Sch 4u Review

8/10/2019 Sch 4u Review

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/sch-4u-review 1/39

SCH 4U R EVIEW 1 of 39

SCH 4U R EVIEW

CHAPTER 1: ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

organic compoun – a compound that contains carbon and usuall hdro!"n

ca!"na!ion – th" prop"rt of carbon to form a co#al"nt bond $ith anoth"r carbon atom% formin!

lon! chains or rin!s#unc!iona$ group – a !roup of atoms in an or!anic mol"cul" that impart particular phsical and

ch"mical charact"ristics to that mol"cul" – th"r" ar" thr"" main compon"nts&

• multipl" bonds b"t$""n C atoms '"(!( – C ) C – *• C bond"d to a mor" "l"ctron"!ati#" atom 'i("(% +% ,% ,H% or a halo!"n*• C doubl" bond"d to ,

%ASIC NAMINGNUM%ER PRE&I' &OR

NAMING

A()*( GROUP

NAME

&UNCTIONA(

GROUP

PRE&I' &OR

NAMING

1 m"th- m"thl- - . fluoro/ "th- "thl- - Cl chloro3 prop- propl- - 0r bromo4 but- butl- - I iodo p"nt- p"ntl- - ,H hdro2 h"2- h"2l- - +,/ nitro h"pt- h"ptl- - +H/ amino5 oct- octl-9 non- nonl-16 d"c- d"cl-

ISOMERS O& A()*( GROUPS

butl 'or n-butl*CH3 – CH/ – CH/ – CH/

iso butl 'or i-butl*

CH3 – CH – CH3

CH/

s-butl 's"condar butl* CH3 – CH – CH/ – CH3

t -butl 't"rtiar butl* CH3

CH3 – C – CH3

S*M%O(S

R% R7% R8 all !roup: halo!"n atom',* o2idi;in! a!"nt 'li" <=n,4 or Cr /,

/- in H/S,4*



SCH 4U R EVIEW / of 39

PRIORIT* &OR NAMING +&ROM HIGHEST TO (OWEST,,H hdro2l +H/ amino.% Cl% 0r% I fluoro% chloro% bromo% iodoCH/CH/CH3 proplCH/CH3 "thlCH3 m"thl

>?<>+ES

DE&INITIONa hdrocarbon $ith onl sin!l" bonds b"t$""n carbon atoms@ !"n"ral formula%CnH/nA/

NAMING

pr"fi2 r"f"rrin! to numb"r of carbons in th" lon!"st continuous chain A B-an"• all !roups ar" nam"d in alphab"tical ord"r% numb"r"d from th" "nd that

$ill !i#" th" lo$"st combination of numb"rs• th" pr"s"nc" of t$o or mor" of th" sam" all !roups r"Duir"s a Bdi or Btri

pr"fi2 b"for" th" all !roup nam"• cclic hdrocarbons ha#" th" carbon rin! b"com" th" par"nt chain% and th"

pr"fi2 Bc-c$o is us"d b"for" th" par"nt nam"

GENERA(

&ORMU(A – C – C –

E'AMP(E+S,

propan" CH3 – CH/ – CH3

ccloh"2an" CH/

CH/ CH/

CH/ CH/

CH/

PO(ARIT* non-polar &ORCES disp"rsion forc"s

%OI(ING

POINT

• r"lati#"l lo$•

incr"as"s $ith chain l"n!th• strai!ht chains ha#" hi!h"r b(p(s than branch"d chainsSO(U%I(IT* immiscibl" in $at"r and oth"r polar sol#"nts

R EACTIONS

combustion C3H5 A . ,/ / C,/ A 4 H/,

substitution 'halo!"nation*1* CH4 A Cl/ CH3Cl A HCl/* CH3Cl A Cl/ CH/Cl/ A HCl




>?<E+ES

DE&INITIONa hdrocarbon that contains at l"ast on" carbon-carbon doubl" bond@ !"n"ralformula% CnH/n

NAMING

pr"fi2 r"f"rrin! to numb"r of carbons in th" lon!"st continuous chain that

contains the double bond A B-"n"• all !roups ar" nam"d in alphab"tical ord"r% numb"r"d from th" "nd

that is clos"st to th" doubl" bond

GENERA(

&ORMU(A

– C F C –

E'AMP(E+S, prop"n" CH/ F CH – CH3

PO(ARIT* non-polar &ORCES disp"rsion forc"s

%OI(ING POINT r"lati#"l lo$

SO(U%I(IT* immiscibl" in $at"r and oth"r polar sol#"nts

R EACTIONS

halo!"nation '$ith 0r /% Cl/% "tc(* "th"n" A bromin" 1%/ – dibromo"than"

0r 0r

CH/ 0 CH/ A 0r / CH/ – CH/

hdro!"nation '$ith H/*

"thn" A hdro!"n "than" H H

CH/ 0 CH/ A H/ CH/ – CH/

H H

hdrohalo!"nation '$ith hdro!"n halid"s*

prop"n" A hdro!"n bromin" /-bromopropan" H 0r

H – C 0 CH – CH3 A H0r H – C – CH – CH3

H H

hdration '$ith H/,*

1-but"n" A $at"r /-butanol

CH3 – CH/ – CH 0 CH/ A H,H CH3 – CH/ – CH – CH/

,H H

room t"mp"ratur"

catalst% h"at% pr"ssur"

room t"mp"ratur"

H/S,4 catalstPREPARATION REACTION &OR A(COHO(S




MAR)OVNI)OV2S R U(E

BGh" rich !"t rich"r $h"n a hdro!"n halid" or $at"r is add"d to anal"n" or aln"% th" hdro!"n atom bonds to th" carbon atom $ithin th"doubl" bond that already has more hydrogen bonds(

GEOMETRIC

ISOMERS

• a ci3 i3om"r has both all !roups on th" sam" sid" of th" mol"cularstrucutr"

CH3 CH3 C F C cis-2-butene

H H

• a !ran3 i3om"r has all !roups on th" opposit" sid" of th" mol"cularstrucutr"

CH3 H C F C trans-2-butene

H CH3

>?<+ES

DE&INITIONa hdrocarbon that contains at l"ast on" carbon-carbon tripl" bond@ !"n"ralformula% CnH/n-/

NAMING

pr"fi2 r"f"rrin! to numb"r of carbons in th" lon!"st continuous chain that

contains the triple bond A B--n"• all !roups ar" nam"d in alphab"tical ord"r% numb"r"d from th" "nd that is

clos"st to th" tripl" bond

GENERA(

&ORMU(A – C ) C –

E'AMP(E+S, propn" CH ) C – CH3

PO(ARIT* non-polar &ORCES disp"rsion forc"s%OI(ING

POINTr"lati#"l lo$

SO(U%I(IT* immiscibl" in $at"r and oth"r polar sol#"nts

R EACTIONS Same as Alkenes (resulting in double bonds rather than single)

>R,=>GIC HJR,C>R0,+S

DE&INITION a compound $ith a structur" bas"d on b"n;"n" 'a rin! of si2 carbons*

NAMING

consid"r th" b"n;"n" rin! to b" th" par"nt mol"cul"• all !roups ar" nam"d to !i#" th" lo$"st combination of numb"rs% $ith no

particular startin! carbon 'as it is a rin!*• $h"n it is "asi"r to consid"r th" b"n;"n" rin! as an all !roup% $" us" th"

nam" Bp"n-$ to r"f"r to it



SCH 4U R EVIEW of 39

GENERA(

&ORMU(A

E'AMP(E+S,

m"thlb"n;"n"

PO(ARIT* non-polar &ORCES disp"rsion forc"s%OI(ING

POINTr"lati#"l lo$

SO(U%I(IT* immiscibl" in $at"r and oth"r polar sol#"ntsR EACTIONS Same as Alkanes (performs substitution reactions)

,RK>+IC H>?IJES

DE&INITIONa compound of carbon and hdro!"n in $hich on" or mor" hdro!"n atoms ha#"

b""n r"plac"d b halo!"n atomsNAMING

halo!"n atoms ar" consid"r"d to b" attachm"nts to th" par"nt chain and ar"numb"r"d and nam"d $ith a pr"fi2 as such

GENERA(

&ORMU(AR – :

E'AMP(E+S,

H H

1%/-dichloro"than" H – C – C – H Cl Cl

Cl1%/-dichlorob"n;"n"

Cl

PO(ARIT* polar 'du" to halo!"n atom*&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s 'incr"as"d str"n!th bLc of carbon-halo!"n bonds*%OI(ING

POINThi!h"r than th" corr"spondin! hdrocarbons

SO(U%I(IT* mor" solubl" in polar sol#"nts

R EACTIONS addition "thl"n" A hdro!"n idodi" 1-iodo"th"n"

H I H – C ) C – H A H – I H – C F C – H

substitution

"than" A chlorin" 1-chloro"than" A hdro!"n chlorid"H Cl

CH3




CH3 – CH3 A Cl – Cl H – C – C – H A H – Cl

H H"limination

/-bromopropan" A hdro2l !roup prop"n" A bromin" ion A $at"r

H 0r H H H H

H – C – C – C – H A ,H- H – C – C F C – H A 0r - A H/,

H H H H

>?C,H,?S

DE&INITION

an or!anic compound charact"ri;"d b th" pr"s"nc" of a hdro2l functional!roup ',H-*

NAMING

• th" B" "ndin! of th" par"nt hdrocarbon is chan!"d to Bo$ to indicat" th" pr"s"nc" of th" ,H- !roup

• th" chain is numb"r"d to !i#" th" ,H- !roup th" small"st possibl" numb"r • $h"n th"r" is mor" than on" ,H- !roup% th" "ndin!s Bdiol and Btriol ar"

us"d% and "ach is indicat"d $ith a num"rical pr"fi2% ho$"#"r th" B" "ndin!

r"main th"n '"(!(% 1%3-propan"diol*GENERA(

&ORMU(AR – ,H

E'AMP(E+S,

propanol CH3 – CH/ – CH/ – ,H

ph"nol

PO(ARIT* polar 'du" to hdro2l !roup*&ORCES hdro!"n bondin! and disp"rsion forc"s

%OI(INGPOINT

hi!h 'du" to capacit for hdro!"n bondin!*

SO(U%I(IT* #"r solubl" in polar sol#"nts and nonpolar sol#"nts 'du" to ,H- !roup*hdration 'pr"paration*

1-but"n" A $at"r /-butanol

CH3 – CH/ – CH 0 CH/ A H,H CH3 – CH/ – CH – CH/

,H H

O

M 169(N

O

H S +

S -

H/S,4 catalst

,H




d"hdration '"limination*

propanol prop"n" A $at"r

CH3 – CH – CH/ CH3 – CH F CH/ A H,H

,H H

156 56 AND /5A(COHO(S

Primar- >lcohol '1N* CH3 – CH/ – ,H 1 oth"r carbon !roup attach"d to carbon $ith ,H ,H S"conar- >lcohol '/N* CH3 – CH – CH3

/ oth"r carbon !roups attach"d to carbon $ith ,H ,H

T"r!iar- >lcohol '3N* CH3 – C – CH3

3 oth"r carbon !roups attach"d to carbon $ith ,H CH3

EGHERS

DE&INITION

an or!anic compound $ith t$o all !roups 'th" sam" or diff"r"nt* attach"d toan o2!"n atom

NAMING

• th" lon!"r of th" t$o all !roups is consid"r"d th" par"nt chain• th" oth"r all !roup $ith th" o2!"n is consid"r"d to b" th" substitu"nt

!roup '$ith pr"fi2 of carbons and Bo7-*• numb"rin! of C atoms starts at th" , propan" "tho2

CH3CH/CH/ – , – CH/CH3

/ 1 1

ethoxy propane

GENERA(

&ORMU(AR – , – R7

E'AMP(E+S, m"tho2"than" CH3 – , – CH/ – CH3

PO(ARIT* polar 'du" to th" V-shap" and C - , bonds*&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s%OI(ING

POINTm"dium 'hi!h"r than hdrocarbons% lo$"r than alcohols of similar l"n!th*

SO(U%I(IT* solubl" in polar sol#"nts and nonpolar sol#"nts

H/S,4 catalst

O

11N

O

C S +

S -

C

C

C




cond"nsation 'pr"paration* O addition of t$o alcohols 'sam" or diff"r"nt* O

m"thanol A m"thanol m"tho2m"than" A $at"r

CH3 – ,H A CH3 – ,H CH3 – , – CH3 A H,H

>?JEHJES

DE&INITIONan or!anic compound that contains th" carbonl !roup '–CF,* on th" "ndcarbon of a chain

NAMINGth" B" "ndin! of th" par"nt hdrocarbon is chan!"d to Ba$ to indicat" th" pr"s"nc" of th" R-CF,

GENERA(

&ORMU(A

,

RPHQ – C – H

E'AMP(E+S,

,

propanal CH3 – CH/ – C – H

PO(ARIT* polar 'du" to carbonl !roup*&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s%OI(ING

POINTm"dium 'hi!h"r than "th"rs% lo$"r than alcohols of similar l"n!th*

SO(U%I(IT* similar solubilit to alcohols

R EACTIONS

o2idation 'pr"paration*

15 a$coo$ 8 mi$ o7ii9ing ag"n! a$"-" 8 a!"r

"thanol A ',* "thanal A $at"r

,H ,

CH3 – C – H A ',* CH3 – C – H A H,H H

r"duction 'hdro!"nation*

a$"-" 8 -rog"n 15 a$coo$

proponal A hdro!"n 1-propanol

, ,H

CH3 – CH/ – C – H A H/ CH3 – CH/ – C – H

< EG,+ES

DE&INITION an or!anic compound that contains th" carbonl !roup '–CF,* on a carbon oth"r

H/S,4 catalst




than thos" on th" "nd of a carbon chain 'in th" middl"*NAMING th" B" "ndin! of th" par"nt hdrocarbon is chan!"d to Bon"

GENERA(

&ORMU(A

,

R – C – R7

E'AMP(E+S,

, propanon" 'ac"ton"* CH3 – C – CH3

PO(ARIT* polar 'du" to carbonl !roup*&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s%OI(ING

POINTm"dium 'hi!h"r than "th"rs% lo$"r than alcohols of similar l"n!th*


R EACTIONS

o2idation 'pr"paration*

5 a$coo$ 8 o7ii9ing ag"n! ;"!on" 8 a!"r

/-propanol A ',* propanon" A $at"r

,H ,

CH3 – C – CH3 A ',* CH3 – C – CH3 A H,H

H

r"duction 'hdro!"nation*

;"!on" 8 -rog"n 5 a$coo$

butanon" A hdro!"n /-butanal

, ,H

CH3 – CH/ – C – CH3 A H/ CH3 – CH/ – C – CH3

NOTE& G"rtiar alcohols do not und"r!o o2idation r"actions@ no H atom isa#ailabl" on th" c"ntral C atom(

C>R0,:?IC >CIJS

DE&INITION

on" of a famil of or!anic compounds that is charact"ri;"d b th" pr"s"nc" of acarbo2l !roup&

– C , – H

NAMING • th" B" "ndin! of th" par"nt alan" is chan!"d to Boic aci

• numb"rin! starts $ith th" C of th" carbo2l !roup

GENERA(

&ORMU(A

,

RPHQ – C – ,H

,




E'AMP(E+S,

CH/CH3

4-"thl-3-m"thlh"2anoic acid CH3 – CH/ – CH – CH – CH/ – C,,H

CH3

PO(ARIT* polar 'du" to carbo2l !roup*&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s and hdro!"n bondin!

%OI(INGPOINT

#"r hi!h 'hi!h"r than hdrocarbons of similar l"n!th du" to –C, and –,H!roups*


R EACTIONS

dissolution in $at"r 'proof of acidit*

"thanoic acid A $at"r carbo2lat" ion A hdronium ion

CH3C,,H A H/, CH3C,,- A H3,A

, –CH3 – C O shar"s th" doubl" bond

,o2idation '$ith $"a o2idi;"r*

1, 15 a$coo$ 8 "a; o7ii9ing ag"n! a$"-" 8 a!"r, a$"-" 8 "a; o7ii9ing ag"n! car<o7-$ic aci 8 a!"r ,

1, CH3 – CH/ – ,H A Cr /,/- A HA CH3 – C – H A H/, A Cr 3A

,

, CH3 – C – H A Cr /,/- A HA / CH3 – C,,H A 4 H/,

o2idation '$ith stron! o2idi;"r*

15 a$coo$ 8 3!rong o7ii9ing ag"n! car<o7-$ic aci 8 a!"r

"thanol A o2idi;in! a!"nt A hdro!"n "thanoic acid A $at"r A man!an"s" dio2id" ,

/ CH3 – CH/ – ,H A 4 =n,4- A 4 HA / CH3 – C – ,H A . H/, A 4 =n,/

NOTE: <"ton"s ar" not r"adil o2idi;in!% as in th" o2idation of ald"hd"s(

ESGERS

DE&INITIONan or!anic compound charact"ri;"d b th" pr"s"nc" of a carbonl !roup bond"dto an o2!"n atom

NAMING

• th" !roup that is attach"d to th" doubl"-bond"d , b"com"s th" par"nt chain$ith th" B" "ndin! chan!"d to Boa!"

• th" oth"r !roup is nam"d as a substitu"nt !roupGENERA(

&ORMU(A

,




RPHQ – C – , – R7

E'AMP(E+S,

/-m"thlbutl propanoat" , CH3

CH3 – CH/ – C – , – CH/ – CH – CH/ – CH3

PO(ARIT* l"ss polar than carbo2lic acids 'loss of ,H- !roup*&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s

%OI(INGPOINT

m"dium 'lo$"r than carbo2lic acids% hi!h"r than ald"hd"s L "ton"s of similarl"n!th du" to "2tra ,*

SO(U%I(IT* l"ss solubl" than acids

R EACTIONS

cond"nsation 'formation*

car<o7-$ic aci 8 a$coo$ "3!"r 8 a!"r

"thanoic acid A m"thanol m"thl "thanoat" A $at"r , , CH3 – C – ,H A CH3 – ,H CH3 – C – , – CH3 A H/,

hdrolsis 'saponification*

"3!"r 8 NaOH 3oium 3a$! o# aci 8 a$coo$

, ,

R – C – , – R7 A +aA A ,H- R – C – ,- A +aA A R7 – ,H

NOTE: Est"rs !"n"rall ha#" nic" odours and ar" us"d to cr"at" artificial fla#ours(

>=I+ES

DE&INITIONan ammonia mol"cul" in $hich on" or mor" H atoms ar" substitut"d b all oraromatic !roups

NAMING1* nitro!"n !roup is nam"d as a substitu"nt !roup usin! Bamino=/* all !roup is nam"d as a substitu"nt !roup from B-amin"

GENERA(

&ORMU(A

R7 PHQ

R – + – R77 PHQ

E'AMP(E+S,

1* 1-aminopropan" +H/ /* proplamin" CH/ – CH/ – CH3

+-"thl-+-m"thl-1-aminobutan"

CH/CH3

CH3 – + – CH/ – CH/ – CH/ – CH3



SCH 4U R EVIEW 1/ of 39

PO(ARIT* polar 'not as polar as alcohols% b"caus" + is l"ss polar than ,*&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s and +-H bonds%OI(ING

POINTm"dium 'lo$"r than alcohols of similar l"n!th% hi!h"r than hdrocarbons*

SO(U%I(IT* solubl" in $at"r

R EACTIONS

formation

a$;-$ a$i" 8 ammonia amin" 8 ammonium a$i" iodo"than" A ammonia amino"than" A ammonium iodid"

CH3 – CH/ – I A +H3 CH3 – CH/ – +H/ A +H4I

156 56 AND /5AMINES

Primar- >min" '1N* CH3 – + – H 1 all !roup attach"d to + H methylamine

S"conar- >min" '/N* CH3 – + – CH3

/ all !roups attach"d to + H

dimethylamine

T"r!iar- >min" '3N* CH3 – + – CH3

3 all !roups attach"d to + CH3 trimethylamine

>=IJES

DE&INITION an or!anic compound charact"ri;"d b th" pr"s"nc" of a carbonl functional!roup 'CF,* bond"d to a nitro!"n atom

NAMINGall !roup attach"d to doubl"-bond"d , is consid"r"d to b" th" substitu"nt!roup% attach"d to th" par"nt B-ami"

GENERA(

&ORMU(A

, R77 PHQ

RPHQ – C – + – R7 PHQ

E'AMP(E+S,

,

propanamid" CH3 – CH/ – C – +H/

PO(ARIT* sli!htl mor" polar than amin" of similar l"n!th '"2tra ,*&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s and +-H bonds%OI(ING

POINT same as amines

SO(U%I(IT* solubl" in $at"r




R EACTIONS

formation

car<o7-$ic aci 8 amin" ami" 8 a!"r

"thanoic acid A ammonia "thanamid" A $at"r , H , CH3 – C – ,H A H – + – H CH3 – C – +H/ A H,H

E'AMP(E O& A STEPPED S*NTHESIS R EACTIONWrite a series of equations for a method of synthesis for N-ethylethanamide from an alkane and ammonia

1( "than" A chlorin" chloro"than" A hdro!"n chlorid" CH3 – CH3 A Cl – Cl CH3 – CH/ A H – Cl

Cl

/( chloro"than" A $at"r "thanol A hdro!"n chlorid" CH3 – CH/ H,H CH3 – CH/ A H – Cl

Cl ,H

3( "thanol A stron! o2idi;"r "thanoic acid A $at"r A man!an"s" dio2id" CH3 – CH/ A =n,4

- CH3 – C – ,H A H,H A =n,/

,H ,

4( chloro"than" A ammonia amino"than" A ammonium chlorin" CH3 – CH/ A H – + – H CH3 – CH/ – +H/ A +H4Cl Cl H

( "thanoic acid A amino"than" +-"thl"thanamid" A $at"r

, H CH3 – C – ,H A CH3 – CH/ – +H/ CH3 – C – + – CH/ – CH3 A H,H ,

COMMON NAMES

COMMON NAME IUPAC NAME COMMON NAME IUPAC NAME

"thl"n" "th"n" formic acid carbo2l !roup 'C,,H* propl"n" prop"n" ac"tic acid "thanoic acidac"tl"n" "thn" tolu"n" L ph"nl m"than" m"thl b"n;"n"

formald"hd" m"thanal ac"tat" "thanoat"ac"tald"hd" "thanal ac"tamid" "thanamid"

ac"ton" propanon"

&(OW CHART O& ORGANIC R EACTIONS

H/S,4 catalst




CHAPTER : PO(*MERS

po$-m"r – a mol"cul" of lar!" molar mass that consists of man r"p"atin! subunits call"dmonom"rs@ t$o tp"s& addition and cond"nsation

monom"r – a mol"cul" or compound usuall containin! carbon and of r"lati#"l lo$ mol"cular$"i!ht and simpl" structur" $hich is capabl" of con#"rsion to polm"rs bcombination $ith its"lf or oth"r similar mol"cul"s or compounds

im"r – a mol"cul" mad" up of t$o monom"rs

ADDITION PO(*MERS

ai!ion po$-m"r – a polm"r form"d $h"n monom"r units ar" lin"d throu!h additionr"actions@ all atoms pr"s"nt in th" monom"r ar" r"tain"d in th" polm"r

al"n" A al"n" polm"r

C F C A C F C – C – C – C – C – or – C – C –

n

• l"ss r"acti#" than th"ir monom"rs% b"caus" th" unsaturated al"n" monom"rs ha#" b""ntransform"d into saturated carbon s"l"tons of alan"s

• forc"s of attraction ar" lar!"l #an d"r Waals attractions% $hich ar" indi#iduall $"a%allo$in! th" polm"r chains to slid" alon! "ach oth"r% r"nd"rin! th"m fl"2ibl" andstr"tchabl"

CONDENSATION PO(*MERS

con"n3a!ion po$-m"r – a polm"r form"d $h"n monom"r units ar" lin"d throu!hcond"nsation r"actions@ a small mol"cul" is form"d as a bproduct

monomer




po$-"3!"r – a polm"r form"d b cond"nsation r"actions r"sultin! in "st"r lina!"s b"t$""nmonom"rs

dialcohol A dicarbo2lic acid pol"st"r 'dim"r* A $at"r

, , , , H, – CH/ – CH/ – ,H A C – C – , – CH/ CH/ – , – C – C – A / H/,

n

H, ,H

po$-ami" – a polm"r form"d b cond"nsation r"actions r"sultin! in amid" lina!"s b"t$""nmonom"rs@ also no$n as a n-$on

diamin" A dicarbo2lic acid polamid" 'dim"r* A $at"r

H H , , H H , , + – CH/ – + A C – C – + – CH/ – + – C – C – A / H/,

n

H H H, ,H

COMPOUNDS O& (I&E

pro!"in – a lar!" compl"2 mol"cul" mad" up of on" or mor" chains of amino acids 'an amino!roup and carbo2l !roup attach"d to th" sam" carbon atom*

> p"rform a $id" #ari"t of acti#iti"s in th" c"ll% includin! muscular !ro$th% c"llularr"pair% and s"r#" as buildin! blocs for all bod tissu"

, > +H – CH – C >

n

R

car<o-ra!" – a compound of carbon% hdro!"n% and o2!"n% $ith a !"n"ral formula C2'H/,*

> a maor sourc" of food "n"r!% includin! su!ars% starch"s% and c"llulos" > produc"d throu!h photosnth"sis in plants > pro#id"s an "Dui#al"nt amount of "n"r! as an "Dual mass of fatt acids

#a! – no$n ch"micall as a triglyceride 'an "st"r of thr"" fatt acids $hich ar" lon!-chaincarbo2lic acids and on" !lc"rol mol"cul"*

> s"r#"s as a stora!" sst"m% r"s"r#" suppl of "n"r!% and insulation

!lc"rol A fatt acids fat 'tri!lc"rid"*

H , , /

H – C – ,H H, – C – R H – C – , – C – R H – C – ,H H , H – C – ,H H – C – , – C – R




H , H – C – , – C – R

H

nuc$"ic aci – h"r"ditar information stor"d in all li#in! c"lls from $hich th" information can

b" transf"rr"d@ th" chi"f tp"s b"in! J+> and R+> > J+> is cr"at"d from four diff"r"nt nucleotides 'monom"r consistin! of a ribos"su!ar% a phosphat" !roup% and on" of four possibl" nitro!"nous bas"s*

> carri"s th" !"n"tic information that "ncod"s prot"ins and "nabl"s c"lls tor"produc" and p"rform th"ir functions

nitrogenous

phosphate base

sugar

CHAPTER /: ATOMIC THEOR*

THE %OHR ATOMIC THEOR*

• "l"ctrons tra#"l in th" atom in circular orbits $ith Duanti;"d "n"r! – "n"r! is r"strict"d toonl c"rtain discr"t" Duantiti"s

• th"r" is a ma2imum numb"r of "l"ctrons allo$"d in "ach orbit• "l"ctrons Bump to a hi!h"r l"#"l $h"n a photon 'a Duantum of li!ht "n"r!* is absorb"d%

r"sultin! in absorption sp"ctrum 's"ri"s of dar lin"s*• "l"ctrons Bdrop to a lo$"r l"#"l $h"n a photon is "mitt"d% r"sultin! in bri!ht-lin" sp"ctrum

's"ri"s of bri!ht lin"s*

OR%ITS VS? OR%ITA(S

or<i! – /-J path@ fi2"d distanc" from nucl"us@ circular or "lliptical path@ /n/ "l"ctrons p"r orbitor<i!a$ – 3-J r"!ion in spac"@ #ariabl" distanc" from nucl"us@ no path and #ari"d shap" of

r"!ion@ / "l"ctrons p"r orbital@ pr"dict"d b Schrodin!"rs "Duation

@UANTUM NUM%ERS TO DESCRI%E OR%ITA(S

n – principal Duantum numb"r or "n"r! l"#"ll – s"condar Duantum numb"r or subsh"ll ' s% p% d % or f *

m! – ma!n"tic Duantum numb"r 'dir"ction of th" "l"ctron orbit*m2 – spin Duantum numb"r 'can onl b" AT or –T to d"scrib" spin of "l"ctron*

VA(UE O& l SU%(EVE(

S*M%O(

NUM%ER O&

OR%ITA(S

MA'? NUM%ER

O& E(ECTRONS

PRESENT AT n 0

6 s 1 / 1-1 p 3 /-/ d 16 3-3 f 14 4-

6p5d




CREATING ENERG*=(EVE( DIAGRAMS

"n"rg-=$""$ iagram – int"rpr"tation of $hich orbital "n"r! l"#"ls ar" occupi"d b "l"ctronsfor a particular atom or ion@ also call"d an orbital dia!ram

"(!(% 9.

2p

2s

1s

R U(ES &OR ENERG*=(EVE( DIAGRAMS

• Start addin! "l"ctrons to th" lo$"st "n"r! l"#"l '1 s* and build up from th" bottom until th"limit on th" numb"r of "l"ctrons for th" particl" is r"ach"d – !" au#<au princip$"

• Go obtain th" corr"ct ord"r of orbitals for an atom% start at th" hdro!"n and mo#" from l"ft

to ri!ht across th" p"riodic tabl"% fillin! th" orbitals@ s"" b"lo$&

32 e- 6s 4f

18 e- 5s

5p

18 e- 4s

8 e- 3s

8 e- 2s

2 e- 1s

4p

3p

2p

4d

3d

n 'primar Duantum numb"r or "n"r! l"#"l*

l 's"condar Duantum numb"r or subl"#"l*

m! 'on" orbital is distin!uish"d from anoth"r at th" sam" subl"#"l*m2 'spin*




• .or anions% add "2tra "l"ctrons to th" numb"r for th" atom( .or cations% do th" n"utral atomfirst% and th"n subtract th" r"Duir"d numb"r of "l"ctrons from th" orbitals $ith th" hi!h"st

principl" Duantum numb"r% n 'i("(% ou $ould r"mo#" th" "l"ctrons from 4 s% rath"r than 3d (*• Each orbital $ill hold a ma2imum of t$o "l"ctrons that spin in opposit" dir"ctions – !"

Pau$i "7c$u3ion princip$"• El"ctrons must b" distribut"d amon! orbitals of "Dual "n"r! so that as man "l"ctrons

r"main unpair"d as possibl" – Hun23 ru$"• Half-fill"d and fill"d subsh"lls ar" mor" stabl" than unfill"d subsh"lls as th" o#"rall "n"r!

stat" of th" atom is lo$"r aft"r th" "l"ctron is promot"d to a lo$"r "n"r! l"#"l&

Predicted Actual

Cr: [Ar] Cr: [Ar]

Cu: [Ar] Cu: [Ar]

4s 3d 4s 3d

E(ECTRON CON&IGURATION

"$"c!ron con#igura!ion – a m"thod for communicatin! th" location and numb"r of "l"ctrons in"l"ctron "n"r! l"#"ls

"(!(% ,& 1s/ /s/ /p4

3p5 S/-& 1s/ /s/ /p 3s/ 3p

3or!an "$"c!ron con#igura!ion – $h"n th" "l"ctron confi!uration is $ritt"n $ith th" pr"c"din! nobl" !as plac"d b"for" th" subsh"ll information'"(!(% Cl: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 b"com"s Cl: [Ne] 3s2 3p5*

i3o"$"c!ronic – $h"n t$o atomsLions ha#" th" sam" "l"ctron confi!uration '"(!(% +"% .-% +aA*

#"rromagn"!i3m – "2hibit"d b th" m"tals iron% cobalt% nic"l and a numb"r of allos that b"com" ma!n"ti;"d in a ma!n"tic fi"ld and r"tain th"ir ma!n"tism $h"n th"fi"ld is r"mo#"d

paramagn"!i3m – "2hibit"d b mat"rials li" aluminum or platinum that b"com" ma!n"ti;"d ina ma!n"tic fi"ld but it disapp"ars $h"n th" fi"ld is r"mo#"d 'caus"d bunpair"d "l"ctrons*

@UANTUM MECHANIC THEOR*

Buan!um m"canic3 – th" curr"nt th"or of atomic structur" bas"d on $a#" prop"rti"s of"l"ctrons@ also no$n as $a#" m"chanics

H"i3"n<"rg unc"r!ain!- princp$" – it is impossibl" to simultan"ousl no$ "2act position andsp""d of a particl"

principal Duantum numb"r

orbital

numb"r of "l"ctrons inorbital's*




"$"c!ron pro<a<$i!- "n3i!- – a math"matical or !raphical r"pr"s"ntation of th" chanc" offindin! an "l"ctron in a !i#"n spac"@ s"" b"lo$ for "2ampl" of a/s orbital&

CHAPTER 4: CHEMICA( %ONDING

c"mica$ <on – form"d as th" r"sult of th" simultan"ousattraction of t$o or mor" nucl"i

T*PES O& %ONDS

1( Ionic %oning – $h"n on" atom has lo$ ioni;ation "n"r! and lo$ En% $hil" th" oth"r hashi!h ioni;ation "n"r! and hi!h En 'i("(% m"tal and nonm"tal*

– En 1( – th" "l"ctrostatic attraction b"t$""n positi#" and n"!ati#" ions

/( Coa$"n! %oning – $h"n both atoms ha#" hi!h ioni;ation "n"r! and hi!h En 'i("(% t$ononm"tals*

– En 1( – th" sharin! of #al"nc" "l"ctrons b"t$""n atomic nucl"i

3( M"!a$$ic %oning – $h"n both atoms ha#" lo$ ioni;ation "n"r! and lo$ En 'i("(% t$om"tals*

(EWIS THEOR* O& %ONDING • >toms and ions ar" stabl" if th" ha#" a nobl" !as-li" "l"ctron structur" 'i("(% a stabl" oct"t

of "l"ctrons*(• El"ctrons ar" most stabl" $h"n th" ar" pair"d(• >toms form ch"mical bonds to achi"#" a stabl" oct"t of "l"ctrons(• > stabl" oct"t ma b" achi"#"d b an "2chan!" of "l"ctrons b"t$""n m"tal and nonm"tal

atoms(• > stabl" oct"t ma b" achi"#"d b th" sharin! of "l"ctrons b"t$""n nonm"tal atoms%

r"sultin! in a co#al"nt bond(

(EWIS STRUCTURES ("i3 3!ruc!ur" – a smbolic d"piction of th" distribution of #al"nc" "l"ctrons in a mol"cul"

1( >rran!" atoms smm"tricall around th" c"ntral atom 'usuall list"d first in th" formula%not usuall o2!"n and n"#"r hdro!"n*(

/( Count th" numb"r of #al"nc" "l"ctrons of all atoms( .or polatomic ions% add "l"ctronscorr"spondin! to th" n"!ati#" char!"% and subtract "l"ctrons corr"spondin! to th" positi#"char!" on th" ion(



SCH 4U R EVIEW /6 of 39

3( J"t"rmin" th" numb"r of #al"nc" "l"ctrons all th" atoms B$ant% and subtract th" numb"rof #al"nc" "l"ctrons it has 'r"sult from st"p /*( Ji#id" this numb"r b / to d"t"rmin" th"numb"r of bonds th" mol"cul" $ill ha#"(

4( Xlac" a bondin! pair of "l"ctrons b"t$""n th" c"ntral atom and "ach of th" surroundin!atoms(

( Compl"t" th" oct"ts of th" surroundin! atoms usin! lon" pairs of "l"ctrons( R"m"mb"rhdro!"n '/ "-*% b"rllium '4 "-*% and boron ' "-* ar" th" "2c"ptions( >n r"mainin!

"l"ctrons !o on th" c"ntral atom(( If th" c"ntral atom do"s not ha#" an oct"t% mo#" lon" pairs from th" surroundin! atoms to

form doubl" or tripl" bonds until th" c"ntral atom has a compl"t" oct"t( Confirm th"numb"r of bonds is corr"ct b comparin! it to th" r"sult in st"p 3(

( Jra$ th" ?"$is structur" and "nclos" polatomic ions $ithin sDuar" brac"ts sho$in! th"ion char"(

"(!(% S,3

S O/

has 3 '* A 15 F /4 "-

$ants 5 3 '5* 5 A /4 F 3/ "-

diff"r"nc" F 5 "-

F 4 bonds

VA(ENCE %OND THEOR*

• Co#al"nt bonds form $h"n atomic or hbrid orbitals $ith on" "l"ctron o#"rlap to shar" "-(• 0ondin! occurs $ith th" hi!h"st "n"r! '#al"nc" sh"ll* "l"ctrons(• +ormall% th" s orbitals 'sph"r" shap"* and p orbitals 'dumb-b"ll shap"* o#"rlap $ith "ach

oth"r to form bonds b"t$""n atoms(• sp"% sp2% and sp hbrid orbitals ar" form"d from on" s orbital and thr""% t$o% and on" p

orbital% r"sp"cti#"l% $ith ori"ntations of t"trah"dral '169(N*% tri!onal planar '1/6N*% andlin"ar '156N*% r"sp"cti#"l(

• End-to-"nd o#"rlap of orbitals or sin!l" co#al"nt bonds is call"d a si!ma 'Y* bond(• Sid"-b-sid" o#"rlap of unhbridi;"d p orbitals is call"d a pi 'Z* bond '$"a"r than Y bond*(• Joubl" bonds ha#" on" pi bond% $hil" tripl" bonds ha#" t$o pi bonds(

VSEPR THEOR*

Val"nc"-Sh"ll El"ctron-Pair R "pulsion T"or- – pairs of "l"ctrons in th" #al"nc" sh"ll of anatom sta as far apart as possibl" to minimi;" r"pulsion of th"ir n"!ati#" char!"s

1( Jra$ th" ?"$is structur" for th" mol"cul"% includin! th" "- pairs around th" c"ntral atom(/( Count th" total numb"r of bondin! pairs and lon" pairs of "l"ctrons around th" c"ntral atom(3( Us" th" tabl" b"lo$ to pr"dict th" shap" of th" mol"cul"(

!" e- # A$%&

A%!'N(

C)N*%A+

A*!,

!%$)N*A*$!N

!"

)+)C*%!N

# A$%&

N',)% !"

!N($N.

AN( +!N)

# A$%&

!N(

AN.+)&&/A#) )0A,#+)

,!+)C'+A%

.)!,)*%

2 linear 2 # +# 18 linear e"2 0 A 0

3 triangular 3 # +# 12 trigonal "3 0

&

! !

!



. .. .

. .


planar planar

A

0 0

4

tetrahedral 4 # +# 175 tetrahedral C/4

0

A0 0

0

tetrahedral 3 # 1 +# 9 175trigonal

pra;idalN/3

#Cl3

A0 0

0

tetrahedral 2 # 2 +# 9 175<-shapedor bent

/2!!"2

A

0 0

tetrahedral 1 # 3 +# 18 linear /Cl A 0

5trigonal

bipra;idal5 # +#

12 =7

trigonalbipra;idal

#Cl5

0 0 0

A

00

6 o>tahedral 6 # +# 7 o>tahedral &"6

0 0 0

A 0 0 0

"(!(% H,.'l* . .

/ : ! : " : / 0X and / ?X% th"r"for" H,.'l* is #-shap"d&!

/ "No!": – ions ar" tr"at"d in th" sam" $a% but sDuar" brac"ts ar" plac"d around th" dia!ram

$ith th" char!" plac"d in th" upp"r ri!ht hand corn"r > doubl" and tripl" bonds ar" tr"at"d as on" !roup of "l"ctrons $h"n usin! VSEXR

th"or% and most of thos" mol"cul"s ta" th" sam" shap" as th"ir ?"$is structur" PO(AR MO(ECU(ES

<on ipo$" – th" "l"ctron"!ati#it diff"r"nc" of t$o bond"d atoms r"pr"s"nt"d b an arro$ pointin! from th" lo$"r '[A* to th" hi!h"r '[-* "l"ctron"!ati#it

nonpo$ar mo$"cu$" – a mol"cul" that has "ith"r nonpolar bonds '6( En* or polar bonds$hos" bond dipol"s canc"l to ;"ro 'i("(% VSEXR dia!ram is smm"trical*

po$ar mo$"cu$" – a mol"cul" that has polar bonds $ith dipol"s that do not canc"l to ;"ro

"(!(% +H3 ? ? N 3

21 / / 21 th"r"for"% it is a polar mol"cul" / 21 INTERMO(ECU(AR &ORCES

in!"rmo$"cu$ar #orc" – th" forc" of attraction and r"pulsion b"t$""n mol"cul"s@ much $"a"rthan co#al"nt bonds

=

88

8



SCH 4U R EVIEW // of 39

ipo$"=ipo$" #orc" – a forc" of attraction du" to th" simultan"ous attraction of on" dipol" b itssurroundin! dipol"s

> th" mor" polar th" mol"cul"s% th"stron!"r th" forc"

– th" shap" of th" mol"cul" also aff"ctth" dipol"-dipol" str"n!th 'i("(% clos"r to!"th"r F stron!"r forc"*

(onon i3p"r3ion #orc" – th" simultan"ous attraction of an "l"ctron b th" positi#" nucl"i inth" surroundin! mol"cul"s

– th" !r"at"r th" numb"r of"l"ctrons p"r mol"cul"% th"stron!"r th" forc"

• >s dipol"-dipol" forc" or ?ondon disp"rsion forc"incr"as"s% th" boilin! point incr"as"s% allo$in! ou to pr"dict r"lati#" boilin! point% if on" of th" forc"s is th"sam" b"t$""n th" t$o substanc"s% or if both forc"s ar"mo#in! in th" sam" dir"ction(

-rog"n <oning – th" attraction of a hdro!"n atom to alon" pair of "l"ctrons in +% ,% or . atoms in adac"nt mol"cul"s 'possibl" b"caus" H has no #al"nc" "- to Bshi"ld nucl"us*

. . . .

/ " : ------------ / " :

STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES O& CR*STA((INE SO(IDS

CR*STA( PARTIC(ES&ORCE%OND

PROPERTIES

E'AMP(ES=E?GI+K

X,I+G

C,+JUC-GIVIG

S,?U0I?IG

I+ ?I\UIJL

S,?UGI,+Ionic

ions'A and -*

ionic

m"dium

'hi!h"r asionic

char!"incr"as"s%si;" of iond"cr"as"s*

"s "s

+aCl% +a3X,4% Ca./%

=!,%CuS,4]H/,




="tallic

cations

m"tallic

'fi2"dnucl"i $ith

mobil"d"locali;"d"l"ctrons%

allo$in! for

conductionof h"at and"l"ctricit*

hi!h

'hi!h"r asnumb"r of

#al"nc""l"ctrons

incr"as"s*

"s noXb% ."%

Cu% >l% >!%>u

Xolar =ol"cular

mol"cul"s

?ondon%dipol"-dipol"%

hdro!"n

lo$

'hi!h"r asnumb"r of "l"ctrons%

polarit of mol"cul"s%

and pr"s"nc"

of hdro!"n bonds

incr"as"s*

no

"sX.3% ICl%

CHCl3% H/,% +H3% S,3

+onpolar =ol"cular mol"cul"sor sin!l"

atomsno

in"rt !as"s%diatomic"l"m"nts%

C,/% CCl4%S.% 0.3

Co#al"nt +"t$or Crstal

atoms

co#al"nt

'a 3-Jarran!"m"nt

of stron!co#al"nt bonds

b"t$""natoms@

r"sultin! inhardn"ss andhi!h m"ltin!

point*

#"r hi!h

'm"ltin! point

incr"as"sas str"n!th

of

co#al"nt bondsincr"as" *

no no

diamond% SiC%>l+% 0",%

Si,/% CuCl/%=!/S

NETWOR) SO(IDS +A)A SUPERMO(ECU(ESF,

>??,GR,XES ,. C>R0,+&

a* iamon – a 3-J n"t$or solid – "ach C atom is in th" c"ntr" of a t"trah"dron $hos" #"rtic"s ar" occupi"d b

oth"r C atoms – "ach C atom shar"s its #al"nc" "- $ith 4 oth"r C atoms

– bondin! "- ar" ti!htl bound and hi!hl locali;"da* grapi!" – a /-J n"t$or solid

– "ach C atom is surround"d b a 3 oth"rs in a plan" – th" doubl" bond consists of d"locali;"d "l"ctrons% th"r"for" a !ood conductor – s"parat" la"rs ar" h"ld to!"th"r b disp"rsion forc"s and ar" "asil s"parat"d

SI?IC> >+J GHE SI?IC>GES&

• silicon combin"s $ith o2!"n to form silicon dio2id"% Si,/ 'silica*• it furth"r r"acts $ith m"tal compounds to produc" m"tal silicat"s




a* Buar!9 – a 3-J n"t$or solid b* mica – a /-J n"t$or solidc* a3<"3!o3 – a 1-J n"t$or solid

CHAPTER .: THERMOCHEMISTR*

!"rmoc"mi3!r- – th" stud of th" "n"r! chan!"s that accompan phsical or ch"micalchan!"s of matt"r

!"rma$ "n"rg- – "n"r! a#ailabl" from a substanc" as a r"sult of th" motion of its mol"cul"s

c"mica$ 3-3!"m – a s"t of r"actants and products und"r stud% usuall r"pr"s"nt"d b a ch"mical"Duation

3urrouning3 – all matt"r around th" sst"m that is capabl" of absorbin! or r"l"asin! th"rmal"n"r!

"a! – amount of "n"r! transf"rr"d b"t$""n substanc"s

"7o!"rmic – r"l"asin! th"rmal "n"r! as h"at flo$s out of th" sst"m@ n"!ati#" molar "nthalp

"no!"rmic – absorbin! th"rmal "n"r! as h"at flo$s into th" sst"m@ positi#" molar "nthalp!"mp"ra!ur" – a#"ra!" in"tic "n"r! of th" particl"s in a sampl" of matt"r

op"n 3-3!"m – on" in $hich both matt"r and "n"r! can mo#" in or out '"(!(% burnin!marshmallo$*

i3o$a!" 3-3!"m – an id"al sst"m in $hich n"ith"r matt"r nor "n"r! can mo#" in or out '"(!(%id"al calorim"t"r*

c$o3" 3-3!"m – on" in $hich "n"r! can mo#" in or out% but not matt"r '"(!(% r"alisticcalorim"t"r*

ca$orim"!r- – th" proc"ss of m"asurin! "n"r! chan!"s in a ch"mical sst"m

"n!a$p- cang" +H, – th" diff"r"nc" in "nthalpi"s of r"actants and products durin! a chan!"

B 0 Duantit of h"at '^* F m c T

MO(AR ENTHA(P*

mo$ar "n!a$p- +H7, – th" "nthalp chan!" associat"d $ith a phsical% ch"mical% or nucl"archan!" in#ol#in! on" mol" of a substanc"@ "2ampl"s ar" b"lo$&

T*PE O& MO(AR ENTHA(P* E'AMP(E O& CHANGE

solution 'Hsol* +a0r 's*

+aA

'aD* A 0r -

'aD*combustion 'Hcomb* CH4'!* A / ,/'!* C,/'!* A H/,'l*

#apori;ation 'H#ap* CH3,H'l* CH3,H'!*

fr"";in! 'Hfr * H/,'l* H/,'s*

n"utrali;ation 'Hn"ut* / +a,H'aD* A H/S,4'aD* / +a/S,4'aD* A / H/,'l*

formation 'Hf * C's* A / H/'!* A T ,/'!* CH3,H'l*

H 0 n Hap or 3o$ 0 mcT H 0 Bn

m

n M




>SSU=XGI,+S USEJ I+ C>?,RI=EGR&1( +o h"at is transf"rr"d b"t$""n th" calorim"t"r and th" outsid" "n#ironm"nt(/( >n h"at absorb"d or r"l"as"d b th" calorim"t"r mat"rials is usuall n"!li!ibl"(3( > dilut" aDu"ous solution is assum"d to ha#" a d"nsit and sp"cific h"at capacit "Dual to

that of pur" $at"r '1(66 !Lm? and 4(15 ^L!]NC*(

(A%: COM%USTION O& A(COHO(S

• =ass of .u"l 0urn"d& 1(41 !

• =ass of Wat"r H"at"d& 9(66 !

• =ass of Wat"r Vapouri;"d& 6(15 !

• =ass of Xop Can& 1(6 !

• G"mp"ratur" Chan!" of Wat"r& //(/ NC

• H"at >bsorb"d b Wat"r&D F m c t F '9(66 !* '4(15 ^ L ! _ NC* '//(/ NC* F 9(66 2 163 ^

• H"at >bsorb"d b Can& D F m c t

F '1(6 !* '6(966 ^ L ! _ NC* '//(/ NC* F 3/1 ^

• H"at Us"d to Vapouri;" Wat"r& D F m _ ?V

F '6(15 !* '//5 ^ L !* F 4(6 2 16/ ^

• Gotal H"at E#ol#"d b .u"l& Dtotal F '9(66 2 163 ^* A '3/1 ^* A '4(6 2 16/ ^* F 9(/ 2 163 ^ F 9(/ ^

• +umb"r of =ol"s of .u"l& n F m

= F 1(41 ! 6(11 ! L mol F 6(6/3 mol

• =olar H"at of Combustion of .u"l& H F Dtotal

n F 9(/ ^ 6(6/3 mol F 414 ;mo$

• ` "rror& 166` – "2p"rim"ntal "nthalp 2 166`

actual "nthalp

F 166` – 414 ^ 2 166` 496 ^ F 1(`% th"r"for" unacc"ptabl" '16`*

R EPRESENTING ENTHA(P* CHANGES

=EGH,J 1& GHER=,CHE=IC>? E\U>GI,+S WIGH E +ERK GER=S

"(!(% C6/12!6?s@ 6 !2?g@ 6 C!2?g@ 6 /2!?l@ 282B D



E p (

k J )


=EGH,J /& GHER=,CHE=IC>? E\U>GI,+S WIGH H V>?UES

"(!(% C6/12!6?s@ 6 !2?g@ 6 C!2?g@ 6 /2!?l@ E/ F -282B D

=EGH,J 3& =,?>R E +GH>?XIES ,. R E>CGI,+

"(!(% E/respiration F -282B DG;ol glu>ose

=EGH,J 4& X,GE+GI>? E +ERK JI>KR>="(!(%

STANDARD ENTHA(P* O& &ORMATION

3!anar "n!a$p- o# #orma!ion +H5# , – th" Duantit of "n"r! associat"d $ith th"

formation of on" mol" of a substanc" fromits "l"m"nts in standard stat"@ ;"ro for"l"m"nts in standard stat"

HESS2S (AW +ADDITIVIT* O& R EACTION ENTHA(PIES,

H"3323 $a – th" #alu" of th" H for an r"action that can b" $ritt"n in st"ps "Dualsth" sum of th" #alu"s of H for "ach of th" indi#idual st"ps 'i("(% Htar!"t F Hno$n*

"(!( J"t"rmin" th" "nthalp chan!" in#ol#"d in th" formation of t$o mol"s nitro!"nmono2id" from its "l"m"nts(

+/'!* A ,/'!* / +,'!*

'1* T +/'!* A ,/'!* +,/'!* HN1 F A34 ^

'/* +,'!* A T ,/'!* +,/'!* HN/ F - ^

/ 2 '1*& +/'!* A / ,/'!* / +,/'!* HN1 F /'A34* ^

-/ 2 '/*& / +,/'!* / +,'!* A ,/'!* HN/ F -/'-* ^

+/'!* A ,/'!* / +,'!* HN F A5 ^ A 11/ ^ F 81J ;USING STANDARD ENTHA(PIES O& &ORMATION TO DETERMINE H

H 0 K nH5# +prouc!3, > K nH5

# +r"ac!an!3,

"(!(% =U?GI-SGEX C>?CU?>GI,+

If 3(/6 ! of propan" burns% $hat t"mp"ratur" chan!" $ill b" obs"r#"d if all of th" h"at from combustiontransf"rs into 4(6 ! of $at"r

C3H5'!* A ,/'!* 3 C,/'!* A 4 H/,'l*

HNf 'C,/* F -393( ^Lmol




HNf 'H/6* F -/5(5 ^Lmol

HNf 'C3H5* F -164( ^Lmol

HNf ',/* F 6(6 ^Lmol

m propan" F 3(/6 !mH/, F 4(6 !cH/, F 4(15 ^L'!]NC*

H F nHNf 'products* – nHN

f 'r"actants*

F 3 mol 2 -393( ^ A 4 mol 2 -/5(5 ^ – 1 mol 2 -164( ^ A mol 2 6(6 ^1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol

F -//19 ^

Hc 'propan"* F D$at"r

n Hc F mcG

G F n Hc

mc

F m propan" Hc

= propan" m$at"r c

F '3(/6 !* '//19 ^*'44(11 !* '4(6 !* '4(15 ^L!]NC*

F 9(NC

CHAPTER L: CHEMICA( ) INETICS

c"mica$ ;in"!ic3 – th" ar"a of ch"mistr that d"als $ith rat"s of r"action

ra!" o# r"ac!ion – th" sp""d at $hich a ch"mical chan!" occurs% !"n"rall "2pr"ss"d inconc"ntration p"r unit tim"% such as molL'?]s*

ra!" 0 c

!a"rag" ra!" o# r"ac!ion – th" sp""d at $hich a r"action proc""ds o#"r a p"riod of tim"@d"t"rmin"d usin! slop" of a secant 'lin" b"t$""n t$o points*

in3!an!an"ou3 ra!" o# r"ac!ion – th" sp""d at $hich a r"action is proc""din! at a particular pointin tim"@ d"t"rmin"d usin! a tan!"nt

=EGH,JS G, =E>SURE R >GE& pH chan!"@ conducti#it@ #olum" of !as produc"d@ chan!" inmass of products@ chan!" in colour

R ATE (AW E@UATION

r 0 ; 'm *n k F rat" constant@ #alid onl for a sp"cific t"mp"ratur"P:Q and PQ F conc"ntrations of r"actants

m and n F ord"r of r"action 'd"scrib"s th" initial conc"ntration d"p"nd"nc" of a particular r"actant*

o"ra$$ or"r o# r"ac!ion – th" sum of th" "2pon"nts in th" rat" la$ "Duation"(!(% r F P0r,3'aD*

-Q1 PHS,3'aD*-Q/% th"r"for" o#"rall ord"r is / '1 A /*

9"ro!=or"r r"ac!ion – th" rat" do"s not d"p"nd on P>Q




"(!(% if th" initial conc"ntration of > is doubl"d% th" rat" $ill multipl b 1'/6*% and so $ill b" unchan!"d

#ir3!=or"r r"ac!ion – th" rat" is dir"ctl proportional to P>Q

"(!(% if th" initial conc"ntration of > is doubl"d%th" rat" $ill multipl b / '/1*

3"con=or"r r"ac!ion – th" rat" is proportional to th"sDuar" of P>Q"(!(% if th" initial conc"ntrationof > is doubl"d% th" rat" $illmultipl b 4 '//*

"(!(%

+,'!* A H/'!* H+,/'!*

E'PERIMENT NO +MO((, H +MO((, INITIA( R ATE O&

R EACTION +MO(+(S,1 6(661 6(664 6(66// 6(66/ 6(664 6(6653 6(663 6(664 6(6154 6(664 6(661 6(665 6(664 6(66/ 6(61

6(664 6(663 6(6/4a* Writ" th" rat" la$ for th" r"action(r F [N!?g@]

2 [/2?g@]1

b* Writ" th" o#"rall ord"r of th" r"action(3rd order

c* Calculat" k for th" r"action 'us" for "2p"rim"nts #alu"s*(r F 2 ;olG+Hs r F [N!?g@]

2 [/2?g@][N!] F 1 ;olG+ ?2@ F ?1@2 ?4@[/2] F 4 ;olG+ F 5 I 16 +2G?;ol2Hs@

CO((ISION THEOR*

C,+CEXGS ,. GHE C,??ISI,+ GHE,R&• > ch"mical sst"m consists of particl"s 'atoms% ions% or mol"cul"s* that ar" in constant

random motion at #arious sp""ds( Gh" a#"ra!" in"tic "n"r! of th" particl"s is proportionalto th" t"mp"ratur" of th" sampl"(

• > ch"mical r"action must in#ol#" collisions of particles $ith "ach oth"r or th" $alls of th"contain"r(

• >n effecti#e collision is on" that has suffici"nt "n"r! and corr"ct ori"ntation of th" collidin! particl"s so that bonds can b" bro"n and n"$ bonds form"d(

• $neffecti#e collisions in#ol#" particl"s that r"bound from th" collision unchan!"d(

Gh" units for rat" constant% k % ar"r"lat"d to o#"rall ord"r of r"action&• first ord"r o#"rall% th" units ar" 1Ls

or s-1

• s"cond ord"r o#"rall% th" units ar"?L'mol]s* or ?L'mol-1]s-1*

• third ord"r o#"rall% th" units ar" ?/Lmol/]s or ?L mol-/]s-1




• Gh" rat" of a !i#"n r"action d"p"nds on th" frequency of collision and th" fraction of thos"collisions that ar" "ff"cti#"(

ac!ia!ion "n"rg- – th" minimumincr"as" in pot"ntial "n"r! of a sst"m

r"Duir"d for mol"cul"s to r"act

ac!ia!" comp$"7 – an unstabl"ch"mical sp"ci"scontainin! partiall bro"nand partiallform"d bonds r"pr"s"ntin! th" ma2imum pot"ntial "n"r! point in th"chan!"@ also call"d th" transition stat"

r"ac!ion m"cani3m – a s"ri"s of "l"m"ntar st"ps that ma"s up an o#"rall r"action

"$"m"n!ar- 3!"p – a st"p in a r"action m"chanism that onl in#ol#"s on"-% t$o-% or thr""-particl"collisions

ra!"="!"rmining 3!"p – th" slo$"st st"p in a r"action m"chanism

r"ac!ion in!"rm"ia!"3 – mol"cul"s form"d as short-li#"d products in r"action m"chanisms

"(!(% H0r '!* A ,/'!* H,,0r '!* 'slo$*

H,,0r '!* A H0r '!* / H,0r '!* 'fast*

/ H,0r '!* A H0r '!* H/,'!* A 0r /'!* 'fast*

4 H0r '!* A ,/'!* / H/,'!* A / 0r /'!*

&ACTORS A&&ECTING R ATE O& R EACTION

1( +>GURE ,. GHE R E>CG>+GS&• "ach r"actant contains a diff"r"nt numb"r of bonds% "ach $ith diff"rin! bond str"n!ths% that

must b" bro"n for th" r"action to proc""d• "ach r"actant has a diff"r"nt threshold energy 'minimum in"tic "n"r! r"Duir"d to con#"rt

in"tic "n"r! to acti#ation "n"r!*• "ach r"actant r"Duir"s a diff"r"nt collision !"om"tr that can b" simpl" or compl"2

/( GE=XER>GURE &• an incr"as" in t"mp"ratur" incr"as"s th" rat" of r"action• as t"mp"ratur" ris"s% th" r"actant particl"s !ain in"tic "n"r!% mo#in! fast"r% collidin! mor"

fr"Du"ntl% and thus r"actin! mor" Duicl• $ith a hi!h"r t"mp"ratur"% a lar!"r fraction of th" mol"cul"s $ill ha#" th" r"Duir"d in"tic

"n"r! to ha#" "ff"cti#" collisions

3( C,+CE+GR>GI,+&• an incr"as" in r"actant conc"ntration incr"as"s th" rat" of r"action

rea>tion;e>hanis;

ele;entar step

rate-deter;ining step

rea>tion inter;ediate

net potential energ>hange E/




• th" !r"at"r th" conc"ntration% th" !r"at"r th" numb"r of particl"s p"r unit #olum"% $hich ar"mor" li"l to collid" as th" mo#" randoml $ithin a fi2"d spac"

4( SUR.>CE >RE>&• an incr"as" in r"actant surfac" ar"a incr"as"s th" rat" of r"action• r"actants can collid" onl at th" surfac" $h"r" th" substanc"s ar" in contact% and b

incr"asin! th" surfac" ar"a% ou ar" incr"asin! th" numb"r of particl"s in an ar"a% th"r"b

incr"asin! th" probabilit of an "ff"cti#" collision( C>G>?SG&• a ca!a$-3! is a substanc" that incr"as"s th" rat" of a ch"mical r"action $ithout its"lf b"in!

p"rman"ntl chan!"d• a catalst pro#id"s an alt"rnat" Bpath$a% $ith lo$"r acti#ation "n"r!% to th" sam" product

formation% m"anin! a much lar!"r fraction of collisions ar" "ff"cti#"• th" catalst can h"lp br"a th" bonds in th" r"actant particl"s% pro#id" a surfac" for th"

n"c"ssar collisions% and allo$ th" r"actants atoms to r"combin" in n"$ $as• catalsts ar" in#ol#"d in th" r"action m"chanism at som" point% but ar" r"!"n"rat"d b"for"

th" r"action is compl"t"

CHAPTER : CHEMICA( S*STEMS IN E@UI(I%RIUM

"Bui$i<rium – th" balanc"d stat" of a r"#"rsibl" r"action or proc"ss $h"r" th"r" is no n"tobs"r#abl" chan!"@ th" rat" of th" for$ard r"action "Duals that of th" r"#"rs"r"action '> 0*

> can b" approach"d from "ith"r sid" of th" r"action "Duation > th" conc"ntration of th" r"actants and products do not chan!" 'ar" constant*

3o$u<i$i!- "Bui$i<rium – an "Duilibrium b"t$""n a solut" and a sol#"nt in a saturat"d solution

pa3" "Bui$i<rium – an "Duilibrium b"t$""n diff"r"nt phsical stat"s of a pur" substanc" '"(!(%ic" o#"r a la"*

c"mica$ r"ac!ion "Bui$i<rium – an "Duilibrium b"t$""n r"actants and products of a ch"micalr"action

E@UI(I%RIUM (AW E@UATION

.or th" !"n"ral ch"mical r"action& a> A b0 cC A d J

) 0 C c D $h"r"& ] >% 0% C% J ar" ch"mical "ntiti"s in !as or aDu"ous phas"s 'liDuids andAa %< solids ar" omitt"d from th" "Duation*

] a% b% c% and d ar" th" co"ffici"nts in th" balanc"d ch"mical "Duation] < is th" "Bui$i<rium con3!an! 't"mp"ratur" and pr"ssur" sp"cific*

- if < is lar!"% r"actions conc"ntration of products !r"at"r than r"actants

- if < is small% r"actions conc"ntration of r"actants !r"at"r than products- < is in#"rs"l proportional to th" < #alu" of th" r"#"rs" r"action

(E CHQTE(IER 2S PRINCIP(E

(" C!"$i"r23 Princip$" – $h"n a ch"mical sst"m at "Duilibrium is disturb"d b a chan!" in a prop"rt% th" sst"m adusts in a $a that oppos"s th" chan!"

"Bui$i<rium 3i#! – mo#"m"nt of a sst"m at "Duilibrium r"sultin! in a chan!" in th"conc"ntrations of r"actants and products

V>RI>0?ES >..ECGI+K CHE=IC>? E\UI?I0RI>&




VARIA%(E T*PE O& CHANGE R ESPONSE O& S*STEM

conc"ntration incr"as" shifts to consum" add"d r"actantd"cr"as" shifts to r"plac" r"mo#"d r"actant

t"mp"ratur" incr"as" shifts to consum" add"d th"rmal "n"r!'a$a from h"at t"rm*

d"cr"as" shifts to r"plac" r"mo#"d th"rmal "n"r!'to$ards h"at t"rm*

#olum" incr"as" 'd"cr"as" in pr"ssur"*

shifts to$ards sid" $ith lar!"r total numb"r of !as"ous "ntiti"s

d"cr"as" 'incr"as" in pr"ssur"*

shifts to$ards sid" $ith small"r totalnumb"r of !as"ous "ntiti"s

common ion "ff"ct dissol#in! a compound intosolution that adds a

common ion

shifts a$a from common ion to consum"th" add"d r"actant

VARIA%(ES THAT DO NOT A&&ECT CHEMICA( E@UI(I%RIA

catalsts - no "ff"ctaddin! in"rt !as"s - no "ff"ct

SO(VING E@UI(I%RIUM PRO%(EMS 1( Writ" a balanc"d "Duation for th" r"action and list th" no$n #alu"s(/( If th" dir"ction th" sst"m must !o to attain "Duilibrium is not ob#ious 'i("(% on" "ntit is not

pr"s"nt initiall*% calculat" % $ith th" initial conc"ntrations and compar" it to th" #alu" of < to d"t"rmin" $hich dir"ction th" sst"m $ill proc""d to attain "Duilibrium(

3( Construct an ICE ' $ nitial conc"ntration% & han!" in conc"ntration% ' Duilibriumconc"ntration* tabl" and input th" initial conc"ntrations(

4( ?"t x r"pr"s"nt th" chan!"s in conc"ntration% multiplin! it b th" co"ffici"nt in th" balanc"d "Duation( Gh" r"actants should all chan!" in th" sam" $a and all th" productsshould proc""d in th" opposit" $a(

( R"$rit" th" ' ro$ usin! th" x #alu"s(

( Substitut" "Duilibrium conc"ntrations into th" "Duilibrium constant "Duation(( >ppl appropriat" simplifin! assumptions% if possibl" '"(!(% 423 '6(4 – /2*/ can b"

simplifi"d to 423 '6(4*/ b"caus" x #alu" is so small in comparison*(5( Sol#" for x(9( ^ustif an assumptions ou ha#" mad" 'i("(% th" x #alu" ou !"t should b" plu!!"d into th"

ori!inal "Duation and th" diff"r"nc" b"t$""n th" t$o must b" l"ss than `*(16( Calculat" th" "Duilibrium conc"ntrations b substitutin! x into "Duilibrium conc"ntration

"2pr"ssions from th" ' ro$(

"(!(% 4(66 mol of hdro!"n and /(66 mol of iodin" ar" plac"d in a /(66-? r"action #"ss"l at 446NC andr"act to form hdro!"n iodid"( >t this t"mp"ratur"% th" < is 49(( J"t"rmin" th" conc"ntrations ofall "ntiti"s(

H/'!* A I/'!* / HI'!* F 49(

PH/'!*Q F 4(66 mol PI/'!*Q F /(66 mol PHI'!*Q F 6(66 molL? /(66 ? /(66 ? F /(66 molL? F 1(66 molL?

H+g, 8 I+g, HI+g,

Initial conc"ntration 'molL?* /(66 1(66 6(66Chan!" in conc"ntration 'molL?* – 2 – 2 A/ 2EDuilibrium conc"ntration 'molL?* /(66 – 2 1(66 – 2 /2



SCH 4U R EVIEW 3/ of 39

F PHIQ/ PH/Q PI/Q

49( F '/2*/ '/(66 – 2* '1(66 – 2*

42/ F 49( '/(66 – 2* '1(66 – 2*

6(9/2/ – 3(662 A /(66 F 6

2 F –b e b/ – 4ac /a

F 3(66 e 9(66 – (3 1(54

F /(33 or 6(93

2"" is reected* because concentrations cannot ha#e a negati#e #alue (ie* 2++ , 2"" - +"")

SO(U%I(IT* PRODUCT CONSTANT

3o$u<i$i!- – th" conc"ntration of a saturat"d solution of a solut" in a particular sol#"nt at a particular t"mp"ratur"@ sp"cific ma2imum conc"ntration

3o$u<i$i!- prouc! con3!an! +) 3p, – th" #alu" obtain"d from th" "Duilibrium la$ appli"d tosaturat"d solution 'r"m"mb"r solids ar" not includ"d in th""Duation*@ omit units as $ith all #alu"s

> can onl b" d"t"rmin"d for ionic compounds that ar"classifi"d as insolubl" or sli!htl solubl"

1( Writ" a balanc"d "Duation and list th" no$n #alu"s(/( Us" th" solid product to $rit" an "Duilibrium "Duation for it dissol#in! into ions(3( .ind th" < sp #alu" for th" solid product and $rit" it n"2t to th" "Duilibrium "Duation(4( J"t"rmin" th" numb"r of mol"s of both ions% b usin! th" mol" ratios and initial

conc"ntrations of r"actants(( J"t"rmin" th" conc"ntration upon mi2in!% b di#idin! th" numb"r of mol"s b th" n"$

#olum"(( Xlu! th"s" n"$ conc"ntrations into th" < sp "Duation to d"t"rmin" th" \ '"2p"rim"ntal #alu"*(( Compar" th" \ #alu" to th" < sp to pr"dict $h"th"r a pr"cipitat" $ill form 's"" b"lo$*(

USI+K \ G, XREJICG S,?U0I?IG Ion product% \ <sp pr"cipitat" $ill form 'sup"rsaturat"d solution*Ion product% \ F < sp pr"cipitat" $ill not form 'saturat"d solution*Ion product% \ M < sp pr"cipitat" $ill not form 'unsaturat"d solution*

"(!(% /6(6 m? of 6(/6 molL? ammonium sulfat" solution is add"d to 136 m? of 6(6 molL? barium nitrat"solution( What ar" th" conc"ntrations of th" ions and $ill a pr"cipitat" form

'+H4*/S,4'aD* A 0a'+,3*/'aD*

0aS,4's* A / +H4 +,3'aD*

0aS,4's* 0a/A'aD* A S,4

/-'aD* < sp F 1(65 2 16-16

n0a/+,3 F c # n +H4+,3 F c # F '6(6 molL?* '6(136 ?* F '6(/6 molL?* '6(6/6 ?* F 6(6 mol F 6(6646 mol F n0a F nS,4

P0a/A'aD*Q F n PS,4

/-'aD*Q F n

# #

PH/'!*Q F /(66 molL? - 2 F /(66 molL? - '6(93 molL?*

F 1?J mo$(

PI/'!*Q F 1(66 molL? - 2 F 1(66 molL? - '6(93 molL?*

F J?J mo$(

PHI'!*Q F /2

F /'6(93 molL?* F 1? mo$(

Choose the solid to Jrite the eKuilibriu;

eKuation ?re;e;ber an N!3- ;ole>uleis aKueous@

(i<ide b the LneJM<olu;e ?ie 2 ;+and 13 ;+ eKuals

15 ;+@




F 6(6 mol F 6(664 mol 6(16 ? 6(16 ?

F 6(43 molL? F 6(6/ molL?

< sp F P0a/AQ PS,4/-Q

F '6(43* '6(6/* F 6(611 6(611 1(65 2 16-16% th"r"for" it $ill pr"cipitat"

ENTROP* 3pon!an"ou3 r"ac!ion – on" that% !i#"n th" n"c"ssar acti#ation "n"r!% proc""ds $ithout

continuous outsid" assistanc"

"n!rop-6 S – a m"asur" of th" randomn"ss or disord"r of a sst"m or th" surroundin!s – "Duals 6 $h"n th" t"mp"ratur" is at absolut" ;"ro '6 <*

.>CG,RS GH>G I +CRE>SE E +GR,X 'S*• th" #olum" of a !as"ous sst"m incr"as"s 'i("(% pr"ssur" d"cr"as"s*• th" t"mp"ratur" of a sst"m incr"as"s• th" phsical stat" of a sst"m chan!"s from solid to liDuid to !as% or liDuid to !as 'i("(% S !as

S liDuid S solid*• f"$"r mol"s of r"actant mol"cul"s form a !r"at"r numb"r of mol"s of product mol"cul"s• compl"2 mol"cul"s ar" bro"n do$n into simpl"r subunits '"(!(% combustion of or!anic fu"ls

into carbon dio2id" and $at"r*

C?>SSI.IC>GI,+ ,. SX,+G>+E,US >+J +,+SX,+G>+E,US R E>CGI,+SEno!"rmic +H J, E7o!"rmic +H J,

En!rop- incr"a3"3 +S J,

spontan"ous at hi!h t"mps(nonspontan"ous at lo$ t"mps(

H/,'s* H/,'l*

spontan"ous

C's* A ,/'!* C,/'!*

En!rop- "cr"a3"3 +S J,nonspontan"ous

3 ,/'!*

/ ,3'!*

spontan"ous at lo$ t"mps(nonspontan"ous at hi!h t"mps(

/ S,/'!* A ,/'!* / S,3'!*

Gi<<23 #r"" "n"rg-6 G – "n"r! that is a#ailabl" to do us"ful $or@ .N F / N – '0 S N*

CHAPTER : ACID=%ASE E@UI(I%RIUM

%RNSTED=(OWR* THEOR*

%rn3!"=(or- aci – proton donor

%rn3!"=(or- <a3" – proton acc"ptor

ampo!"ric +ampipro!ic, – a substanc" capabl" of actin! as an acid or a bas" in diff"r"nt

ch"mical r"actions@ a substanc" that ma acc"pt or donat" a proton"(!(%/C2/3!2?aK@ /2!?l@ C2/3!2

-?aK@ /3!

?aK@

3!rong aci – an acid $ith a #"r $"a attraction for protons and "asil donat"s it to a bas"

3!rong <a3" – a bas" $ith a #"r stron! attraction for protons

• Gh" stron!"r an acid% th" $"a"r its conu!at" bas"% and #ic" #"rsa(

AUTOIONIXATION O& WATER

conu!at" pair acid

bas"




au!oioni9a!ion o# a!"r – th" r"action b"t$""n t$o $at"r mol"cul"s producin! a hdronium ionand a hdro2id" ion 'H/,'l* HA

'aD* A ,H-'aD*

) 0 H8+aB, OH=

+aB, H8+aB, 0 ) OH=

+aB, 0 ) 0 +1?J 7 1J= mo$(, +1?J 7 1J= mo$(, OH=

+aB, H8+aB,

0 1?J 7 1J=14

In n"utral solutions PHA'aD*Q F P,H-

'aD*Q

In acidic solutions PHA'aD*Q P,H-

'aD*QIn basic solutions PHA

'aD*Q MP,H-

'aD*QPH

pH – th" n"!ati#" of th" lo!arithm to th" bas" t"n of th" conc"ntration of hdro!"n 'hdronium*ions in a solution

pOH – th" n"!ati#" of th" lo!arithm to th" bas" t"n of th" conc"ntration of hdro2id" ions in asolution

pH 0 >$og H8

+aB, pOH 0 >$og OH=

+aB, pH 8 pOH 0 14?JJ H8+aB, 0 1J >pH OH=

+aB, 0 1J >pOH

"(!(% Calculat" th" pH of a solution pr"par"d b dissol#in! 4(3 ! of 0a',H*/'s* in $at"r to form 1( ? ofsolution(

0a',H*/'aD* 0a/A'aD* A / ,H –

'aD*

n0a',H*/ F 4(3 ! 2 1 mol11(3 !

F /( 2 16-/ mol

P0a',H*/'aD*Q F /( 2 16-/ mol 1( ?

F 1( 2 16-/ molL?

P,H-'aD*Q F / '1( 2 16-/ molL?* F 3(3 2 16-/ molL?

p,H F –lo! P,H-'aD*Q

F –lo! '3(3 2 16-/* F 1(4

pH F 14(66 – p,H F 14(66 – 1(4 F 1?./

STRONG VS? WEA) ACIDS AND %ASES

3!rong aci – an acid that is assum"d to ioni;" Duantitati#"l 'compl"t"l* in aDu"ous solution

'i("(% p"rc"nt ioni;ation is 99`*@ HCl'aD*% H+,3'aD*% and H/S,4'aD* ar" th" onlstron! acids $" $ill $or $ith

3!rong <a3" – an ionic substanc" that dissociat"s compl"t"l in $at"r to r"l"as" hdro2id" ions@all of th" m"tal hdro2id"s ar" stron! bas"s

"a; aci – an acid that partiall ioni;"s in solution but "2ists primaril in th" form ofmol"cul"s

"a; <a3" – a bas" that has a $"a attraction for protons

p"rc"n! ioni9a!ion + p, 0 conc"n!ra!ion o# aci ioni9" 7 1JJY H8+aB, 0 p 7 HA+aB,

166`




conc"n!ra!ion o# aci 3o$u!" 1JJ

aci ioni9a!ion con3!an! + K a ) – "Duilibrium constant for th" ioni;ation of an acid

"(!(% Calculat" th" a and pH of hdrofluoric acid if a 6(166 molL? solution at "Duilibrium at S>GX has a p"rc"nt ioni;ation of (5`(

H.'aD* HA'aD* A .-

'aD*

a F PH A'aD*Q P. -'aD*Q PH.'aD*Q

PHA'aD*Q F 'pL166* PH>'aD*Q

F '(5 L 166* '6(166 molL?* F 6(665 molL?

H&+aB, H8+aB, 8 &=

+aB,

Initial conc"ntration 'molL?* 6(166 6(666 6(666Chan!" in conc"ntration 'molL?* – 2 A 2 A 2EDuilibrium conc"ntration 'molL?* 6(166 – 6(665 6(665 6(665

F 6(69//

a F PH A'aD*Q P. -

'aD*Q pH F –lo! PHA'aD*Q

PH.'aD*Q F –lo! '6(665* F 6(665/ F ?1

6(69// F L?L 7 1J=4

CHAPTER Z: E(ECTROCHEMISTR* +E(ECTRIC CE((S,

O'IDATION NUM%ER

o7ia!ion num<"r – an int"!"r that is assi!n"d to "ach atom in a compound $h"n consid"rin!r"do2 r"actions

> a positi#" or n"!ati#" numb"r corr"spondin! to th" appar"nt char!" that anatom in a mol"cul" or ion $ould ha#" if th" "l"ctron pairs in co#al"nt bonds b"lon!"d "ntir"l to th" mor" "l"ctron"!ati#" atom

R U?ES .,R >SSIK+I+K ,:IJ>GI,+ +U=0ERS

1( Gh" o2idation numb"r of an atom in an uncombin"d "l"m"nt is al$as 6 '"(!(% H/ is 6*(/( Gh" o2idation numb"r of a simpl" ion is th" char!" of ion '"(!(% Ca/A is A/*(3( Gh" o2idation numb"r of hdro!"n is A1% "2c"pt in m"tal hdrid"s $h"n it is -1 '"(!(% th" H

in +aH is -1*(4( Gh" o2idation numb"r of o2!"n is -/% "2c"pt in p"ro2id"s $h"n it is -1 '"(!(% th" , in H/,/

is -1*(( Gh" o2idation numb"r of Kroup 1 "l"m"nt ions is A1( Gh" o2idation numb"r of Kroup /

"l"m"nt ions is A/(( Gh" sum of o2idation numb"rs in a compound must "Dual 6(( Gh" sum of o2idation numb"rs in a polatomic ion must "Dual th" char!" on th" ion '"(!(%

,H- is -1*(

O'IDATION=R EDUCTION

O7ia!ion can b" d"fin"d as a r"action in $hich&1* an "l"m"nt is ch"micall unit"d $ith o2!"n '"(!(% C A ,/ C,/@ carbon is o2idi;"d*/* a m"tal is chan!"d from an uncombin"d to a combin"d stat" '"(!(% gn A Cl/ gnCl/*

(5`




3* an "l"m"nt los"s "l"ctrons% and th"r"for" has an incr"as" in o2idation numb"r'"(!(% Ca Ca/A A /"-*

(oss of El"ctrons is O2idation B(EO

R"uc!ion can b" d"fin"d as a r"action in $hich&1* an "l"m"nt los"s o2!"n '"(!(% ."/,3 / .", A T ,/*/* a m"tal is chan!"d from a combin"d to a uncombin"d stat" '"(!(% .", ." A T ,/*

3* an "l"m"nt !ains "l"ctrons% and th"r"for" has a d"cr"as" in o2idation numb"r'"(!(% Cl/ A /"- / Cl-*Gain of El"ctrons is R "duction BGER

r"o7 r"ac!ion – a ch"mical r"action in $hich "l"ctrons ar" transf"rr"d b"t$""n particl"s@ t$o or mor" atoms und"r!o a chan!" in o2idation numb"r@ also no$n as oxidation-red uction r"actions

> all sin!l" displac"m"nt r"actions ar" r"do2% $hil" som" combination andd"composition r"actions ar"@ doubl" displac"m"nt r"actions ar" n"#"r r"do2

"(!(% o2idation

H/S'!* A ,/'!* S,/'!* A H/,'!*

r"duction

%A(ANCING R EDO' E@UATIONS USING O'IDATION NUM%ERS

• this m"thod is most appropriat" $h"n d"alin! $ith co#al"nt compounds

1( >ssi!n o2idation numb"rs to all th" atoms in th" "Duation(/( Id"ntif $hich atoms und"r!o a chan!" in o2idation numb"r(3( J"t"rmin" th" ratio in $hich th"s" atoms must r"act so that th" total incr"as" in o2idation

numb"r "Duals th" d"cr"as" 'i("(% th" total numb"r of "l"ctrons lost and !ain"d is "Dual*(

4( 0alanc" th" r"do2 participants in th" "Duation usin! this ratio(( 0alanc" th" oth"r atoms b th" insp"ction m"thod(( >dd HA

'aD* or ,H-'aD* to balanc" th" char!"% d"p"ndin! on if it is an acidic or a basic solution

'th" total char!" on "ach sid" must b" th" sam"*(( >dd H/,'l* to balanc" th" , atoms(

"(!(% >!'s* A Cr /,/-

'aD* >!A'aD* A Cr 3A

'aD*

o2idation& lost 1 "- '2 *

L >!'s* A Cr /,/-

'aD* A 14 HA'aD* L >!A

'aD* A Cr 3A'aD* A H/,'l*

r"duction& !ain"d /'3 "-* F "- '2 1*

%A(ANCING R EDO' E@UATIONS USING HA(&=R EACTIONS

• this m"thod is most appropriat" for ionic r"actions in solution and for r"latin! to "l"ctrical proc"ss"s

1( S"parat" th" s"l"ton "Duation into th" start of t$o half-r"action "Duations 'on" for th"o2idation r"action and on" for th" r"duction r"action*(

A1 -/ 6 A4 -/ A1 -/

6 A -/ A1 A3




/( 0alanc" all sp"ci"s% oth"r than , and H(3( 0alanc" th" o2!"n% b addin! H/,'l* for acidic solutions or ,H-

'aD* for basic solutions(4( 0alanc" th" hdro!"n% b addin! HA

'aD* for acidic solutions or H/,'l* for basic solutions(( 0alanc" th" char!" on "ach sid" b addin! "l"ctrons and canc"lin! anthin! that is in "Dual

amounts on both sid"s(( =ultipl "ach half-r"action "Duation b simpl" $hol" numb"rs to balanc" th" "l"ctrons lost

and !ain"d(

( >dd th" t$o half-r"action "Duations% canc"lin! th" "l"ctrons and anthin! "ls" that app"arsin "Dual amounts on both sid"s(

5( Ch"c to "nsur" all "ntiti"s and th" o#"rall char!" on both sid"s balanc"(

"(!(% =n,4 – A +/H4 =n,/ A +/

4 P=n,4 – A / H/, A 3 "- =n,/ A 4 ,H – Q

3 P+/H4 A 4 ,H – +/ A 4 H/, A 4 "-Q

4 =n,4 – A 5 H/, A 1/ "- 4 =n,/ A 1 ,H – Q

3 +/H4 A 1/ ,H – 3 +/ A 1/ H/, A 1/ "-Q

4 =n,4 – A 3 +/H4 4 =n,/ A 3 +/ A 4 H/, A 4 ,H –

TECHNO(OG* O& CE((S AND %ATTERIES

"$"c!ric c"$$ – a d"#ic" that continuousl con#"rts ch"mical "n"r! into "l"ctrical "n"r!@contains t$o "l"ctrod"s 'solid conductor* and on" "l"ctrolt" 'aDu"ous conductor*@"ach "l"ctrod" has a cathod" 'A* and anod" '–*@ "l"ctrons flo$ from th" anod" toth" cathod"

<a!!"r- – a !roup of t$o or mor" "l"ctric c"lls conn"ct"d in s"ri"s

o$!ag" – th" pot"ntial "n"r! diff"r"nc" p"r unit char!"@ m"asur"d in #olts 'V*% 1 ^LC

"$"c!ric curr"n! – th" rat" of flo$ of char!" past a point@ m"asur"d in amp"r"s '>*% 1 CLsT*PE

NAME O&

CE((HA(&=R EACTIONS

CHARACTERISTICS

AND USES

primar- c"$$ – "l"ctric c"ll

that cannot b" r"char!"d

dr c"ll'1( V*

/ =n,/ A / +H4A A / "- =n/,3 A / +H3 A H/,gn gn/A A / "-

• in"2p"nsi#"% portabl"• flashli!hts% radios

alalin" drc"ll '1( V*

/ =n,/ A H/, A / "- =n/,3 A / ,H-

gn A / ,H- gn, A H/, A / "-

• lon!"r sh"lf lif"%hi!h"r curr"nts forlon!"r p"riods

• sam" us"s as dr c"ll

m"rcur c"ll'1(3 V*

H!, A H/, A / "- H! A / ,H-

gn A / ,H- gn, A H/, A / "-

• small c"ll% constant#olta!" durin! lif"

• h"arin! aids% $atch"s

3"conar-c"$$ – "l"ctricc"ll that can

b" r"char!"d

+i-Cad c"ll'1(/ V*

/ +i,',H* A / H/, A / "- / +i',H*/ A / ,H-

Cd A / ,H- Cd',H*/ A / "-

• compl"t"l s"al"d%li!ht$"i!ht

• po$"r tools% sha#"rs% portabl" comput"rs

l"ad-acid c"ll'/(6 V*

Xb,/ A 4 HA A S,4/- A / "- XbS,4 A / H/,

Xb A S,4/- XbS,4 A / "-

• lar!" curr"nts%r"liabl" for r"char!"s

• all #"hicl"s#u"$ c"$$ –

"l"ctric c"llaluminum-air

c"ll '/ V*3 ,/ A H/, A 1/ "- 1/ ,H-

4 >l 4 >l3A A 1/ "-

• hi!h "n"r! d"nsit%r"adil a#ailabl"aluminum allos




that produc"s"l"ctricit ba continuallsuppli"d fu"l

• "l"ctric cars

hdro!"n-o2!"n c"ll

'1(/ V*

,/ A / H/, A 4 "- 4 ,H-

/ H/ A 4 ,H- 4 H/, A 4 "-

• li!ht$"i!ht% hi!h"ffici"nc% can b"adapt"d to us"hdro!"n-rich fu"ls

• #"hicl"s and spac"shuttl"

GA(VANIC CE((S ga$anic c"$$ – consists of t$o half-c"lls

s"parat"d b a porous boundar $ith solid"l"ctrod"s conn"ct"d ban "2t"rnal circuit@standard c"lls occur atS>GX and $ithconc"ntrations of 1(6molL?

ca!o" – positi#" "l"ctrod"@ r"duction'!ainin! "l"ctrons b"caus""l"ctron"!ati#it is hi!h"r* of th" stron!"st o2idi;in! a!"ntoccurs h"r"@ th" half-c"ll thatis hi!h"r on th" BR"lati#"Str"n!ths of ,2idi;in! andR"ducin! >!"nts tabl"@ Bred

cat on the roof red uction atth" cat hod"% hi!h"r half-c"ll

ano" – n"!ati#" "l"ctrod"@ o2idation 'losin! "l"ctrons b"caus" "l"ctron"!ati#it is lo$"r* of th"

stron!"st r"ducin! a!"nt occurs h"r"@ th" half-c"ll that is lo$"r on th" tabl"in"r! "$"c!ro" – a solid conductor that $ill not r"act $ith an substanc" pr"s"nt in a c"ll

'usuall carbon or platinum*

• El"ctrons tra#"l in th" "2t"rnal circuit from th" anod" to th" cathod"• Int"rnall% anions from th" salt brid!" mo#" to$ard th" anod" and cations from th" salt

brid!" mo#" to$ard th" cathod" as th" c"ll op"rat"s% ""pin! th" solution "l"ctricall n"utral

CE?? +,G>GI,+ ele>trons

>athode ?@ ele>trolte ele>trolte anode ?-@

?redu>tion@ ?oIidation@

CE(( POTENTIA(S

3!anar c"$$ po!"n!ia$ +E5, – th" ma2imum "l"ctric pot"ntial diff"r"nc" '#olta!"* of a c"llop"ratin! und"r standard conditions

r"#"r"nc" a$#=c"$$ – a half-c"ll assi!n"d an "l"ctrod" pot"ntial of "2actl 6(66 #olts@ th"standard hdro!"n half-c"ll% Xt's* H/'!*% HA

'aD*

3!anar r"uc!ion po!"n!ia$ +Er5, – r"pr"s"nts th" t"nd"nc of a standard half-c"ll to attract

"l"ctrons in a r"duction half-r"action% compar"d to th"r"f"r"nc" half-c"ll




3!anar o7ia!ion po!"n!ia$ +Eo5, – r"pr"s"nts th" t"nd"nc of a standard half-c"ll to los"

"l"ctrons in an o2idation half-r"action@ th" #alu" of th"r"#"rs" r"action $ith an opposit" si!n

E5 0 Er5 > Er

5

c"ll cathod" anod"

• > positi#" standard c"ll pot"ntial 'EN 6* indicat"s that th" o#"rall c"ll r"action isspontan"ous(

"(!(% SOA OA

>!'s* >!A'aD* Cu/A

'aD* Cu's*

RA SRA

/ P>!A'aD* A "- >!'s* Q Cu's* Cu/A

'aD* A / "-

Cu's* A / >!A'aD* Cu/A

'aD* A / >!'s*

EN F Er N – Er

N

c"ll cathod" anod"

EN F EN>!A – EN

Cu/A

F 6(56 – 6(34 F J?4L V

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