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Scaling an Islamic Work EthicAbbas Ali aa Department of Management, Indiana University,South Bend, USAVersion of record first published: 01 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: Abbas Ali (1988): Scaling an Islamic Work Ethic, The Journal ofSocial Psychology, 128:5, 575-583

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The Journal of Social Psychologv, 128(5), 575-583

Scaling an Islamic Work Ethic

ABBAS ALI Department of Management

Indiana Univenity at South Bend

ABSTRACT. The purpose of this research was to construct scales to measure the Is- lamic work ethic and individualism and to provide evidence of these scales’ reliability and validity. Three steps were involved: a literature search to develop statements per- taining to the Islamic work ethic and individualism; screening of the initial statements by Islamic experts; and actual administration of the refmed statements to a sample of 150 Arab students. The results of a reliability test and correlation analysis indicated that both scales were reliable and that the Islamic Work Ethic W e was positively and significantly correlated with the Individualism Scale.

Whoever goes to bed exhausted because of hard work, he has thereby caused his sins to be absolved.

Prophet Mohammed (cited in Abdul-Rauf, 1984, p. 10)

SINCE MAX WEBER’S TREATISE on the Protestant ethic, the issues of productivity and economic development and their relation to religious be- liefs have attained ever-increasing popularity. Most discussions of these topics, however, have been concerned with Judeo-Christian ethics. Despite the fact that many other religious and ethnic groups have achieved pros- perity and tremendous economic achievement during part of their history (e.g., the Jains in India; the Santri Muslims in Java), their contributions have been almost totally ignored in management literature.

In their quest for economic and social progress, the underdeveloped nations are confronted with a wide range of management and economic problems. These problems need to be clarified and identified in order to generate the strategies necessary to erode the roots of backwardness. Among the developing nations, the Arab states are endowed with both fi-

I gratefulb acknowledge the wistance of Robert Markley with the computer pro- grams and wish to thank him for his comments on an earlier version of thispapr.

Requests for reprints or for the Arab versions of the scales should be sent to Ab- b a ~ Ali, Associate Prqfssor of Management, Division of Business and Economics, Indiana University at South Bend, South Bend, IN 46634.

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nancial and human resources but have been unable to make significant strides forward. This has been attributed to the lack of sound management and economic institutions (Abed, 1983; Barakat, 1983; El-Fathaly & Chackerian, 1983). Of particular importance to the Arabs’ economic and social progress are the issues of the Islamic work ethic and individualism. That ethic has been essentially overlooked in Western management circles. The few references to it have only negative connotations. For example, re- searchers attribute the current economic and social problems in the Arab and Islamic countries to the Islamic work ethic (Ball & McCulloch, 1985; Terpstra, 1978) and fail to note that Islam, unlike Christianity, views man as free from primordial guilt and that engagement in economic activities is an obligation. Likewise, work in Islam is considered a virtue in light of man’s needs and the necessity to establish equilibrium in one’s individual and social life. Islam stands, therefore, not for life-denial but for life-fulfill- ment, and indeed holds business motives in the highest regard (Ahmad, 1976). The economic backwardness that prevails in the Arab states and other developing nations, therefore, should be put in historical and institu- tional perspective and should not be attributed to religious belief. At- tributing complete validity to the role of a work ethic, without regard for other motivational components and societal constructs could be misleading. For example, Ali (1986) found that Arab executives scored higher than their American or Scandinavian counterparts on the same scale of work ethic. If not for the Arab managers’ unique psychological aspects and the cultural relativity of the instrument, one might conclude that Ali’s Arab managers were more productive than Western managers.

Another issue that relates to the work ethic is individualism. Almaney (1981) and Baali and Wardi (1981) claimed thar the Arabs are highly in- dividualistic. They imputed the failure of Arab cooperation and economic programs to the individualistic quality of the Arabs. Western researchers and scholars, on the other hand, claim that individualism is the foundation of the work ethic and high achievement in Western society.

The purposes of the present study were (a) to develop Islamic work ethic and individualism scales and (b) to clarify some of the misconceptions about Islamic attitudes toward work. These objectives respond to the cur- rent call by social scientists and management scholars to construct in- struments relative to a particular culture or society.

Method

The development of Islamic work ethic and individualism scales was achieved in three phases. The first phase included a search of the literature pertaining to the Islamic work ethic and to individualism. Unlike individualism, the Is-

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lamic work ethic has a wide range of components and is viewed differently by scholars belonging to various Islamic schools of thought. Nevertheless, all Islamic schools of thought sanction the necessity of work. The work of Islamic and Arab scholars (e.g., Abdul-Rauf, 1984; Alaki, 1979; Ali, 1986/87; Almaney, 1981; Al-Sadr, 1983; Baali & Wardi, 1981; Boase, 1985; Elkholy, 1984; Faridi, 1985; Hawi, 1982; Nabi, 1982; Nagvi, 1981; Nasr, 1984; Yahfoyfi, 1982) was used to develop the conceptual framework that would structure each scale. Sixty-two statements relating to the Islamic work ethic and to individualism were assembled. These statements captured two sets of unique assumptions and attitudes toward work and interper- sonal relationships. They are briefly described as follows:

Islamic work ethic. Work is an obligatory activity and a virtue in light of the needs of man and the necessity to establish equilibrium in one’s individual and social life. Work enables man to be independent and is a source of self- respect, satisfaction, and fulfillment. Success and progress on the job de- pend on hard work and commitment to one’s job. Commitment to work also involves a desire to improve the community and societal welfare. Soci- ety would have fewer problems if each person were committed to his work and avoided unethical methods of wealth accumulation. Creative work and cooperation are not only a source of happiness but are considered noble deeds too.

Individualkrn. Self-reliance is a source of success and man is the best judge of his own interests. One should be rewarded according to his achievement and should be proud of his activities. Orders issued on a personal basis at work may hurt individual’s feelings and dignity. One’s loyalty revolves around self and family; however, in the workplace, loyalty to superiors is necessary for an organization to survive.

The second phase was a refinement of the initial statements by selected scholars in Islamic and Arab culture. Six scholars in the United States of various backgrounds and national origins participated in the refmement stage. They were chosen because of their scholarly activities or religious responsibility (e.g., Imam of a major mosque). They were asked to examine if items were relevant to an Islamic work ethic and to omit or modify statements as needed. Received comments and suggestions were incor- porated, and 53 statements (7 on individualism and 46 on the Islamic work ethic) were used in the final form of the survey.

In the third phase, about 250 questionnaires were sent to Arab students attending five major universities in the United States. A cover letter in- dicated that the purpose of the questionnaire was to identify personal beliefs about work in Islamic/Arab states. Respondents rated the impor-

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tance of each statement on a 5-point scale ranging from strongly disugree to strongly agree. A total of 150 questionnaires were returned, a response rate of 60%. Among the participants, 86% had worked in their home countries and 28% were working in the United States. Those who had worked in their home countries were on study leave from work.

Results and Discussion

Pearson correlation analysis and reliability tests were performed to deter- mine the reliability and validity of the scales. Table 1 presents an English translation of the items and item-total correlations. The Cronbach’s reliability coefficients for Islamic work ethic and individualism were .89 and .79, respectively. An examination of item-toal correlations for Islamic work ethic indicates that Items 3 and 41 have low correlations with the total score on the scale, whereas Item 26 has a fairly high but negative correlation. Item-total correlation for the Individualism Scale reveals that all items cor- relate positively with one another and have high mean concentrations, thus indicating that they are appropriate items (Nunnally, 1%7).

Table 2 shows the relationship between the Islamic work ethic and indi- vidualism index and each item of the Individualism Scale. The Islamic work ethic index was slightly but significantly correlated with the Individualism Scale (r = .32, p < .OO01, N = 150). Five out of seven individualism items had significant correlations with the Islamic work ethic. Those items related to loyalty (Items 49 and 53: r = .19, p < .Ol; r = .35, p < .001), independ- ence (Items 50 and 52: r = .25, p < .01; r = .22, p < .Ol), and dignity (Item 51, r = .23, p < .01) were positively related to the Islamic work ethic. This pattern of relationships is consistent with the Islamic emphasis on hu- man dignity, loyalty, and hard work. Individualism items (47 and 48), which are peculiar to the Arab Bedouin ethos and are not sanctioned in Is- lamic teaching, were related, but not significantly, to the Islamic work ethic.

Correlation analysis results demonstrate the effect of work experience on the relationships between the two scales. Mean scores (and standard devia- tions) on the Islamic Work Ethic Scale for those who had worked before (M = 4.26, SD = .34) and for those who did not have work experience (M = 4.28, SD = .40) were almost identical. The corresponding means and stan- dard deviations on the Individualism Scale, although displaying a similar pat- tern (M = 3.28, SD = .85 vs. M = 3.37, SD = .80; t = 2.25, p < .05) dif- fered more. Participants who were not working at the time of the study scored higher on the Individualism Scale than those who did have some work experience (A4 = 3.35 vs. M = 3.13; t = 7.33, p < .01). This was especially true for those who had never worked (M = 3.39; t = 6.50, p < .01).

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TABLE 1 Item-Total Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations of

Islamic Work Ethic and Individualism Scales

Item Item-total

M SD correlation

1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

6.

7. 8. 9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15. 16. 17.

18.

19. 20.

21.

22.

23.

Islamic Work Ethic Cooperation is a virtue in work. Laziness is a vice. Dedication to work is a virtue. Money earned through gambling, selling in- toxicants, a manipulative monopoly, bribery, and the like are harmful to society. One should take community affairs into consideration in his work. The state should provide work for every- one willing and able to work. One should not be denied his full wages. One should strive to achieve better results. Good work benefits both one’s self and others. Justice and generosity in the workplace are necessary conditions for society’s welfare. Cooperation provides satisfaction and bene- fits society. Competition to improve quality should be encouraged and rewarded. Constant struggle for the actualization of ideals and adherence to work values guaran- tees success. Our society would have fewer problems if each person was committed to his work and avoided its hazards. One must participate in economic activities. Work should be done with sufficient effort. Producing more than enough to meet one’s personal needs contributes to the prosperity of society as a whole. Work is an obligatory activity for every capable individual. Gambling is harmful to society. He who does not work is not a useful mem- ber of society. One should carry work out to the best of his ability. A person can overcome difficulties in life and better himself by doing his job well. Work is not an end in itself, but a means to foster personal growth and social relations.

4.83 4.60 4.93 4.29

4.65

4.37

4.44 4.57 4.44

4.63

4.60

4.52

4.48

3.97

4.05 4.54 4.31

4.66

4.28 3.94

4.71

4.45

4.26

.43

.89

.32 1.43

.59

.88

.86

.66

.76

.64

.60

.64

.61

.88

.83

.59

.85

.65

1.04 1.25

.50

.67

.81

.36

.35

.05

.20

.37

.28

.m

.50

.SO

.44

.45

.41

.63

.45

.44

.57

.44

.42

.47

.40

.48

.65

.41

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580 The Journal of Social Psychology

TABLE 1 (continued)

Item Item-total

M SD correlation

24.

25.

26. 27. 28. 29.

30.

31.

32. 33.

34.

35.

36.

37. 38. 39.

40.

41. 42.

43.

44. 45.

46.

Hard work is a virtue in light of the needs of man and the necessity to establish equi- librium in one’s individual and social life. Work is not a source of satisfaction or self-fulfillment .a

One should spend most of his time working.a Life has no meaning without work. More leisure time is good for society.= Work for its own sake stifles an individual’s life. Human relations in organizations should be emphasized and encouraged. Work does not enable man to control nature.a Exploitation in work is not praiseworthy. Creative work is a source of happiness and accomplishment. Any man who works is more likely to get ahead in life. Those who do not work hard often fail in life. Work gives one the chance to be inde- pendent. Work is a source of self-respect. Carelessness is unhealthy to one’s welfare. More leisure time is bad for individuals and society. A successful man is the one who meets deadlines at work. Hard work does not guarantee success.a One should constantly work hard to meet responsibilities. Progress on the job can be obtained through self-reliance. Devotion to quality work is a virtue. Consultation allows one to overcome ob- stacles and avoid mistakes. The value of work is derived from the ac- companying intention, rather than its results.

4.35 .72

4.25 .68

2.61 1.12 4.24 .90 3.65 1.15 3.69 1.12

4.12 .87

4.03 .99

4.44 .99 4.51 .56

4.21 .91

3.68 1.10

4.46 .70

4.46 .73 4.12 .86 3.86 1.17

4.38 .82

3.04 1.35 4.52 .64

4.24 .84

4.58 .67 4.66 .51

3.36 1.18

.45

.46

- .33 .48 .45 .34

.29

.46

.42

.45

.44

.49

.47

.45

.47

.56

.54

- .01 .40

.37

.46

.31

.20

Individuakm 47. One should be proud of his own achieve- 3.41 1.23 .59

ments and accomplishments.

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TABLE 1 (continued)

Item Item-total

M SD correlation

48. Individual incentives and rewards should be 3.18 1.35 .43

49. One's loyalty should be first and foremost 3.04 1.42 .60

given priority over group incentives and rewards.

to himself and his family.

interests.

vidual's feelings and dignity.

50. A man is the best judge of his own best 3.35 1.31 .67

5 1. Giving personal orders may hurt an indi- 3.80 1.07 .22

52. To be successful one has to rely on himself. 3.16 1.25 .51 53. Loyalty to one's superior is necessary for an 3.10 1.24 .62

organization to survive.

aScoring reversed.

TABLE 2 Pearson Correlation Between Islnmic Work Ethic Index and Individualism Scale

Scale M SD r

Islamic work ethic index 4.26 .35 1 .oo Individualism

Item 47 3.41 1.23 .12 Item 48 3.18 1.35 .13 Item 49 3.04 1.42 .19* Item 50 3.35 1.31 .23* Item 51 3.80 1.07 .23* Item 52 3.16 1.25 .22* Item 53 3.10 1.24 .35*'

Individualism index (total items) 3.30 .85 .32**

*p < .01, two-tailed. **p < .m1. two-tailed.

Furthermore, the results suggest that there is no conclusive evidence of the effect of work experience on the relationships between the Islamic work ethic and individualism. For example, significant relationships between the two variables were found among groups who had worked before (r = .32, p < .002) and those who were not presently working (r = .35, p < .002). An attempt to isolate the effect of work was made. The results, however, failed

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582 The Journal of Social psVchologv

to provide a consistent trend; for those participants who had worked previ- ously but were not working currently, there was a significant relation (r = .34, p < .002), but not for those who had worked previously and who were also working at the time of the study (r = .14, p < .43).

In conclusion, as is the case with other newly developed instruments, additional refinements and tests of the scales are necessary. Studies of a broader population are needed to establish more meaningfully the instru- ments’ validity and this study’s generalizability. This is especially true be- cause the respondents came from various Arab countries and had been liv- ing in the United States for a number of years. Data on these factors were not collected, although they may influence attitudes toward the work ethic. Such data should be collected in a future study. Furthermore, it is reason- able to suggest that the overall significant correlation between the in- dividualism index and the Islamic Work Ethic Scale indicates the need to in- vestigate the relationships between these variables and other organizational variables (i.e., job commitment, work satisfaction, performance, etc.) and to achieve a better perspective on the impediments to economic develop- ment in the Middle East. The positive attitudes toward work shown by this study and by previous empirical research on the work ethic dispute the assumption that Islam is a counter-developmental force. Cultural attitudes toward discipline, lack of organizational efforts, and lack of persistence in pursuing goals, as well as other motivational factors should be taken into consideration before attributing complete validity to the role of the work ethic in economic development.

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International.

Received October 6, 1987

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