are its disadvantages?

Product modellingThe most important role wood has to play in a graphicproduct is in the manufacture of a 3-dimensional(3D) prototype. MDF is an ideal material forproducing a high quality product because it:

• can be shaped easily• has an excellent surface finish.

When designing a product such as a mobile phone,computer mouse or FM radio, MDF can be formedinto smooth streamlined shapes essential for modernlooking products. MDF is available in sheets usually9–24 mm in thick but can be glued together (lami-nated) using PVA to achieve greater thicknesses.

The MDF block can be cut to a rough shape bymarking on the plan and side profiles and cut on abandsaw. Your teacher will have to cut the shape outusing the bandsaw as it is illegal for you to do so.

When the rough shape is cut out, it is possible toshape the MDF using tools such as surforms toachieve the desired product styling.

The prototype model can then be sanded extremelysmooth using various grades of glasspaper.

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Choosing wood

Aims• To understand the qualities of manufactured

boards, softwoods and hardwoods in theproduction of high quality products.

• To understand the need for a suitable mouldwhen vacuum forming.

Cutting MDF block to a rough shape

Shaping MDF using a surform

Achieving a professionallooking finish using acrylic car paints

A quality finish is achieved by using an acrylic sprayprimer and sanding it back gently using wet and drypaper. Good quality acrylic car paints are available in awide range of colours to apply a professional lookingtop coat.


At this stage the MDF has to be sealed using asanding sealer so that any surface finish appliedwill not soak into the fibres. Once dry, lightly sandthe surface to achieve a smooth and level surface.

Some products will be circular in shape and willtherefore need to be turned using a wood lathe.Softwoods such as pine can be used for such productmodels because they are available in square sections.Once mounted on a wood lathe it is possible tocreate some very interesting shapes indeed.

In the photo below, the student first turned the mainshape on a wood lathe and then carved the detail ofthe sweeping speaker grill using a gouge.

The suitable mould needs careful consideration whendesigning and making. The mould must:

• be very smooth, • have slightly angled sides (usually 5 degrees),• have rounded or ‘radiused’ corners and edges.

This will ensure that the mould can be easily removedonce vacuum formed.

Interior and architectural modellingA variety of woods can be used for the production ofan interior or architectural model. Manufacturedboards are useful when creating walls or partitions,whereas the use of hardwoods can give high qualitydetails.

In the photo below, the student has constructed anarchitectural model using birch-veneered plywood togive a high quality finish.

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A student’s model of an FM radio

Hardwoods are not usually used for product model-ling as they are expensive and difficult to shape. Theyare usually used for products where their excellentsurface finish is desirable, for example furniture.

Vacuum forming mouldsMDF and pine can also be used for the production ofmoulds for vacuum forming, usually for the purposeof blister packaging. In much the same way asproducing a product model, a mould can be cut andshaped to create interesting shapes. MDF is the mostsuitable wood because it has no grain. This meansthat the mould will not leave an imprint on thevacuum-formed plastic shape.

A student’s architectural model


1 Collect examples of each enhancement techniquedescribed in this section.

2 Discuss the reasons why a manufacturer may use expensive enhancement techniques on theirproducts.


Cheaper manufactured boards such as hardboardcould also be used and painted or covered inbrick-effect paper to give an alternative finish.

Aluminium or steel?Metal packaging is mainly used in closures (screwcaps, etc.), food cans and beverage cans. Closuresand food cans are usually made from steel andbeverage cans are divided equally betweenaluminium and steel (quantities and percentages varyon a yearly basis).

Steel is commonly used for packaging drinks,aerosols, processed and powdered foods, chocolateand biscuits, paints, adhesives and chemicals, healthand beauty products, giftware and closures.

Aluminium is commonly used for packaging drinks,aerosols, health and beauty products, tamper-proofclosures and screw caps.

There are several advantages in using both aluminiumand steel for packaging:

• Security – sealed cans cannot be tampered with.• Packages can be made in a variety of shapes and

sizes including cylindrical, rectangular and hexag-onal.

• Packages can be embossed to provide surfacedetail.

• Metal can be directly printed on to or a paper labeladded.

• The packaging itself offers point-of-sale display withall over decoration (product recognition).

Metal appealMetal packaging suggests quality, and manufacturerswill often use it for special promotions. For example,during the Christmas period many brands of chocolateand biscuits will be available in large and highly decora-tive metal tins. Some biscuit tins dating from the nine-teenth century have even become collectors’ items.

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Choosing metals

Aims• To understand the benefits of metals for

preserving food.

• To understand the advantages of using metalsin packaging.

A range of metal product packaging

2 Ironing – the aluminium cup shape is drawndown into a deeper die to form the base profile. Atthe same time an ironing ring thins out the walls ofthe drinks can.

Advantages of the aluminium drinks can

• Paper thin walls (0.1 mm) save materials andenergy.

• Aluminium with internal lacquered coating doesnot react with the contents.

• Able to withstand the high internal pressures of afizzy drink.

• Lightweight.• Relatively inexpensive to produce in quantity.• Design can be printed directly on to the outside of

the can once formed.

As materials technology has developed, can manufac-turers have been able to reduce the amount of mate-rials used in the manufacture of a single can. By calcu-lating the stresses acting upon the can the thicknessof the material has been reduced and a tapered necksaves even more material without lessening its struc-tural ability.

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1 Research pictures of old metal packaging and seehow they compare with modern metal packaging.

2 Test the strength of a drinks can by (a) crushingthe sides using one hand and (b) putting all yourweight on top of it (use two friends either side ofyou to help you balance).

Press tool

Aluminiumdish is formed

Metal thinned and smoothed passing through ring

Ironing ring

Press tool

Base profile formed

The production of metal cansTwo types of cans widely used are:

• the three-piece welded can (tinplate) used forprocessed food, for example baked beans

• the two-piece drawn and wall ironed can (eithertinplate or aluminium) for beverages, for examplesoft or alcoholic drinks.

Cold forming an aluminium drinks can

The forming of the two-piece drinks can involves twomain stages:

1 Drawing – an aluminium disc is pressed underhigh pressure into a die to form a shallow cupshape.

An aluminium drinks can

Glass has many properties that make it ideal for useas a packaging material:

• It is relatively cheap when mass produced.• It is resistant to mechanical shock.• It has excellent product visibility.• It offers excellent protection against contamination.• Its contents can be preserved through high-temper-

ature processing.• The lid provides an air tight seal• It can be re-used and recycled.

ColourIn its purest form, glass has a greenish tint. By addingchemicals in varying quantities to the raw mixture ofsand, soda and limestone different colour glass canbe produced. This is useful when designing glasscontainers for a specific product. For example, beer isusually packaged in green or brown glass to protect itfrom direct sunlight.

The Coca-Cola ‘hobbleskirt’ bottle

The use of glass in packaging is perhaps best illus-trated by the Coca-Cola bottle. Who could mistake theshape of the Coca-Cola bottle? Even in silhouette, thisclassic bottle design is easily recognizable. Modernplastic (PET) Coca-Cola bottles have been designedto resemble the glass bottle because of its strongbrand identity.

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Choosing g lass

Aims• To understand the properties of glass as a pack-

aging material.

• To understand the strong brand identity createdby Coca-Cola using the glass ‘hobbleskirt’ bottle.

Colourant Glass colour(s)

Iron Green, brown, blue

Manganese Purple

Chromium Green, yellow, pink

Vanadium Green, blue, grey

Copper Blue, green, red

Carbon and sulphur Amber, brown

Glass versus plasticsGlass has one major advantage over the use of plas-tics – it looks expensive and therefore has the imageof sophistication. For example, to use a plastic bottlefor an expensive vintage champagne would be inap-propriate. Glass can be formed into interesting shapesthat resemble expensive crystal glasses and give theproduct a look of quality.

Could an expensive product like champagne be packaged in anymaterial other than glass?

The Coca-Cola ‘hobbleskirt’ bottle has become an icon of thetwentieth century

John Pemberton, who invented Coca-Cola in 1886,originally used plain bottles with paper labels to sellthe Coca-Cola syrup to shops or ‘soda fountains’. Atfountains the syrup was mixed with plain water andserved to customers. Later, carbonated water wasused and bottled so that people could enjoy the softdrink away from the soda fountains.

The early bottles were not marked with the Coca-Colatrademark. Instead, they simply used existing bottlesfrom various manufacturers. By the end of the nine-teenth century, a variety of bottles had been intro-duced, some of which had the Coca-Cola trademarkblown into the glass during the forming process.

However, these early bottles did not give Coca-Cola astrong brand image and the need for a standardizedbottle was finally considered. A Coca-Cola companyexecutive at the time stated: ‘We need a bottle whicha person can recognize as a Coca-Cola bottle whenhe feels it in the dark’. Bottle manufacturers wereinvited to submit designs for the new bottle and thewinner was chosen at the annual 1916 Coca-ColaBottlers Convention.

The winning design was based upon the shape of acocoa pod with an exaggerated bulge around themiddle. The original prototypes had to be modified inorder to fit automatic bottling equipment by slimmingthe bottle to its now classic contour shape.

By 1920, the new standardized bottle – called ahobbleskirt bottle because its shape resembled adress fashion of the day – was in widespread usethroughout the United States.

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1 Make a list of all the products you can think ofthat use glass packaging. Explain why the manu-facturer has used glass rather than any othermaterial.

2 Find out if there are any glass recycling schemesin your local area.

3 Design a new glass bottle for the packaging of anew soft drink

Early Coca-Cola bottles

Aesthetic componentsThere is a range of components available for addingsurface detail and texture to block models in order tomake them look more realistic.

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Components

Aims• To understand the use of components for

adding surface detail and texture.

• To understand the use of components forsecuring and fixing graphic media.

Component Example Applications Hints and tips

Paper fasteners Creating pivots for card mechanisms Do not tightenor ergonome model Allow all moving parts to move freely

Paper clips Temporarily attaching pieces of paper Avoid marking paper with one of points orand card, e.g. securing tracing paper crinkling paperover a drawing when copying

Drawing pins Attaching presentation work to Press firmly into material without bendingdisplay boards the drawing pin

Mapping pins Attaching presentation work to Use only on soft display board material display boards (will bend in hard material)Indicating the positions of important Use various colours to indicate differentinformation, e.g. on a map or diagram featuresSecuring the jointing of foamboardwalls on a model while gluing

Functional components

Component Example Applications Advantages Disadvantages

Modellers' raised Professional looking Gives the appearance of low Expensiveplastic lettering raised numbers relief moulding on models Tricky to remove

or lettering for as produced by the injection from sprue and prototype models moulding process apply to surface

of model

Self-adhesive For adding surface Available in a range of Tricky to apply in paper labels texture or decoration different styles and colours straight lines to

to models, e.g. Cheap emulate grip texture representing grip on modelstexture

Dry-transfer letters Rub-down lettering for Relatively easy to apply Expensive – the use adding flat numbers and Available in a wide range of of computer- lettering to the surface fonts, colours and sizes generated text may of block models or paper and in architectural symbols, be an alternativeand card models textures, vehicles and people

Aesthetic components

This prototype of a handheld computer games console uses allthree aesthetic components

Functional componentsMany graphic products require the use of compo-nents for securing and fixing graphic media such aspaper and card. All of those described opposite areinexpensive to buy.

Binding methodsThere are five main methods of binding a brochure,magazine or book. Some of these will be suitablewhen producing printed materials in your projects.

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1 Make a simple card linkage mechanism usingpaper fasteners as pivots.

2 Use a binding method to present a productanalysis report.

Method Picture Description Applications Application in schools

Saddle-wire The simplest method of Documents for Use a long-armstitched binding by stapling the presentation stapler to enable

pages together through you to staple thethe fold document through

the fold

Side-wire Staples are passed through Documents for Use an ordinarystitched the side of the document presentation stapler to staple

close to the spine. Used when the document the document is too thick along its sidefor saddle-wire stitching

Perfect Pages are held together and High quality Not possible inbinding fixed to the cover by means documents for school. Take

of a flexible adhesive. This presentation, document to amethod produces a higher magazines, less commercial printer quality presentation and the expensive books for bindingspine can also be printed on

Hard-bound or Usually combines sewing and Books Not possible incase-bound gluing to create the most school. Take

durable method of commercial document to a binding. Stiff board is used on commercial printer the cover and back to protect for bindingthe pages

Spiral or comb- Pages are punched through with Documents for Use a combbinding a series of holes along the spine. presentation binding machine

A spiralling steel or plastic band is inserted through the holes to hold the sheets together

Binding methods

(a) saddle-wirestitched

(b) side-wire stitched

(c) perfect bound

(d) hard bound

(e) spiral bound

Glass is one of the earliest materials used forcontaining food and drink and continues to be usedfor a range of packaging uses.

The ingredients of the most common commercialglasses are sand, limestone and soda. These ingredi-ents are heated at a temperature of around 1500°Cand react to form a liquid. This liquid can then bemoulded into shape and allowed to cool so it forms ahard, inert and transparent material. However, glasscan be made in a variety of ways containing differentchemicals to produce glasses with different propertiesand colours for varying uses.

Food storageGlass containers have been used since Roman timesas a means of storing food. It was not, however, untilthe nineteenth century that glass was used to helppreserve foods. It was discovered that certain food-stuffs such as fruit, meat, fish and vegetables whenheated at high temperatures and sealed in glass jarscould be preserved for long periods of time. Glasswas an ideal material as air could not penetratethrough it and spoil the food.

Bottles for soft drinksUntil the beginning of the seventeenth century, nearlyall bottles were made of earthenware, metal, wood orleather. Early stoppers were made out of wax, laterreplaced by cork. The earthenware bottles used by theearly mineral water manufacturers were unsatisfactoryas the gas could escape at high pressures. In 1814the first egg-shaped glass bottle was patented forbottles of artificial mineral water or ‘pop’ which had amuch greater resistance to internal pressures. Later,the now famous Codd bottle was introduced. Itcontained a glass marble that was kept pressedagainst a rubber ring in the neck of the bottle by theinternal gas pressure resulting in an air tight seal.Nowadays, most glass bottles either have a crown capor screw cap for convenience.

Milk bottlesUntil World War 1, milk was sold from churnspushed around the streets in hand carts. This couldbe extremely unhygienic, so shortly after the warmilk was pasteurised (sterilized to kill bacteria byheating) and sold in sealed glass bottles. Milk is stillavailable in glass bottles with aluminium tops, butthis is becoming increasingly uncommon due to theavailability and cost of large plastic milk bottles insupermarkets.

Manufacturing glass containersEarly glass containers were blown by hand bycraftsmen, but they were usually thick and heavybecause the blower could not control the glass distri-bution. Modern manufacture uses automaticprocesses for mass production.

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Glass in packaging


1 Discuss the reasons why glass milk bottles havebecome increasingly uncommon.

2 List a range of products that are still packagedusing glass containers.

Aims• To understand the importance of glass as a

packaging material throughout history.

• To understand the manufacturing processes ofglass containers.

Early egg-shaped and Codd bottles

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Raw materials are automatically mixed and fed into the furnace where they are heated and fused at approximately 1500°C

Molten glass is fed into a machine where it is automatically blown. Bottles are made in two stages. First, a parison shape is blown. This is transferred to a second mould in which the bottle is blown to its final form

Bottles are inspected and despatched for filling, capping and labelling

Tunnel called a lehr in which bottles are reheated and gradually cooled to prevent stresses developing

Glass melting furnace

Making glass containers by automatic process

1 Gob dropped

into blank mould

2 Plungerpresses

blank shape

3 Blank

pressed

4Blank shape

5Blank

transferredto blow mould

6Final shape

blown

7Finished jar

The automatic press and blow process

1 Gob dropped

into blank mould

2 Neck

formed

3 Blankblown

4Blank shape

5Blank

transferredto blow mould

6Final shape

blown

7Finished

bottle

The automatic blow and blow process

1 Packaging is an important part of a product.

a Complete the table below by:

i naming three more packaging materials

ii providing a specific example for the use ofthe named material. (6 marks)

a Two points of specification are:

• the Astro-man figure should be life sized

• the whole display should be lightweight foreasy installation/transportation.

Give two more points of specification whichwould be in the specification for this display.

(2 marks)

b Name the type of material suitable for:

i printing the computer graphic on

ii making the Astro-man figure

iii making the Astro-man lettering. (3 marks)

c Give one property associated with one of thematerials you have named in (b) and explainhow this property makes it suitable for thisapplication. (4 marks)

3 A plastic drinks bottleis shown to the right.

a Medium densityfibreboard (MDF)or polystyreneblock may havebeen used formaking a proto-type of this bottle.

i Give twoadvantages ofMDF over poly-styrene for thispurpose.(3 marks)

ii Give oneadvantage ofpolystyreneover MDF for this purpose. (1 mark)

b The bottle is made from PET. Describe threeproperties of PET that relate to its intendeduse. (6 marks)

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Pract i ce examinat ion quest ions

Packaging material Example of packaging

Paper and boards Easter egg boxes

b Corrugated card and expanded polystyrene areoften used to package electrical products. Foreach of these materials describe its applicationand characteristics that makes it useful for this purpose. (6 marks)

c Solid board is another material used for pack-aging electrical products. Give two advantagesand one disadvantage of its use instead ofcorrugated card. (3 marks)

2 The diagram below shows a shop window displayfor the promotion of a new video release.

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Sect ion B: Preparing, processing and

finishing materials

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The Rocky 4 Mars Pathfinder Rover prototype goes through its paces at the jet propolsion laboratory. The Pathfinder Mission to Mars in1997 was a much publicized success.

The basic principleCorrugation is a strengthening technique where asheet of material is shaped into alternate ridges andgrooves. For example, a flat sheet of card is very easyto bend, but when bent into a series of ‘V’ shapes itbecomes rigid and harder to bend.

Making corrugated boardThere are three main stages in the manufacture ofcorrugated board:

1 Processing of wood to produce semi-chemicalpaper, then forming the paper into flutes.

2 Processing of wood to produce Kraft papers forliners.

3 Bonding the fluting and liners together.

Fluting

Semi-chemical paper is used for making the fluting incorrugated board. Birch hardwood is usually used inEurope as it is quick growing and easy to farm. Thebirch trees are fed through machines to producewood chips and the fibres are separated using bothmechanical and chemical methods. The fibres arethen made into paper using a papermaking machine.

Semi-chemical fluting requires heat, moisture andpressure in the corrugator roll nip to bend and movethe fibres into the flute shape (see diagram).

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Corrugat ion

Aims• To show that corrugation is a strengthening

technique.

• To illustrate the various forms of corrugatedboard and their properties.

Strengthening paper through corrugation

Moistened paper

Heated corrugator rollersNipped

Fluted formed

The flute forming process

Board Characteristics Applications

Single wall board Coarse – high stacking strength from large flute profile Containers for transporting andFine – good printing surface; uses less fluting than coarse storing goods, point-of-sale displaysExtra fine – very good printing surface from closely pitched flutes

Double wall board Very good stacking strength from rigid board Containers for transporting heavyVery good resistance to shock and puncture weight goods and goods needingGood printing surface maximum protection

Triple wall board Very good stacking strength from very rigid board Transportation of bulk food, Very good resistance to tear and puncture chemicals, heavy engineering Long life (up to 10 years’ storage capability) components, automotive parts, Multi-trip container (reusable) electrical and electronic equipment

Corrugated boards and their characteristics

Corrugated boardCorrugated board is made from layers of paper. Thetop and bottom surfaces are called liners and thecorrugated internal layer is known as fluting. Thereare three main combinations of corrugated board:single, double and triple wall board. They each havedifferent properties.

The paper must have an 8–9 per cent moisturecontent as it is fed through heated corrugator rolls at180°C. The nip pressure at these rollers then forms thepaper into the distinctive flute profile. The flute profilecan be altered to produce various flute types and sizes.

Recycled paper

The use of recycled paper for making both the linerand fluting is now very common. Recycled paper ismade from waste paper such as old corrugatedcases, newsprint and magazines which are mixedwith water, broken up in a pulper, cleaned andprocessed. They can be made into new single-ply ormulti-ply papers.

Bonding

The liners are bonded with the internal fluting by theuse of a starch adhesive. Starch is produced frommaize, wheat or potatoes, and chemicals are added toreduce the point at which it gels (or becomes a solid adhesive).

The flute tips pick up the starch from an applicator rolland the starch absorbs into the flutes. The liner mustbe warm and damp when the liner and flute tips arepressed together firmly. The starch then gels and themoisture moves out of the starch and into the papersto form a secure bond.

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1 Try making your own corrugated board from twopieces of paper as liners and a concertinaed pieceof paper to act as the internal fluting.

2 Look out for the use of single, double and triplewalled board in corrugated cases.

Pitch

Valleyradius

Tipradius F

lute

hei

ght

The flute profile

Type Ply Printing surface Cost

Brown Kraft (unbleached) Single ply or multi-ply at least 80% new fibre Fairly good Expensive

White Kraft (bleached) Single ply or multi-ply strong new fibre Very good Very expensive

White-top Kraft Multi-ply strong new fibre Very good Expensive, but cheaper (bleached top ply) than bleached Kraft of

same weight

Coated Kraft Clay/latex coating on bleached Kraft and Excellent Very expensivewhite-top Kraft papers

Kraftliner types

Flute

Coarse 3.2–4.8 mm 105–145

Fine 2.1–3.00 mm 150–185

Extra fine 1.0–1.8 mm 290–320

Standard flute sizes

Kraftliners

The liners are made from Kraft papers which have asmooth outer printing surface and a slightly coarserinner gluing surface. Kraftliner is made from at least80 per cent new softwood pulp and processed intopaper at the paper mill.

The wood pulp is sometimes dyed brown to give itsdistinctive colour or made from bleached fibres togive a bright white appearance. Alternatively, a layer ofbleached white fibres can be added to a layer ofbrown fibres in the papermaking machine or aclay/latex coating can be added.


• Coarser flutes have greater stacking strength.• Finer flutes produce a better printing surface.• Double wall board combines both advantages.• Triple wall board has a very high stacking

strength and is long-lasting.

The basic principleLamination is both a strengthening and decorativetechnique. This process is used in a range of productsand in different materials.

Laminating woodTimber is a useful structural material which has twomajor disadvantages:

• It is not uniform in strength due to knots and otherdefects.

• It is not always available in large sizes and, whenavailable, is costly.

Defects can be overcome by laminating – taking anumber of thin pieces (veneers) and glueing themtogether to form beams or sheets (plywood).

In the case of plywood the layers are placed with thegrain running in alternate directions to give strength inboth directions. By bending laminated layers of plyaround a former it is possible to create curved shapes.

Laminating plasticsThe lamination of thermoplastics such as acrylic can addstrength (acrylic is very brittle) or more importantly add adecorative effect. By laminating several pieces of acrylicsheet together using Tensol cement, it is possible tocreate a multi-coloured ‘liquorice allsort’ effect. The blockcan then be finished and polished to a high sheen.

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Laminat ing

Aims• To describe the properties of laminating in

wood, plastics and paper.

• To explain the characteristics of materials usedin laminates for packaging.

Laminated plywood is used inskateboard decks to form thecurved shape and to addstrength

Plese Note this image hasbeen decreased: 41%

Paper, foil and polythene laminates

Paper, foil and polythene laminates combine the char-acteristics of all three materials into a single package.In general:

• foil provides a barrier to moisture• polythene can be heat sealed• paper provides excellent print quality.

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1 Examine curved pieces of wood to determinewhether they have been formed using laminatedplywood.

2 Make a laminated key fob shape from smallpieces of sheet acrylic of different colours.

3 Tear a laminated package to see the cross-sectionof the laminate.

Laminated paintings decorate Yemeni suitcases

Packaging using a foil laminatePackaging laminatesLaminates are used in packaging to great effect.Plastic films or coatings are added to materials inorder to produce different characteristics.

Plastic coatings are added to cartons to give extraprotection. A layer of polythene is added whichprotects the food or liquid contents from contamina-tion by air or moisture. For an even longer life, a layerof aluminium foil is added.

Aluminium foil

Aluminium foil is an important part of packaging lami-nates. It is used for a variety of products from choco-late wrappers, tea, coffee and biscuits to pharmaceuti-cals and healthcare products.

Thin, clear plastic foils are often used in packaginglaminates to:

• sandwich and protect a printed surface • provide an attractive surface finish

• provide an excellent barrier against moisture• add durability and strength • enable the product to be heat sealed for hygiene,

i.e. air-tight seal to prevent contamination andkeep product fresh.

For example, some coffee packaging (filter coffee)uses laminates of polyester films and aluminium foil.The print is protected by printing it on the undersideof the film, so it is sandwiched between the film andthe foil. The laminate can also be vacuum mouldedinto a block shape for easy shelf stacking.

Laminating paper and cardLaminating paper or thin card can enhance theappearance and add protection to printed materials.The plastic surface finish makes the card moredurable, such as bus passes where the card is usedregularly, and also gives it a wipe-clean surface foruse on menus in restaurants.

There are four main printing processes used incommercial printing:

• lithography• letterpress• gravure• screen printing (this is looked at on pages 36–37).

Each has its own characteristics that make it suitablefor different applications.

LithographyLithography is the most widely used process incommercial printing because it is economical, versatileand capable of printing high quality images on a widevariety of papers.

The basic principle

The lithographic process literally means stone writing.The basic principle is that water and grease do notmix. Originally, a grease crayon was used to draw the

image on a slab of limestone and then dampenedwith a water solution. The greasy image rejects thesolution and the surrounding area accepts the solu-tion. When the ink is applied to the stone the imagearea accepts the ink and the surrounding area rejectsthe ink. The image is then transferred with a pressfrom the stone to the paper.

Modern offset litho

In modern offset litho (lithography) the flat stone hasbeen replaced by three cylinders: the plate, blanketand impression cylinders. In operation, the aluminiumprinting plate is dampened with a water solution thatthe image rejects and the surrounding area accepts.When the plate is inked the image area accepts theink. The inked image is then transferred from the platecylinder to the blanket cylinder which ‘offsets’ or printson to the paper as it passes between the blanket andimpression cylinders.

LetterpressLetterpress is the oldest printing process of the fourbut has been widely replaced by offset litho.Letterpress produces higher quality printed text due tothe dense ink used, whereas lithography uses adiluted ink.

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Print ing processes 1

Aims• To understand the lithographic, letterpress and

gravure printing processes.

inking roler

Plate cylinder

Damping solution

Blanket cylinder

Paper feed

Impression cylinder

The offset litho printing process

The basic principle

Letterpress is a relief printing process which meansthat the image to be printed is raised above the non-printing background. A dense ink is applied to theraised image and transferred with a press from theprinting plate to the paper.

Modern rotary letterpress

The most common form of letterpress in moderncommercial printing is the rotary letterpress. Here theprinting plate is made from a flexible metal or plasticand clamped to a cylinder. The plate cylinder revolvesagainst ink rollers and in turn makes an impression onthe paper that is continuously fed between the plateand impression cylinders.

The basic principle

Gravure is opposite to letterpress in the fact that theprinting image is recessed or lower than the non-printing surface. The image is engraved into a copperprinting plate creating cells which are filled with a thin,spirit-based ink. The paper is pressed into the ink-filledcells to produce the printed image.

Modern web-fed gravure

Most modern gravure printing is done with web-fedmachines which use large reels of paper. The cells arefilled with liquid ink and a blade is pulled across thecylinder to remove any excess. As the paper is fedcontinuously through the press by a rubber coveredcylinder, it is pressed into the cells to pick up drops of ink to form the final printed image. The spirit-based ink dries through evaporation immediately after printing

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1 What does the term ‘offset’ mean in the offsetlithographic process.

2 What is the difference between web-fed andsheet-fed printing processes?.

The letterpress processThe gravure process

GravureGravure is used to produce high quality photographicimages because of its excellent reproduction of finedetail. Its main disadvantage, however, is that it is ahigh cost process mainly due to the expense ofmaking the original printing plate.

Screen printingScreen printing is an extremely versatile printingprocess because it can be used on virtually any typeof material.

The basic principle

A stencil is supported on a screen, originally made ofsilk but now often a synthetic fibre, and stretchedtightly over a frame. A thick ink is spread across thescreen using a rubber squeegee forcing the inkthrough the screen and the stencil’s printing area onto the paper. The non-printing area of the stencil stopsthe ink from passing through it and prevents the back-ground from being printed.

By rotating the carousel several times with screenscontaining different portions of the image and byusing several coloured inks, the completed full colourimage is built up.

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Print ing processes 2

Aims• To understand the screen printing and flexo-

graphic printing processes.

• To understand the advantages and disadvan-tages of printing processes and the correctprinting process for specific materials.

The screen printing process

Manual carousel screen printing

Manual carousel screen printing

In a manual carousel screen printer the paper (orother material) is held flat on the printing bed by theuse of vacuum suction through the bed. Severalscreens are held on a carousel that can be rotated.The first screen is lowered over the paper and the firstcoloured ink is applied using a rubber squeegeethrough the screen and stencil. The first screen is thenraised and the carousel rotated on to the next screen.The next screen contains a stencil for a different partof the image requiring another colour. The next colouris printed and the carousel is rotated once more.

Other printing processesIn addition to the four main printing processes, thereare a number of other processes in operation forspecific uses. For example, when printing directly onto glass, ceramic decoration is used. This is basically ascreen printing process using enamels (instead ofinks) that are baked at very high temperatures. Themost widely used of the other printing processes is flexography.

Flexography

Flexography is similar to letterpress in using a reliefplate, but as the name suggests, it uses a flexibleplastic or rubber printing plate instead.

Flexography is used mainly for packaging where mate-rials other than paper are used such as PVC for shrinksleeves or foil and foil laminates. It can, however, beused to print any material that will pass through theprinting press. Its major application is in the printing oflocal and national newspapers and less expensivemagazines because of high printing speeds and thequick make up of printing plates. Its speed and cheap-ness have also made it ideal for printing paperbackbooks which, in turn, have enabled paperbacks tobecome widespread and be sold relatively cheaply.

Each printing process has its advantages and disad-vantages that make it suitable for various printingapplications.

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1 Find out more information on ceramic decorationfor printing directly on to glass and dry-offset forprinting directly on to metals.

2 Make a set of stencils, cut from card, to simulatethe screen printing of an image using three colours.

The flexographic printing process

Process Advantages Disadvantages Applications

Lithography Good reproduction quality especially Colour variation due to water/ Business cards, stationery,photographs ink mixture menus, brochures, posters, Cheap printing process Paper can stretch due to magazines, newspapersAble to print on a wide range of papers dampeningHigh printing speedsWidely available

Letterpress Dense ink gives good printing quality High cost Books with large amounts Less wastage of paper than other Slow process of text, letterheads andprocesses business cards

Gravure Consistent colour High cost of printing plates High quality art and High speed and cylinders photographic books,Ink dries on evaporation Only good for long print runs postage stamps, packaging, Good results on cheaper paper expensive magazines

Screen printing Economical for short runs Difficult to achieve fine detail T-shirts, posters, plastic andStencils easy to produce Low output metal signage, point-of-Can print on virtually any material Print requires long drying time sale displays

Flexography High speed Difficult to reproduce fine detail Less expensive magazines,Relatively cheap to set up Colour may not be consistent paperbacks, newspapers,Can print on same presses as letterpress packaging

Printing processes

Material Commercial printing process

Plastics On to paper labels – lithographic, gravure, letterpress, screen printingOn to shrink sleeves – as aboveOn to stretch labels – as aboveDirectly on to plastic – heat transfer labels, gravure, screen printing, dry-offset

PVC shrink sleeves Gravure – reverse printedFlexographic – reverse printed

Glass On to paper labels – lithographic, gravure, letterpress, screen printingOn to polypropylene (PP) labels – as aboveDirectly on to glass – ceramic decoration

Metals On to paper labels – lithographic, gravure, letterpress, screen printingDirectly on to metal – dry-offset print, reprotherm (transfer system for full colour photographic image)

Solid board LithographicFlexographicScreen printingGravure

Foil/film laminates FlexographicGravure

Printing processes on different materials