School Integration Framing & Messagingkirwaninstitute.osu.edu/reports/2010/08_2010... · Newspapers and blogs across the country are daily addressing the achievement gap, schools’

john a. powellExecutive Director

Andrew Grant-ThomasDeputy Director

KIRWAN INSTITUTE

FOR THE STUDY OF RACE AND ETHNICITY

THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

School Integration Framing & Messaging: Toward a Transformative Conversation

Becky RenoSenior Research Associate

Baris Gumus-DawesPostdoctoral Researcher

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SchoolIntegrationFraming&Messaging:TowardaTransformativeConversation

I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 2

II. THEIMPORTANCEOFINTEGRATION&THENEEDTOREFRAME .............................................. 3

III. INTRODUCTIONTOMESSAGING&FRAMING .................................................................................. 4

IV. MEDIAREVIEW........................................................................................................................................... 6NEWSREPORTS..........................................................................................................................................................................7NEWMEDIA............................................................................................................................................................................. 10

V. FOCUSGROUPRESULTS..........................................................................................................................11DEFININGDIVERSITY ............................................................................................................................................................. 12INTEGRATIONVS.ACADEMICACHIEVEMENT.................................................................................................................... 12DIVERSITY/CULTURALCOMPETENCYINSCHOOLS......................................................................................................... 12LIMITATIONSTOACHIEVINGINTEGRATION ...................................................................................................................... 13CONFLICTBETWEENPERSONAL&PROFESSIONALVALUES .......................................................................................... 13THEAPPEALOFCHOICE ........................................................................................................................................................ 13DISAGREEMENTONMESSAGES ............................................................................................................................................ 14

VI. REVIEWOFPROFESSIONALLITERATURE.......................................................................................14FOCUSONRACE....................................................................................................................................................................... 15RECOGNITIONOFTHEROLEOFNEIGHBORHOODS........................................................................................................... 15FOCUSONCLASS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 15

VII. TALKINGABOUTRACE&INTEGRATION:THEIMPORTANCEOFFRAMING.......................16BASICRULESOFEFFECTIVEFRAMING ............................................................................................................................... 16EMPIRICALRESEARCHONEFFECTIVEFRAMESREGARDINGRACE.............................................................................. 17TOWARDATRANSFORMATIVEDISCOURSEONRACE&INTEGRATION:TRUEINTEGRATION ................................. 19MINNEAPOLISFOCUSGROUPFINDINGS:HOWTOFRAMETHECONCEPTSOFRACEANDINTEGRATION? .......... 20

VIII. THEWAYFORWARD ...........................................................................................................................24NEEDFORFURTHERFRAMINGRESEARCH ........................................................................................................................ 24THENEEDFORASPECIFICAGENDA ................................................................................................................................... 25THENEEDFORANEXEMPLARYCASETODEMONSTRATEPOSSIBILITIES................................................................... 26THETWINCITIESMETROPOLITANAREA:“THERIGHTPLACEATTHERIGHTTIME”TOFACILITATECOLLECTIVEACTIONAROUNDINTEGRATION........................................................................................................................................... 27

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I. IntroductionDespiteamountingbodyofevidencedemonstratingtheacademic,social,psychologicalanddemocraticbenefitsofeducatingstudentsinadiverseenvironment,integrationhasbeenatoughselllately.Oneof

thenation’smostlaudedeconomicintegrationprogramswasdisbandedinMay2010,andintegrationhaslargelybeensupplantedbychoiceprogramsandin‐placestrategiesundertheObamaadministration.Despitethetirelesseffortsofcivilrightschampions,legalandeducationadvocates,

parents,communitygroupsandothers,thefightfortrueintegrationremainsanuphillbattle,andgroundisslippingbeneathourfeetdailyacrossthenation.Attheoutsetofthisprojectwethoughtthismaybeduetosomecombinationofagenerallackofawarenessofthebenefitsofdiversity,the

perceivedcoststoachieveitbeinggreaterthanthebenefits,integrationexhaustion,oralackofclarityaboutwhatintegrationmeans.

Whenreceivinginformation,peoplegenerallyhaveatendencytoboilitdownassimplyaspossibleinordertoprocessitefficiently.Informationgetsdistilledintosoundbitesandcomplexissuesare

reframedintopithysegments.Educationisnoexceptionanditcertainlyisn’tshortoncomplexity.Newspapersandblogsacrossthecountryaredailyaddressingtheachievementgap,schools’and

students’academicperformance,budgetcrises,teachershortages,theroleofunions,etc.Thelistofeducationalwoesgoesonandon,andintegrationisframedasjustanotherdrumbeatinthemarchofeducationalreform.Itisoftenregardedasanimpedimenttoand/ordistractionfromreform,rather

thanasolutiontomanyoftheeducationchallengeswefacetoday.

Inthiseraofaccountability,nearlyeverythingthatisn’tastandardizedtestorroteinstructionisbeingcastasideforfearofloweringstandards.Integrationisnoexception.Despiteabroadbodyofresearchlinkingintegrationtoacademicachievement,theissueisstillframedasachievementvs.diversity.This

typeofzero‐sumthinkingisn’tlimitedtoacademicachievement;italsoexistsinpolicyreformalongtopicssuchasschoolchoice.Wecanhaveintegratedschools,orparentscanhavechoices,butnotboth.Similarly,wecanpursuemobilitystrategiesorwecanimplementin‐placeinterventions,butnotboth.

Thistypeofdichotomousthinkingislimitingournation’sabilitytoreformschoolsinawaythatcanbringoureducationsystemintothe21stcentury,yetthisistheframethatisheardandtoooftenaccepteduncriticallyacrossthecountry.Untilintegrationadvocatescanmeetpeoplewithintheir

currentrealmofunderstanding,wewillhavelittlechancetomovepeopletowardintegration,orevenengagepeopleinconversationaboutthebenefitsofeducatingstudentsinatrulydiversesetting.

ThisprojectsoughttounderstandhowthepublicthinksaboutdiversityandintegrationinK‐12educationinordertobeginworkingtowardthedevelopmentofframesandmessagesthatwouldextol

thebenefitsofdiversityforeducationinwaysevenskepticsmightfindpersuasive.Toachievethis,weconductedamediaanalysisandacademicliteraturereview.Wealsoreviewedbestpracticesonhowtotalkaboutraceandeducationreform.Finally,weconductedfocusgroupsandheldroundtable

discussionsinMontclair,NJ;PittCounty,NC;Minneapolis,MN;Archbold,OH;Cincinnati,OH;Carroll,OH;andNiles,OH.Thisreportsummarizesourfindingsandsuggestsfurtherframingresearchonthe

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conceptofintegration,aswellassomerecommendationsonthetypeofworkthatneedstobedoneinordertocollectivelyorganizeattheregionallevel.

II. TheImportanceofIntegration&theNeedtoReframeBringingtogetherstudentsofdifferentbackgroundstolearnfromoneanothershouldremainacentralobjectiveofAmericaneducation,especiallyaswemovetowardamajorityminoritysociety.Intoday’s

globalizedworld,educationmustincreasecross‐culturalcompetenceessentialtoperforminginaglobalmarketplaceandparticipatingintheever‐growinghumanconversation.Italsomustinculcatefundamentalvaluesnecessaryfortheconstructionofanequitablemulti‐racialandmulti‐ethnic

democracy.Ifwefailatintegration,thecountryfails;segregationmakesitverydifficulttodevelopgoodcitizens.Yetourschoolsareincreasinglysegregated,withdiminishededucationalopportunitiesintheareasofteacherquality,classsize,facilities,andavailabilityofadvancedcourses.Studentsofcoloralso

facedisadvantagesindesegregatedschoolswhereteachersmaintainlowerexpectationsofthemandoftenconcentratetheminlowerachievementtracks.

SegregationliesattheheartoftheracialdisparitiesthatcontinuetoplagueAmericansociety.Segregationisnotjustthespatialexclusionofpeople,butitisthelimitationoftheiropportunitiesand

resources.Thisincludesallstudents.Asmuchofthefocusonintegrationhasalsobeenonitsbenefitsforblacks,Latinos,andotherstudentsofcolor,littleattentionhasbeenpaidtowhywhitesshouldcare

aboutintegration,orhowpeopletodaytalkand/orthinkaboutintegration.Weneedtoraiseupthebenefitsofintegrationtowhites,aswellastononwhites,andchallengethediscoursethatplacesintegrationintensionwithacademicexcellence.Inordertodothis,weneedtocreateauniform,

consistentmessageonwhatwemeanbytrueintegrationanditsdemands.

Theconceptofintegrationhasmanynegativeconnotationsduetoitsstrife‐riddenhistoryinAmerica.Infact,manypeopleassociateitwithdesegregation,assimilation,anddiversity—noneofwhichcapturethetruemeaningofintegration.Itiscritical,therefore,tobeginbyexploringhowthepublicthinks

aboutintegration,andhowtomovethemfromthinkingaboutdesegregationtotrueintegration.Whilethereisgeneralagreementthatintegrationispositive,thereismuchlessagreementorevenunderstandingofwhatitis,andwhenitisconceptualized,itisoftentoonarrow,andmistakenfor

desegregationorassimilation.Whiledesegregation,atbest,attemptstoassimilate"minorities"intothemainstream,trueintegrationtransformsandenrichesthemainstreamandencouragesrelationsbasedonmutuality,equalityandfairness.Desegregationisaboutachievingnumericaldiversitywhiletrue

integrationseekstoallowthosehistoricallyexcludedtore‐imagineandredesigntheeducationsystem.Trueintegrationhasimplicationsforeverythingthatgoesonwithinthewallsoftheeducationsystem‐discipline,curriculum,abilitygrouping,etc.‐aswellashowthosewallsareevenconstructedwith

schoolsiteselection,districtboundaries,schoolopeningsandclosings,andstudentassignmentpolicies.Desegregationmaybringpeopletogether,butitlacksthelastingandprofoundbenefitsthattrueintegrationhasforoursocietyandforusasindividuals.

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Advocates,scholars,practitionersandothersmustworkcollectivelytodefineintegrationinthe21stcentury,distinguishingitfromalltheotherconceptsthathavebeeninappropriatelyassociatedwiththe

word.ItisessentialtorearticulatetheconceptinlightofthenewrealitiesofamorecomplexAmericansociety.Howwetalkaboutintegrationcanentrench,uprootandreconfigurepolicypreferencesandattitudes.Anytransformativeconversationonracethushastoaddressthisissueandhonestlydescribe

thegoalAmericansocietyshouldstrivetoward.Unlessadvocatesexplicitlyarticulatethesocialgoaloftheirefforts—theyettobefulfilledpromiseofintegration—lookingforeffectivewaysofframingtheirmessagescouldeasily“devolveintoasearchfortheframethatbest‘sells’tothepublic,limitingthe

long‐termeffectivenessofracialjusticeorganizing.”1

Itisespeciallycrucialtocontinuetalkingaboutintegrationinfresh,transformativewaysgiventhecontextof“integrationfatigue”thatisprevalentamongcommunitiesofcolor.Communitiesofcolorremainfrustratedthat,despiteallthepasteffortsandtalkaboutintegration,theboatsofpeopleof

colorhavenotbeenlifted.Moreimportantly,perhaps,theythinkthatthepoliticalwilltotakeontheissueofintegrationsimplydoesnotexistinthiscountry.Thisiswhyin‐placeeducationstrategiesthatemphasizetheneedtoachieveeveninraciallysegregatedhigh‐povertyschoolsarepopularamong

peopleofcolor.Eventhosewhovalueintegrationareimpactedbythis“integrationfatigue,”whichcreatesageneralconfusionaboutthevalueofintegration.Forinstance,peoplewhobelieveinthevalueofintegrationoftencannotdecidewhethertheyvalueintegrationasanendinitselforasameansto

anotherendsuchasequity.Undertheinfluenceof“integrationfatigue,”theyfrequentlychoosetoemphasize“equity”overintegration,insomecasesattheexpenseofintegrationaltogether.Advocatesneedtoclearlyarticulatetheimportanceofintegration,explaininghowandwhyintegrationinvolves

somethingmuchbroaderthanequity.

Inordertocreatea“politicalwillforintegration,weneedtodefineinnew,transformativewayswhatexactlywemeanbyintegration;howitbenefitseveryone(notjustpeopleofcolor);andwhy“true

integration”isavalueinitselfthatisworthpursuing.Unlesswecanarticulatethisstrongcasefortrueintegrationthroughthedevelopmentofeffectiveframesandmessages,itwillbedifficulttogarnersupportforstudentassignmentplansthatseektoachieveintegrationandexcellenceinourschools.

Transformingthisdiscoursearoundintegrationrequirescoordinatedandextensiveresearchandstrategizingtounderstandwherepeopleare,andhowtomovethemtoamorecomplex,comprehensiveunderstandingofintegrationsothatwemaybegin,forthefirsttimeinhistory,totruly

integrateourpublicsystemofeducation.

III. IntroductiontoMessaging&FramingTodayitishardtotalkaboutraceinthesametermsAmericanstalkedaboutitduringtheCivilRights

movement.Today’sracismislessvisibleandimplicitlyembeddedinvariousinstitutionalarrangementsthatcontinuetoreinforcesocial,economicandpoliticaldisparities.Thepervasivenessoftheseinstitutionalarrangementsoftenmakesconversationsaboutracedivisiveandpolarizing.

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Asaresult,peopleoftenavoidtalkingaboutraceortakeacolor‐blindapproach,arguingthatweshouldfocusinsteadonclass.Thisapproachisbasedonthenotionthatbringingattentiontoracedivides

peopleandtriggersracistattitudes.Thecolor‐blindapproachisevenpopularamongsomeracialequityadvocates,whoarguethattheissueofracewillhavemorepublicsupportifpoliciesandcommunicationsareframedinmorerace‐neutralterms.

Researchreveals,however,thatpeopleoftenthinkaboutraceunconsciouslyevenwhentheyarenot

talkingaboutit,andthatourimplicitracialattitudesarelikelytobemorebiasedandnegativethanourexplicitopinions.2Sincedivertingattentionfromtheissueofraceissimplyimpossible,itisbettertotalkaboutracethansimplytoavoidit.Buthowwetalkaboutracematters.Forinstance,talkingaboutrace

inrace‐neutraltermscouldeasilydegenerateinto‘color‐blindracism,’whichoriginatesfromone’signorance/denial/minimizationofexistingracialdisparitiesandtheinstitutionalarrangementsthatmaintainthesedisparities.3

Unlesseffectivelychallengedbyrace‐consciousmessages,thistypeofracismreinforcesexistingracial

hierarchiesbytrivializingthesocial,economic,andpoliticaldisparitiesdrivenbyrace.4Socialscienceresearchshowsthatsucharace‐consciousapproachtoraceislikelytobemoreeffectivethanacolor‐blindapproachinreducingracialbias.5Bytalkingaboutraceinatransformativefashion,wecan

illuminatetheinstitutionaldynamicsthatgeneratesocial,economicandpoliticaldisparitiesinourcommunities,andwecanthenmovetowardeliminatingtheseracialdisparities.

Moreover,socialpsychologyresearchonmulticulturalismshowsthatitispossibletotalkaboutracewithouttriggeringprejudiceanddiscrimination.6Infact,aneffectivelyconstructedrace‐conscious

messagecouldfosterawarenessofracialandethnicdifferencesandpromoteanappreciationofdiversityasacomponentofsocietalhealth.Asresearchersdemonstrate,whenamulticulturalapproach

toraceisused,peopleoftenreplacethepridetheytakeinbeingamemberofthe“best”groupwiththepridethatcomeswithmembershipinagroupwithsomethinguniqueandvaluabletocontributetothelargersociety.7

Framingresearchalsoshowsthatpeopleoftenhaveconflictingframesystems,especiallywhenitcomes

to“highlevelmoralframes.”8FramingresearcherGeorgeLakoffidentifiestwomaincompetingframesystems–progressiveandconservativeframesystems,notingthattheactivationof“theconservativeframesystemweakenstheprogressiveframesystem—bothindividualframesforparticularissues,but

alsothesystemasawhole.”9LakoffdescribestheimportanceofthisnotionforcontemporaryAmericanpolitics:

Forimportantdomainsofthought,likemorality,religion,andpolitics,itiscommonplaceforpeopletohavetwoinconsistentframesystemsthatinhibiteachother.Whenthoseframes

applytodifferentissuesandindifferentcontexts,wespeakof‘bi‐conceptuals.’Whenyoucanshiftbackandforthonanissue,youarebi‐conceptualonthatissue.Thatis,youcanframetheissueintwoways,usinginconsistenthigher‐levelframesystems…Importantpoliticalconcepts

are‘contested,’overlappinginsomeclassiccases,butdivergingincontentdependingonthe

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moralsystem.Thus,vitalpoliticalconceptslikelife,freedom,responsibility,government,accountability,equality,fairness,empathy,property,security,andsoonarecontested.Amajor

goalofpoliticalframingistogetyourversionofcontestedconceptsacceptedbythevoters.Messagingcanthenusetheseconceptsandtheirlanguagefreelyandeffectively.Thatishowframingworksgenerally—independentofwhethertheframesareusedinpolitics.Inpolitics,bi‐

conceptualvoterscanshiftbackandforthonanissue,dependingonhowtheissueisframedintermsofhigher‐levelpoliticalsystems.10

Whatdoesthatmeanforpoliticalmessaging?Lakoffexplains:

Messagesusewords.Thewordsactivateframes.Inpoliticalmessages,youhaveadoubleintention:togetvoterstothinkusingyourframesandtokeepvotersfromthinkingusingthe

otherside’sframes,whichcontradictyours.Yourmessagewillbemoreeffectiveifitfitsexistinghigh‐levelframesinthebrainsofvoters,andlesseffectiveifitcontradictssuchhigh‐levelframes.Yourgoal,withbi‐conceptualvoters,istoactivateyoursystemofpoliticalframesand

inhibittheotherside’ssystemofpoliticalframes.Yourmessageshould,therefore,fityourhigh‐levelframesystemanditshouldnotfittheotherside’shigh‐levelframesystem.Ifitfitstheotherside’shigh‐levelframesystem,yourmessagewillbehelpingtheotherside,becauseitwill

tendtomakevotersthinkusingtheirframesystem.11

Thismeansthatracialjusticeadvocatescannotsimplypreachtothechoir.Theyneedtorecognizetherealityof“bi‐conceptuals”andmakesuretoconstantlyworktotriggertheprogressiveframesintheirminds.AdvocatescanonlybegintocreateatransformativeracialdiscourseinAmericawhentheir

progressivehigh‐levelmoralframesaremorereadilyinvokedthantheconservativeones.Thismeansthattheyneedtoworkrelentlesslytosetupanelaboratemessagingsystemwhichcancompete

effectivelywiththesuccessfulsystemcreatedbyconservativeadvocates.12Todoso,itiscriticaltofirstexaminethedominantmessagesbeingpresentedthroughvariousmediaandacademicoutlets,tothepublicregardingintegratededucation.

IV. MediaReviewInworkingtounderstandhowthebroaderpublicconceptualizesanyissue,itisimportanttoconductamediaanalysistoidentifythepredominantmessagesthatarebeingcommunicatedthroughtraditional

andonlinenewsoutlets.Whilemediacannotinandofitselftelluswhattothink,itcaninfluencewhatwethinkabout,andhowwethinkaboutit.13Anindividualconstructstheirschemasaroundagiventopicthroughmultiplesources,oneofwhichistheframespresentedinthemedia.Intentionallyornot,

themediashapeshowpeoplethinkaboutintegrationbyselectingtheangleofthestory,andconnectingstoriestothepublic’sownexistingschemas.14Researchacrossthepastthirtyyearsoninformation‐processingtheoryhelpsusbetterunderstandhowexistingframesdynamicallyinteractwithincoming

information.Peoplemaybemoreattentivetoinformationthatisofinteresttothem,andmostareabletoincorporateincominginformation,evenifitconflictswithexistingbeliefs,thatis,aslongastheinformationisdeemedrelevant.Oneotheritemofnoteregardingcognitiveresearchdemonstratingthe

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impactofmediaonexistingbeliefs,iftheinformationpresentedisrelativelynewtoanindividual,themorelikelyitistobeabletochangetheperson’sperceptionorviewsonthetopic.15Thisissalientto

thisanalysisasdesegregationhasbeenextensivelydiscussedacrossthepasthalf‐century,andthelessnovelanewspieceis,themorelikelyanindividualistofititwithinanexistingschema.Thissuggestsaneedtoanalyzethedominantframesthatexistinthemediaaroundintegrationandanevaluationof

howtheissuecanbereframedthroughstrategicmessagingtomovepeoplefromtheircurrentschemasofschooldesegregation.

Toexaminetherepresentationofdesegregation,integration,anddiversityineducation,theKirwanInstitutereviewednewsarticlespublishednationallyacrossthepast3years.Giventhe2007Supreme

CourtCaseParentsInvolved,theresultingscrambletorevisestudentassignmentplans,theelectionofPresidentObama,andtheeconomicdownturn,thissearchresultedinhundredsofarticlesdiscussingintegration.Inaddition,wealsoincludedinourreviewanumberofonlineblogsincludingThe

HuffingtonPost,EducationWeek,EducationNews,EduWonkandThisWeekinEducation.Whiletheseblogsrepresentedatheoreticalstraddlebetweenthenewsoutletsandprofessionalliterature,theywereincludedinthissectionastheaudiencefortheseblogstendstobewiderandmoreinclusivethan

journalarticlesorpolicyreports.

Certainlytheissueofintegrationiscomplex,andthearticlesandblogentriesreflectedthis.Focuswithinthearticlesandblogentriesrangedfromtheshort‐termimpactsonindividualstothelong‐termimplicationsforthenation.Whilethecomplexitycapturedwithinthearticlesandblogsisdifficulttoboil

downtoafewgeneralizations,afterthesystematicreviewafewdominantthemesemerged,thoughthesethemesvariedbetweenthe“traditional”andthe“new”media.Thus,thesetwomediumsarediscussedseparatelybelow.

NewsReportsNewspiecesandreportsfromperiodicalswereidentifiedutilizinganumberofonlinedatabases,usingacombinationofwordsandphrasesincludingintegration,schoolintegration,economicintegration,

desegregation,schooldesegregation,andeconomicdesegregation.Acrossthesearticlesandreportstherewerefarmoreframesusedtopromoteorjustifyareturntoneighborhood(segregated)schoolsthanthereweretosupportintegration.Thebulkof

thearticlesidentifiedtheimpedimentstoachievingintegration.Thoughsomeattentionwaspaidtowhyintegrationwasnecessary,therewaslittle

coveragehighlightingencouragingexamplesorschoolsordistrictssuccessfullydesegregating.Thefollowingrepresentsanoverviewofthemost

prominentthemes.

Bussing/NeighborhoodSchoolsFirst,byandlargethemostoft‐mentionedaspectrelatedtointegrationwasbussing.Bussingis

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mentionedinthevastmajorityofarticlesastheonetrueimpedimentstandinginthewayofsuccessfulintegrationandalackofsupportwasdemonstratedacrossavarietyofgroups.Articlesciteparents

opposedtolongbusridesfortheirchildrenaswellasschoolboardmemberswhoareadamantthatthedistrictcannotaffordthetransportationcosts.

Thesemessagesincludeafocusontheexpresseddesiresofparentsandcommunitymemberstoreturntoneighborhoodschools.Theissueoflocalcontrolisraisedconsistently,andmanyarticlescite

suburbanparents’reluctanceto“importoutsiders”andurbanparents’concernsabouttheirchildrennotfittingintoasuburbanschool.Whilecivilrightsadvocatesarecautioningagainstthereturnto“separatebutequal”(thelatterneverbeingthecase),bothsuburbanandurbanparentsalikeare

expressingadesiretohavehighqualityschoolsregardlessoftheracialorclasscomposition.AfricanAmericanfamilieslamentthelossofteachersandadministratorsofcolorwhocanrelatetotheirchildrenandserveasrolemodelswhilewhiteparentsexpresstheirconcernaboutresourcesbeing

filteredtootherschoolsandtheimpactofbussingstudentsoncommunitysupportandlocalownershipoftheschools.

Integrationv.SchoolChoiceAseparatebutrelatedframewoventhroughoutthemediacoverageisthefocusonschoolchoice‐beitvouchersforprivateeducation,chartersorpublicschoolcompetition.Rarely,ifever,isthefocusonhow

integrationcouldbeasuccessfulcomponentofschoolchoice,butratherhowinsteadofintegration,parentsareoptingforotheroptions.16Asub‐dialogueabouttheimpactthatteachers’unionshadinstiflingcreativityandinnovationintheclassroomwaspresentthroughoutthesearticlesaswell.Few

mentionsweremadeoftheroleofcharterschoolsincreatingamoresegregatedsystemofeducationorthepossibilitiesofcreatingasystemofcontrolledchoice.17

Integrationv.AcademicAchievementNotsurprisingly,mostdiscussionsofintegrationcenteredontheissueofraisingacademicachievement.Achievementhasbecomemorenarrowlydefinedovertheyears,andpublicdiscoursearoundhighqualityeducationfocusesonthisonecomponenttoafault.Therelationshipbetweenacademic

achievementandintegrationwassetupmostoftenasabinaryone.Exampleswereoftenhighlightedofdiverseschoolswithacorrespondingcautionarytaleofhowtheschoolisindeclineorsufferingfromdepressedacademicperformance.18Parentsquotedinarticlesoftenexpressedtheirdesiretosend

theirchildrentoahighqualityschool,regardlessofwhetheritwasintegrated.

IndividualAgencyThesourcefortheexistingachievementgapmostoftenwasnotattributedtosegregation,ordisparateeducationalopportunitiesbetweendifferentsegmentsofthepopulation,butrathertoindividualagency.Academic

achievementwassuggestedtobetheresultofneighborhoodcomposition,familialstatus,oritwascloakedinsubtlereferencestodifferencesinculturalnorms.Similarly,individualagencywasalsoimplicatedin

residentialsegregation.Newsarticlesreportedontheideologythatit’san

“Schoolscanonlyworkwithwhattheyhave,there’salreadyan

achievementgapbeforethechildrenputtheirfirstfootinthekindergarten

door.”LindaLanier,FloridaTimes

Union.

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individual’schoicetolivewhereheorshewantedto,andthatschoolsorthegovernmentdonothavetherighttointervenewhenpersonalpreferencewasatplay.

Political/LegalImpedimentsNotsurprisinglygiventherecencyoftheParentsInvolved(PICS)case,thepoliticalandlegalimpedimentswereemphasizedinmanyarticles.CoverageonPICSoverwhelminglyidentifieditasa

decisionthatlimitedschooldistricts’powerstoraciallydesegregate.19Whilethisisn’twhollyinaccurate,littleifanymentionwasgivenofthelegallypermissiblewaysthatracecouldstillbeused.Similarly,

manynewsoutletshighlightedthecountlesswaysthatschoolboards,teachers’unionsandotherfederaleducationpoliciesimpedeintegration.Alsoincludedwithinthisframewasadiscussionoftheachievementof“unitarystatus”bypreviouslysegregateddistricts.Whileoccasionallythiswasexamined

critically,oftenarticlescelebratedtheachievementofunitarystatusasadecisivemovetowardequalityineducation,evenifthedistrictstatisticsdidn’treflectintegration.

MulticulturalismIndefenseofintegration,multiculturalismwasoftenraisedasajustificationfortheneedfordiversity.20Authorsrecognizedthegrowingpopulationsandshiftingdemographicsthatrequireschoolsanddistrictstoaddresslanguage

barriers,andtoensureteachersaretrainedtoworkwithculturallyandraciallydiversepopulations.Afewarticlesrecognizedthattheissuecannotbeignored,andthatthisisacriticalissuethatwillhavelongtermeconomic

impactsforournationifnotfullyaddressed.

SourcesofContinuedSegregationAfewmorenuancedarticlescoveredthehistoricallegacyofsegregationanddiscussedthedefacto

segregationpresentinourneighborhoodsandreflectedinourschools,orthemorerecentreturntosegregationduetothePICSdecision.ArticlescoveringParentsInvolveddiscussedmanyschooldistricts’focusonsocioeconomicintegration,ortheirabandonmentofstudentassignmentpoliciesaltogether.

FactorsExcludedSurprisingly,despitethemultitudeofarticlesdedicatedtothetopicofintegration,therewereanumber

offactorslargelyabsentfromtheiranalyses.Statisticsdocumentingthedegreeofsegregationwithinand/oracrossdistrictswerescarceandsegregationwasdiscussedmoreasanacceptedfactaboutthestateofeducationasopposedtoameasurablephenomenon.21Despitetheinherentracialimplications

indiscussingsegregation,authorsoftensteeredclearofspecificmentionsofraceandfocusedinsteadonsocioeconomicstatus.22Finally,therewaslittleacknowledgementthattrueintegrationhasneverbeenachieved.Integrationwasconceptualizednarrowlywithanalmostsingularfocusonstudent

assignmentplans.Therewaslittletonorecognitionofintegrationplansordiversitybestpracticeswithinbuildings.Similarly,largelyabsentintheliteratureistherecognitionofpracticesthatfunctiontoseparatestudentswithinbuildings.

“…amodelfor

resegregationwilldamagenotonlyour

state,butthebasicprinciplesofournation."

Rev.WilliamBarberIICNN.com

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Acursoryglanceattheaboveframesilluminatesthefactthatthepredominantmessageaboutintegrationinthemediaisthatitisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,toachieveduetofamily/culturalvalues,

neighborhoodstructures,politicalandlegalforces,theneedforhighperformingschools,whetherpublicorprivate(aneedthatisincompetitionwith,andsupersedes,diversity),andthesteepsocialandeconomiccostsofintegration.Whilesomesourcesnamethecauses,benefits,andsuccessfulmodelsof

integration,theemphasisismoreoftenplacedonthechallenges.Takentogether,thesemessagesinterwoventhroughoutthemediaarecontributingtoa20thcenturyunderstandingofdesegregation,nota21stcenturyvisionofintegration.Theemphasisisplacedonahistoricalideaofdesegregation,not

amoderndayoneoftrueintegration.Itfeedsintoaframethatpitsintegrationagainstchoice,againstacademicachievement,andagainstpoliticalwill.

NewMediaNotsurprisingly,giventheincreasedsophisticationoftheauthorsandaudiences,theblogentriesrepresentamuchmorenuancedlookatschooldesegregationwhichincludesthecomplexitiesand

challengesschoolsanddistrictsface,butalsoplacesgreateremphasisonitsimportance.

RecognitionoftheComplexityofIntegrationAmongtheblogpoststhereseemedtobeagreaterrecognitionofthecomplexityofintegration,withoutthedismissivenessorpessimismfoundinthenewsarticles.Authorsdididentifysomeofthechallengesincludinglegal,political,andsocialones.Authorsalsooftenframedtheissueofschool

desegregationasacontroversialone,discussinghowcertainschoolofficialsandpoliticiansspecificallyavoidconversationsaroundintegrationbecausethistopicistoopoliticallycharged.Nonetheless,withsomeschooldistrictsdeclaredtohaveachievedunitarystatusandcriesthatassigningstudentsto

schoolonthebasisofraceisactuallydiscriminatory,therewasasenseofurgencyinsomepoststhatseemedtobesayingthisissueisonthebrinkofbeingrenderedobsoleteorunimportant.Therewasdiscussionastohowsomearguefor“race‐neutrality”andsayinsteadthefocusshouldbeon

socioeconomicintegration,whichwouldhelpachieveracialintegration.However,othersarguethatschoolsareclearlylosinggroundwithrespecttodiversitybybeing“race‐neutral.”

Language&FramingAmyriadoftermswereusedindiscussingdesegregationinschools.Somepostsfocusedontermslike“busing”and“neighborhoodschools,”termswhichcarriednegativeconnotationsintheirdiscussion.Otherstalkedaboutschoolchoice,income‐basedmagnetplans,publiccharters,andstudent

reassignmentplansandthepromisethesepracticesheldforintegration.Indiscussingthemeritsofintegrationefforts,mostframeditasanissueofethicsandequalopportunity,oremphasizedthesocial

valuethatintegrationholds.Othersfocusedontheacademicachievementofstudentsandhowintegrationisanecessarycomponenttofurtherequalizingstudentoutcomes.

Inschool&ResidentialSegregationSomeblogpostsframedthisissueinawiderlens,discussingotherfactorsthatcontributetosegregationinschools.Forexample,multiplepostsdiscussedthelargerproblemofresidentialsegregationandtheimportancethatholdsforschools.Therewerealsodiscussionsabouttheneedtoensuresegregation

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didnothappenwithinschoolbuildings.Authorssupportedtheideathatdesegregationeffortswithinschooldistrictswereoflittleworthifstudentswithinaschoolweresegregatedthroughtracking

practicesorcourseassignments.

LegalanalysisOnetrendpresentinpostsaboutschoolintegrationrelatedtothecentralityoflegalmandatesto

enforcedesegregationefforts.Numerousauthorsbrieflymentionedthesocialoracademicargumentsfordesegregation,butthenframedthisasanissuethatultimatelylieswiththecourts.Ifschooldistricts

werenolongerunderdesegregationordersorfederalcourtsupervision,severalauthorsfeltthatdistrictswouldnotwillinglycontinuetocarryoutintegrationplans.Theextenttowhichschooldistrictsworktowardintegrationappearsdirectlylinkedtocourtmandatesasopposedtothebestinterestof

students. Generallyspeaking,theblogpostspresentamorenuancedargumentforschoolintegration,and

authorsframedintegrationasanecessitytoensuretheopportunityforequaloutcomesforallstudents.Authorsalsocautionedagainstreturningtoasegregatedsystemofeducation.Manyexpressedafearthatschoolsaremovingbackwardsandreturningtotheeraofwidespreadsegregation,andillustrated

thispointwithstatisticsshowingsomeschoolsaremoresegregatednowthantheywereafewyearsago.Concernwasconsistentlyvoicedaboutthereturntoneighborhoodschoolsandwhatthatwouldmeanforintegration.

Lookingatthemediabothonandofflineisincrediblyuseful,howeveritcannottelltheentirestory.Asmentionedpreviously,individualshaveideasandschemasthatfiltertheincominginformation,andtheyprocessitthroughmanyfilters,includingbothimplicitandexplicitcognitions.Furthermore,peopleare

complex.Theycansupportintegrationintheory,butstillplacetheirchildinasegregatedschool.Theycanevenacknowledgethebenefitsofdiversity,whilestillinsistingthatwemaintainasystemofneighborhoodschools.Themediaisonlyasinfluentialasitsconsumers.Thus,tounderstandthepublic’s

perceptionofintegration,wehavetoturntothepeople.

V. FocusGroupResultsToengagethisquestionofhowpeoplethinkandfeelaboutdiversity,weconductedanumberoffocusgroupsacrossthecountry.InMontclair,NJ;PittCounty,NC;Minneapolis,MN;Archbold,OH;Cincinnati,OH;Carroll,OH;andNiles,OHweengagedover250peoplewithavarietyofdifferentrelationshipsto

thepubliceducationsystem.Inhomogenousandheterogeneousgroupswefacilitateddiscussionsbetweenstudents,teachers,parents,schooladministrators,schoolboardmembers,businessleaders,policymakers,lawyers,religiousleadersandmore.Wedeliberatelyworkedtoensureparticipantswere

racially,ethnicallyandeconomicallydiverseaswellasfromrural,urbanandsuburbanareas.Wealsotrainedmorethan20focusgroupfacilitators,withadeliberateefforttoensurethefacilitatorsreflectedthediversityoftheparticipants.

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Theviewsexpressedinthefocusgroupswerewidelydivergent,thoughnearlyeveryparticipantvoicedappreciationfortheopportunitytoengageinthedialogue.Theinfluenceofregionalparticularitieswas

visibleacrossallfocusgroups;participantsfrequentlycontextualizedtheconversationswithhistoricalorrecentlawsuits,studentassignmentplans,localpolitics,schoolclosures,thepresenceofdifferentracialandethnicsubgroups,etc.Thefollowingrepresentssomeofthedominantthemesthatemergedfrom

thedialogues,andsomeofthevariancesexpressedtherein.Amorein‐depthexaminationoftheMinneapolisfocusgroupsappearsinsectionVIIofthisreport.

DefiningDiversityFocusgroupparticipantsbroadlydefineddiversitywiththerecognitionthatitismultivariateandcomplex.Individualsmentionedrace/ethnicity,gender,religion,socioeconomicstatus/poverty,culture,

abilitylevel,sexualorientation,languageandfamilialcharacteristicssuchaseducationlevel,blendedfamiliesandsingle‐parenthouseholds.23Whilesomedefineddiversityastheabilitytorecognizeand

toleratedifferences,otherspushedbackonthis

languageandinsistedthatdiversityincludesrespectingdifferences,notjusttoleratingthem.Oneparticularlyinterestingaspectoftheseconversationswasthe

assertionandrecognitionthatdiversityisfluid;themeaningofdiversityshiftswithinanygivenregion,andaschoolcanneverhave“achieveddiversity”butrather

itmustbeanongoingprocessthatisperiodicallyrevisited.

Integrationvs.AcademicAchievementAsinthemediareview,thetensionbetweendiversityandacademicachievementalsoaroseinthefocus

groups.24Eitherbecausefacilitatorshadgivenabriefpresentationonthepositiverelationshipbetweenthetwo,orbecausefocusgroupparticipantsholdamoresophisticatedanalysisthanthemediamessagesconvey,theunderstandingoftheconnectionsbetweendiversityandacademicachievement

weremuchmorenuanced.Overwhelmingly,participantsmentionedtheneedforallschoolstobehighperformingasoneoftheirleadingpriorities.Parentsalsoemphasizedtheimportanceofschoolranking

whenmakingadecisionaboutwheretosendtheirchild.Otherparents,however,recognizedthatthecurrentconceptualizationof“highperforming”islimited,anddoesn’tformallyrecognizetherolethat

diversityplaysinpreparingstudentsforlivingandworkinginthe21stcentury.

Diversity/CulturalCompetencyinSchoolsNearlyeveryfocusgroupspentsometimediscussingtheimportanceofhavingaculturallycompetentteachingforce,administration,andschoolstaff.Formany,thiswasevenprioritizedoverintegration,as

theyfeltculturallyrelevant/responsiveteachingwasamoreimportantfactorinraisingacademic

“Diversityis

overhyped,thefocusshouldbeonthe

qualityofeducationforallstudents.”

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achievement.Participantsdiscussedtherolethatalackofdiversity/culturalcompetencyplayedinloweringexpectations,sortingstudentsofcolorandlowincomestudentsintoloweracademictracks,

andincreasingthenumberofstudentsofcolor,particularlymales,whoaredisciplined.

LimitationstoAchievingIntegrationGiventhevariedexperiencesandbackgroundsofparticipants,itisnotsurprisingthattheywereabletolistawiderangeoflimitationstoachievingintegration.Manyoftheseparticipantshavebeeninvolvedintheefforts“ontheground”fordecades.Focusgroupmembersacknowledgedthefinancialcostsof

integration,notonlyforbussing,butalsoforresourcesandsupporttomeettheneedsofadiversestudentbodysuchasacademicsupport,skillfulschoolcounselors,andtrainedsocialworkers.Individualsspokeopenlyaboutracialandethnicstereotypesandhowtheyimpedeintegrationeffortsas

wellasthewaysinwhichprejudiceandresistancearecouchedin“raceneutral”terms.Thosemorefamiliarwiththeinterworkingsoftheschoolalsomentionedthesortingmechanismsinplacewithinschoolsthatlimitintegrationevenwhennumericaldiversityisachieved.Finally,focusgroupparticipants

recognizedthatschoolswerelargelyreflectingresidentialsegregation.Peopleexpressedafrustrationabouttheinabilitytodisruptresidentialsegregation,andhowentrenchedracialisolationinneighborhoodsnecessitatessomelevelofbussing.Somediscussionsfocusedoninterandintradistrict

segregationaswell,andthedifficultiessomeschooldistrictshaveinachievingdiversitywithoutregionalintegrationplans.

ConflictbetweenPersonal&ProfessionalValuesOneofthemoreunder‐theorizedareasofintegration,andonethatappearstobecriticaltoframingand

messagingstrategies,istheconflictmanypeoplehaveexpressedbetweentheirpersonalandprofessionalvalues.Overwhelmingly,participantsexpressedanappreciationfordiversity,andtheneedforamoreintegrated,equitablesystemofeducation.However,manyparentsspokeupaswelland

admittedthat,despitetheirsupportofanddesirefordiverseenvironments,ultimatelytheywouldand/ordochoosetosendtheirchildtoahigh‐performing,butsegregatedschool.Unfortunately,thepoorimplementationofdesegregationhistoricallyhasparentsfeelingthatadiverseschoolwiththe

presenceofahighneedpopulationmayhavetoomanychallengesandnotenoughresources,thereforeconcludingthatitmaynotbethebestoptionforeducatingtheirchild.Thissuggestsaneedtofurtherexplorethisissue,andbetterunderstandparents’perspectives,andtheirdecision‐makingmechanisms.

TheAppealofChoiceParentsandcommunitymembersalikeincludedvouchers,charters,andprivateschoolsintheir

discussions,thoughtheirsupportfororoppositiontothemvariedwidely.Someparticipantsexpressedconcernsaboutthewaysinwhichchoicefurthersegregateseducationbothalonglinesofrace/ethnicity,classorabilitylevelby“cherrypicking”thebeststudentsfromtheschools.Otherslaudedtheincreases

inchoice.Manyparentsfeltthat,whengivenchoices,theywerebetterequippedtofindaschoolthatcouldmeettheneedsoftheirchildandincreasehisorherlikelihoodofacademicsuccess.Wesawnoracialorethnicdifferencesregardingtheoverarchingsupportfororoppositionofvouchers,charters,or

privateschools,thoughthereasonsforsupportdidvary.Whiteparentsweremorelikelytosupport

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chartersormagnetsbecauseofthecurriculumflexibilityandthemevariabilitywithintheschools.Blackparentsmoreoftenmentionedtheacademicperformancelevelsoftheschool,andtheideathattheir

childrenwouldbemorecomfortableinaschoolwherethestudentbodyandschoolstaffmorecloselyreflectedtheirracialorethnicbackground.

DisagreementonMessagesAspartofthisprocesswesetouttounderstandhowpeoplefeltaboutandreactedtothevarioustermsutilizedwhentalkingaboutdesegregation,integrationanddiversityineducation.Here’swhatwefound:

Desegregationisapoliticallychargedtermwitharich

history.Tomanyitimpliesbussing(i.e.,reducedchoiceand/orforcedintegration),publicresistanceandournation’sfailuretofulfillitspromise.

Whileintegrationhasbeendefinedbythesocialand

educationjusticecommunitymuchmoreinclusively,andisusedtoindicatenumericalaswellastransformativediversity,theseconnotationsarenotwidelysharedamong

thepublic.

Importantly,wefoundthattomostpeople,thetermsdesegregationandintegrationareinterchangeableandtherewasnomeaningfuldifferencebetweenthetwo.

Finally,regardingdiversity,mostparticipantsfeltthiswasahollowwordwithnoreal

meaningbehindit.Peoplerejecteditasa“catchphrase”thatintegrationgatekeepersusetohidebehind.

VI. ReviewofProfessionalLiteratureExaminingmediareportsofintegrationandfocusgroupparticipants’perspectivesgivesusinsightintothedominantschemasofthepublic.However,itisalsocriticaltoexaminetheframesthesocialjustice

field(broadlydefined)isemploying.Inessence,itisimportanttoreviewwhetheracademicsandpolicyorganizationsareeffectivelycommunicatingtotheirtargetedaudiencesbymeetingthemwheretheyarecognitivelyandemotionally.Itcouldbewellarguedthattheoutputsoftheseindividualsand

organizationsarenotdirectedtothelargerpublicbutrathertootheracademicsorpolicymakers,butnonetheless,theyareinpartresponsibleforsettinganationalagendaonintegration,definingtheframesthatareused,andthemessagesthatultimatelyarecommunicated.Whilecertainlythe

conversationamongtheseaudiencescanbemoresophisticatedandnuanced,thereisarealneedtoensurethattargeted,effectivemessagesarenonethelessdevelopedthatcanbringthebroaderpublicintotheconversation.

“Integrationisaforcedenvironment;peopledon’twantto

gothere.”

WhiteParent,MontclairNewJersey

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FocusonRaceAscomparedtothemedia,researcharticlesandpolicyreportsaremuchmoreupfrontaboutrace,theracializedcomponentofsegregation,andthehistoricalandpresentdaycontributorstoit.Not

surprisingly,thereisalsonolackofdataorstatisticsutilizedtosupporttheauthors’pointsabouttheextentornatureofsegregation.Finally,inregardstorace,someauthorshavebecomeincreasinglycriticalofthefocusonracialintegrationbeingprimarilyonblack/whitepopulations.Theseauthors

recognizethecomplexityofdiversityandarguethatourintegrationpoliciesshouldbemuchmoreinclusiveandcomprehensive.

RecognitionoftheRoleofNeighborhoodsThearticlesandreportsreviewedidentifiedthechallengesthatresidentialsegregationpresentsandhowitcontributestosegregationwithinandacrossdistrictsandschools.Furthermore,theyalso

recognizedtheracializedprocessesinvolvedinthehistorical(andevenpresentday)drawingofdistrictandschoolboundaries.Despitethisclearlinkage,thesewritingsstopshortofsuggestingpolicysolutionstolinkresidentialandeducationalintegration.Whenresidentialintegrationhasbeenattempted,they

examinetheimpactofhousingmobilityandschoolchoiceprograms,typicallyreportingmixedresults.OnestudypublishedintheAnnualReviewofSociologyin2009,highlightedsomeofthelimitationsof

theseprograms,includingthefactthatstudentsinvolvedinthemobilityprogramsareoftennotrelocatedtohigherperformingschools.25

FocusonClassDespitethemorefrankdiscussionsaboutraceasrelatedtosegregation,andtherecognitionoftheracializednatureofthelinkbetweenresidentialandschoolsegregation,recenttrendsintheliterature

seemtobemovingtowardincreasedsupportofclass‐basedintegration.26ThismaybearesultofapoorunderstandingofthePICSdecisionorbecausetheresearchliteratureismoreconclusiveabouttheimpactofsocioeconomicintegrationonacademicachievement,thoughracialintegrationhasalso

demonstratedpositiveoutcomesonacademicachievement.Regardless,focusingsolelyontheacademicbenefitsofintegrationinherentlylimitstheconversationregardingthepurposeofeducationinademocracy.Thebenefitsofracialintegrationhavealsodemonstratedlong‐term,positivesocialand

psychologicalimpacts,andintegrationhasbeenlinkedtothedevelopmentofamorestableandsecurenation.Thebodyofliteraturereviewed,however,seemstobemuchmorenarrowlyfocusedonacademicachievement.

Overall,theacademicliteraturetakesamuchmorecriticalandanalyticalapproachtointegrationthat

emphasizesbroadeningoptions.Thisincludesopeningaccessthroughhousingmobilityandschoolchoicesfordisadvantagedfamiliesinlowopportunityareas,butalsoensuringmiddle‐classstudentscanbenefitfromintegratedenvironmentsastheygrowintoadultsandbeginworkinginincreasinglydiverse

workplaces.Authorsdescribeoptions:forfamiliescurrentlyresidingindistrictswheredesegregationplansarebeingimplemented;fordistrictstoadoptcomprehensivedesegregationplans;andforevaluatingtheprogressthatsuchplansexperience.Theacademicliteraturestronglydismissesthe

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media’sperceivedlimitationstointegrationandisn’tapprehensivetostudywhatsolutionsarepossible,thoughtodate,theproposedsolutionshavenottakenusfarenough.

Takentogether,theseanalysesrepresentthedominantframesandmessagesthatarebeing

communicatedacrossmultiplelevelstoawiderangeofaudiences.Theygiveussomeinsightastowherepeopleare,cognitivelyandemotionally,regardingthetopicofschooldesegregationandtrueintegration.Somepreliminaryconclusionscanbedrawnbyexaminingthemultiplechannelsof

informationbeingfilteredandhowtheyarebeingincorporatedintopeoples’existingschemas.First,clearlypeoplearemuchmoresophisticatedthanjustidlerecipientsofthenews.Theirunderstandingofintegrationdoesnotmeshsquarelywiththemessagesbeingcommunicatedinthemedia,although

thereissomeoverlap.Theirperspectivesaremuchmorenuancedandcomplex,byandlargebecauseoftheirexperiencesandtheregionalcontextsandhistoryoftheareaswheretheyreside.

Thisexaminationisinherentlylimited,however,becausewearelookingsolelyatwhatpeoplewillinglyself‐reportinconversationswiththeirpeers,whichmaypromptthemtogivemoresociallydesirable

responses.Thisalsodoesnottakeintoaccountimplicitorexplicitbias,orthecomplexityoffactorstakenintoconsiderationwhenpeoplemusttakeactionspertainingtointegration,eitherinselectingaschoolfortheirchildorinthevotingbooth.Thisanalysisisnotexhaustiveenoughtodrawconcrete,

prescriptiveconclusionsaboutwhatmessagesshouldbeemployedtomovepeopletowardssupportingintegration,buttheydorepresentacriticalfoundationuponwhichtobeginbuildingamorecomprehensiveunderstandingofhowintegrationisconceptualizedandactedupon.Whilewecannot

yetprescribespecificlanguagethatshouldbeutilizedregardingintegration,thereisabodyofliteraturepertainingtohowtotalkaboutracemorebroadly.Anexplorationofthiscansuggestpossiblenextstepsforresearchersandadvocatesalike.

VII. TalkingaboutRace&Integration:TheImportanceofFramingInordertomovepeopleandconvincethemtomobilizeresourcestoreduceandeventuallyeliminate

racialdisparitiesinaccessingopportunities,researchers,advocates,andpolicymakersneedtoshapetheirmessagesmoreeffectively.Framingresearchshowsthatvaluesandemotions,andnotnecessarily

factsandreason,shapetheseframes.Peoplefrequentlyencounteramessagethatisframedinawaythatdoesnotresonatewiththeirbasicvalues.Whenthishappens,theyaremoreresistanttoreceivingthefactsthatpertaintothemessage,nomatterhowpersuasivethefactsare.Itis,therefore,crucialfor

advocatestoframeanissueeffectivelyforittogaintractioninthepoliticalarena.

BasicRulesofEffectiveFramingFramingresearchrevealsanumberofrulesforeffectiveframing,whichalsoapplytotheissueofrace.Effectiveframesleadwithwidelyheldvaluesthatcuepeopletowhatisatstake.Sincepeoplefilterfactsthroughtheirvalues,advocatesneedtosignalasharedvaluesystem.Thisgivestheiraudience

permissiontoreachtheconclusionadvocateswantthemtoreachwiththefactsthattheyprovide.27Inadditiontoleadingwithwidelyheldvalues,effectiveframesalsoleadwithsolutions.Cognitiveresearchshowsthatwhenpeoplearticulateasolution,theirbrainsprepareacategoricalschemawithinwhich

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receivedinformationisstoredandrecalled.28Intheabsenceofanarticulatedsolution,listenerscouldreachavastlydifferentconclusionwiththesamefacts.Articulatingasolutionalsomakestheproblem

lookmanageable,encouragingthelistenerstoacttosolvetheproblem.

Framingresearchadvisesagainstleadingwithconflictingfactsorstatements.Researchshowsthatdoingsocreatescognitivedissonanceinthelistener,triggeringthe“conflictingfacts”frame.Apersonwiththisframeofminddiscardsconflictingfactsaserroneous,choosinginsteadtoaffirmher/hispre‐existing

convictionsontheissue.29

Framingresearchalsosuggeststhatlistenersaremorereceptivetoasolutioniftheycanidentifytheproblemasonethattheycouldthemselvesface.Therefore,definingtheproblemassomethingthatcouldhappento“us”ratherthantosome“other”makesiteasierforlistenerstoidentifywiththeissue.

Forthisreason,itisimportanttodefineandcontrolthe“we”andtomakeitasinclusiveaspossible.30

Thefollowingsectionreviewsmanyoftheframesaboutracialinequalitythatcompetewitheachotherinthepoliticalarena.Thereviewsiftsthroughtheseframes,identifyingthosethatenableustotalkaboutraceinaconstructive,transformativefashion.Basedonthelatestframingresearch,thesection

concludesbycompilingtheelementsthatworktowardcreatingatransformativeframethatcouldeffectivelymovepeopleandresourcestoremovestructuralbarrierstoexpandingopportunityforall.

EmpiricalResearchOnEffectiveFramesRegardingRace

“OpportunityforAll”FrameFrameWorksInstitutefoundanumberofvaluesthatworkwellinmakingpeoplereceptivetoaconversationaboutracialequity.FramingtestsshowthatopportunityseemstobeavaluethatmostAmericanshold.Talkingabout“opportunityforall,”especiallyremovingthebarriersthatpreventall

peoplefromrealizingabetterlife,seemstomakeaudiencesmorereceptivetohearingaboutthestructuralbarrierstoopportunity.31Bysuggestingthatthecountry’sabilitytoachieveisunderminedwhennotenoughpeoplehaveaccesstotheresourcesandsocialnetworksneededtosucceed,this

framesuggeststhatenhancingopportunitywillresultinabetterqualityoflifeforall.

Framingresearch,however,suggeststhattheopportunityframeseemstoworkbestwhenitreferstoopportunityinsymbiotic,collectivewayssuchasthe“opportunityforall”frame.Forinstance,theopportunityframefailstobecomeeffectiveifopportunityisdescribedonlyintermsofpersonal

networks.Whendescribedlikethis,theopportunityframerunstheriskof“pushingthediscussionbackintothedominantframeofanindividual‐levelunderstandingofracialdisparities(‘whoyouknow’).”32Withoutthe“opportunityforall”frame,theopportunityframemayalsoinvokepeopletothinkthatthe

issueisallaboutcertaingroupsnottakingadvantageofopportunitiesthatalreadyexist—effectivelytriggeringa“blameframe.”33

Focusingonwhoorwhatisresponsibleforpresentinequitiescansimilarlytriggera“blameframe”andisnotaconstructiveplacetostartaconversationonrace.Socialpsychologyresearchrevealsthatmost

peoplegenerate“blameframes”todealwiththetensionbetweentheirsenseoffairnessandthe

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painfulrealitiesofinjustice.34Peoplefrequentlyresorttotheblameframeof“personalresponsibility”toshort‐circuitdiscussionsofstructuralracisminfavoroftheexplanationthatindividualsaretoblamefor

theirstationinlife.35

“Blameframes”oftendevaluetheconcernsofmarginalizedgroupsinsocietybyexplainingracialdisparitiesinaccesstoopportunitiesandresourcesbytheindividualchoicesandbehaviorsofthemembersofthesegroups,makinganystructuralanalysisoftheseunequaloutcomesimpossible.36By

framingopportunityinsymbioticandcollectiveways,advocatescouldpreemptindividualisticchoiceframesthatputtheblamesquarelyontheverypeoplewhoaremarginalizedbystructuralracism.Bydoingso,theycanalsoavoidthetrapofpittingpeopleupagainsteachother,emphasizingthecollective

goodthatresultsfromexpanding“opportunityforall.”

“FairnessBetweenPlaces”Frameandthe“ProsperityGrid”ModelResearchsimilarlyshowsthatwhenstartingatransformativeconversationonrace,thegenericnotionoffairnesscouldbeaproblematicvaluetoleadwithunlessitisspecificallyframedinnon‐individualisticterms.Peoplehaveatendencytohaveanindividualisticapproachtofairnessandtheytendtoequate

fairwithequal.Whentheplayingfieldisnotlevel,thisnotionoffairnessasequalitycanbeusedtoreinforceandlegitimizeexistinginequalities.Forinstance,manyoftheparticipantsintheMinneapolisfocusgroupsexpressedthattheystruggledtoexplaintotheirconstituentsthefactthatfairisnotequal,

suggestingtheimportanceofequitableoverequal.Evenwhenexplicitlyframedinnon‐individualisticterms,theconceptoffairnesscreatesmanyimpedimentstoatransformativeconversationonrace.Especiallywhenframedbyappealingtothevalueoffairnessbetweengroups,aracialconversation

quicklydegeneratesintozero‐sumthinkinginwhichscarceresourcesareredistributedfromonegrouptoanother.37

Whenframedbyappealingtothevalueoffairnessbetweenplaceshowever,aracialconversationtendstogeneratesupportforrace‐basedpolicies.Initsinvestigationofruralissuesandcommunityhealth,

FrameWorksInstitutefoundthat“situatingtheissueoffairnessnotinpersons,butinplacesorsystems,improvedsupportforredistributivepolicy.”38TheInstitute’sfindingssuggested“thefairnessbetweenplacesframeisimbuedwithsystemsthinking,andidentifiessolutionsthatwillreducedisparitiesacross

communities.Whenframedasbeingaboutplace,inotherwords,theconceptoffairnessworkstostructuralizetheissueofdisparities.”39The“fairnessbetweenplaces”framesuggeststhatcertaincommunitiesarestrugglingbecauseprogramsandservicesarenotfairlydistributedacross

communities.Thesolutionprovidedbythisframeistoleveltheplayingfieldsothatallcommunitieshaveequalaccesstotheresourcestheyneedinordertothrive.

FurtherresearchbyFrameWorksInstitutealsoshowstheeffectivenessofa“prosperitygrid”modelinencouragingconsiderationofdisparitiesinaccesstoresourcesbasedonplace.40Thismodel,which

drawsfromFrameWorks’investigationofsimplifyingmodels,providesametaphoricalideaofcommunitiesbeingonoroffthegrid.41FrameWorksresearchrevealedthatthesimplifyingmodelofthe“prosperitygrid”allowedresearchparticipantstodiscussstructuraldifferencesamongcommunities.

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Themodelalsoincreasedthelikelihoodoftheseparticipantstosupporttheredistributionofsocialresourcesinwaysthatwouldplugallcommunitiesintothegrid.42

The“opportunityindex”modeldevelopedbytheKirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceandEthnicityis

verysimilartothismodelinexpressing“theneedtoincreasetheflowofopportunitythroughthegridofAmericaninstitutions,suchasschools,hospitals,banks,etc.”43The“opportunityindex”modelisverycompatiblewiththeprosperitygridmodel:bothofthesemodelsemphasize“thenotionofensuringthat

allareasofthecountryarepluggedintothegrid—orhavestrongconnectionstotheinstitutionsthatsupportcommunities”as“awaytoreduceracialdisparities.”44Thesefindingsconfirmtheusefulnessofthe“opportunityindex”modelasaregionalapproachtoopportunity—amodelthatsmoothlylends

itselftoaspatialanalysisofinequality.

ResearchalsodocumentsthatmostAmericansstillbelieveintheideasofindividualchoiceandmeritocracyandviewsuccessassomethingthatcomesthroughtheexerciseofpersonalresponsibilityandgoodchoice.45Explicitlychallengingthesewidelyheldbeliefsoftenpreventstheaudiencefrom

hearingthefactsofthecaseaspeopletendtoshutdownwhentheircloselyheldvaluesaretooforcefullychallenged.Steeringtheconversationtowardthepositiveresultsandoutcomesbeingsought(e.g.,qualityeducationforall)andofferinganalternativeframeworkthatcanhelpreducetheintensity

ofthischallengeinstead,couldbemoreeffectiveinjumpstartingatransformativeconversationonrace.

“SharedFates”FrameAnotherframethatseemstotriggeratransformativeconversationonraceisthevalueofinterdependence.TalkingofAmericaas“anationofsharedfates”movespeopletoseethereductionofdisparitiesascriticaltothecommongoodandbeneficialforallmembersofthesociety.Conversations

framedthroughthelensofinterdependenceand“sharedfate”alsoencouragespeopletoenvisionsolutionsandchanges.46Byfocusingonthenotionof“sharedfate,”advocatescanovercomethelimitationsimposedbyindividualisticthinkingpervasiveamongAmericans.Thisallowsthemtotalk

abouttheinstanceswhenthesystemsallpeoplerelyonbreakdown,andtooffersolutionstofixthosesystems.

TowardaTransformativeDiscourseonRace&Integration:TrueIntegrationjohnpowellofferstheconceptoftrueintegrationasthefocalpointofatransformativeconversationonrace.47InthetraditionofMartinLutherKing,Jr.,hedescribesintegrationasthepositiveacceptanceof

desegregationandthewelcomedparticipationofpeopleofcolorintothetotalrangeofhumanactivities.powelldistinguishestrueintegrationfromdesegregation,describingthelatterasmerelynegativeandeliminative.

Forpowell,desegregation,atbest,attemptstoassimilatepeopleofcolorintothemainstream.In

contrast,trueintegrationistransformative,ratherthanassimilative.Itbothtransformsandenrichesthemainstream.Trueintegrationisnotjustaboutrepresentation.Itconstitutesthestructuresweinhabitandmakeuswhoweare—formingboth“thetableandthepeopleatthetable.”Trueintegrationis

creative;itrespectsinter‐grouprelationsbasedonmutuality,equality,andfairness.

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Trueintegrationdoesnotmerelymeanthepresenceofdiversity.Diverseenvironmentscanstillbesegregated.Forinstance,diversifyingschoolsthroughsimpledesegregationeffortsoftenresultin

assimilation,in‐schoolsegregation,andtrackingofstudentsintodifferentacademicpathsinschools.Simplyseatingawhitestudentnexttoastudentofcolormightachievediversitybutnotintegration.powellconceptualizesintegrationbothasanexternalandinternalprocess,emphasizingthe“needto

integratenotonlythestudentsinsidethebuildingbuttheheartsandmindsofthestudentsaswell.”48

Trueintegrationisanimportantsocietalvalueworthpursuinginitselfforanumberofreasons.Trueintegrationiscrucialbecausecontinuingsegregationmakesitverydifficulttocultivateeffectivecitizensandsocialcohesion.TheAmericaneducationsystemneedstobringtogetherstudentsfromdifferent

backgrounds,expandtheiropportunities,andpreparethemforthemulticulturalrealitiesofthe21stcentury.Americawillloseitsprominenceinanincreasinglyglobalworldifitseducationsystemfailstoachievethis.

Trueintegrationineducationalsohasanumberofbenefitsthatimprovethechancesofallstudentsto

succeedinanincreasinglymulticultural,globalsociety.Trueintegrationimprovescriticalthinking;raisesacademicachievementandgraduationrates;fostersinter‐groupcontact;avoidstrackinganddisproportionatedisciplineandspecialeducationdesignationsacrossracialandethnicgroups;increases

parentalinvolvement;andreducesresidentialsegregation.

MinneapolisFocusGroupFindings:HowToFrameTheConceptsofRaceandIntegration?

Howcanwemaketheconceptofintegrationmorerelevanttothe21stcentury?InfocusgroupsheldinMinneapolis,someadvocatesofcolorarguedthatthewordintegrationfelttoo

anachronisticinthisdayandageandheldtoomanynegativeconnotationstobehelpfulinthefuture.Theysuggestedthatthetermreferredtoablackandwhiteeraanddidnotadequatelyspeaktothemulticulturalrealitiesof21stcenturyAmerica.

Manyexpressedtheneedtofindanotherconceptthatcouldcapturetheessenceofintegrationwithout

triggeringtheframesassociatedwithdesegregation,assimilation,anddiversity.Someofthefocusgroupparticipantssuggestedtheconceptof“inclusion”or“inclusivecommunities,”whileothersofferedtheconceptof“equity”or“equitablecommunities.”

Equityorintegration?Amongthosewhoproposedthe“equity”frame,therewassomeconfusionastowhethertheyvalued

integrationasanendinitselfornot.Someoftheseparticipantsviewedintegrationnotasanendinitself;instead,theyconceptualizeditassimplyonecomponent,amongmany,ofamoreequitableeducationsystem.Itmightbeusefulinthefuturetotesttheeffectivenessofthe“equity”frameand

explorewhatitmeanstohaveaninstrumentalapproachtointegrationwithinthe“equity”frame.

Otherparticipants,incontrast,reiteratedtheimportanceofholdingontotheconceptofintegration,suggestingthatitisavalueinitselfworthstrivingfor—avaluethatwehavenotyetachieved.Some

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participantsofcolorstressedthattheconceptofintegrationanditsbenefitsweretenuousandvagueinpeople’sminds.Theseparticipantsexpressedtheurgentneedtobetterdefinetheconceptandits

benefitsforthepublicinanattempttoproactivelymakeitpartofthepublicdiscourse.

Howcanweresuscitatethenotionofintegrationinthecurrentpoliticaldiscourse?Someparticipantsalsoemphasizedtheurgencyofhavinganexplicitstatewideconversationonraceand

integration,especiallyinlightofcomingelections.Oneparticipantofcolorconcurred,reiteratingtheneedtomakeracepartofthecurrentpoliticaldomaininproactiveyetstrategicways.Shesuggested,

forinstance,thatfocusgroupmembersgeneratealistofquestionsthatcouldbeposedtopoliticalcandidatespriortoupcomingelectionstoshedlightontheirstanceonraceandintegration.

Manyparticipantsagreedthatpubliclyengagingthecandidatesspecificallyonracialissuescouldbeaneffectivestrategytoplaceracialintegrationonthecurrentpoliticalagenda.Oneparticipant,however,

warnedthegroupaboutthereluctanceofindividualcandidatestomakehoneststatementsaboutraceinpublic.Henoted,instead,thestrategicusefulnessofbringingracialissuestothepoliticalplatforminasystematicfashionwithoutputtingindividualcandidatesonthespot.Heencouragedracialjustice

advocatestocreateinnovativeandconstructivepublicplatformswherecandidatescouldarticulatetheirpositiononintegrationinthesafetyofacollectivesetting.

ChallengingandovercomingthecontextofNoChildLeftBehind:theneedtoreplace“achievementvs.integration”with“achievementthroughintegration”AnotherparticipantobservedthedifficultiesthattheNoChildLeftBehind(NCLB)policyandthe

accompanyingachievementgapdiscoursecreatedforthosewhowanttotalkaboutintegration.Sheclaimedtheachievementgapdiscoursehasnegativelyframedtheintegrationconversationbypitting

integrationagainstacademicachievement.Inasimilarvein,aparticipantofcolornotedthattheachievementgapdiscoursecreatedadeficiencyframeforstudentsofcolorbyportrayingthemaslessthanwhitestudents.Manyagreedontheneedtochallengetheachievementgapdiscourse,which

inappropriatelyportraysintegrationandacademicachievementasmutuallyexclusivegoals.

Otherswentbeyondtheneedtochallengethisdiscourseandemphasizedtheimportanceoftransformingthisframe.Theyemphasizedtheneedtoshiftthecurrenteducationalconversationfromthedeficiencyframeimpliedbytheachievementgaplenstoanew,morepositiveframeabout

integrationandachievement.Theyclaimedthatreframingintegrationasameanstoacademicachievementmightbeaneffectivewaytoframeandintroduceexistingevidenceontheacademicbenefitsofintegration.

Canintegrationsurvivethedominantframeofschoolchoiceinthenewcentury?Oneparticipantbroughtupthenotionofschoolchoice,suggestingthatitmakesanymeaningfulintegrationimpossibleincontemporaryschoolenvironments.Others,bycontrast,notedtheneedto

cometotermswithschoolchoiceintalkingaboutintegration.Theystressedtheneedtoacknowledgetheimportanceofschoolchoiceformanyfamilies,especiallyfamiliesofcolorwhoaretrappedinsegregatedneighborhoods.Itmightbeworthwhileinfutureresearchtoexploresomespecificframes

thatadvocatescouldusewhenthevaluesofchoiceandintegrationclashinpeople’sminds.

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Thisisespeciallyimportantincaseswherethedominantframesetsupthediscourseasonewherechoicetrumpsintegration.Forinstance,withinthedominantframeofcurrentpoliticaldebateon

charterschools,schoolchoicehasoftenimplicitlytrumpedintegrationasavalue.Charterschooladvocatesoftenrefertoschoolchoiceasthe“civilrightsissueofthe21stcentury,”explicitlyappealingtothepopularityofschoolchoiceamongparentsofcolorwhocontinuetobedissatisfiedwithracially

segregated,failingpublicschoolswhilesimultaneouslysufferingfromintegrationfatigue.

Howcanweovercomeintegrationfatigue?Conservativecharterschooladvocateshavebeeneffectiveinusingthe“choiceasthenewcivilrightsissue”frametoadvocateforthesteadyexpansionofschoolchoiceinpubliceducation,andtotapintotheindignationfeltbymanyincommunitiesofcolorwhoexperienceintegrationfatigue.Theyhave

beenespeciallysuccessfulinusingthisframetopromotein‐placeeducationalstrategiesthatsendthemessagethatstudentsofcolorshouldbeabletoachievewherevertheyare,eveninracially‐segregated,high‐povertyschools.Theyhavethusaggressivelychallengedtherelevanceofmobility‐based

educationalstrategiesthatemphasizetheneedtomovestudentsofcolortohigh‐opportunityschools,whichareoftenpredominantlywhite.

Byeffectivelyusingthe“civilrights”frame,conservativecharterschoolopponentshaveunderminedatransformativeraceconversationinthreesignificantways:

First,byframingschoolchoiceastheexclusivemeanstorealizecivilrightsandtoaccesseducational

opportunities,theyhavealmostsealedthefateofchoiceandintegrationasmutuallyexclusivenotionsthatcannotbereconciled.Second,theyhavealmostentirelydisplacedintegrationfromtheexistingcivilrightsdiscourse,replacingitwithaframethatsuggeststhatonlyschoolchoice,notintegration,can

delivercivilrightsforall.Third,theyhavereinforcedexistinginequalitiesbyeffectivelypittingin‐placeandmobility‐basededucationstrategistsagainsteachother,underminingtheirabilitytoworkintandeminattackingthestructuresthatshrinkopportunityforall.

Byreducingcivilrightstochoice,theseconservativeadvocateshaveeffectivelylimitedthepolitical

agendaofaddressingracialequitytoonesolution‐theunlimitedexpansionofschoolchoiceevenwhenthismeansintensifyingracialsegregationinpublicschools.Theyhave,therefore,rubberstampedthesimplepolicyofmovingstudentsofcolorfromraciallysegregatedtraditionalpublicschoolstoequally,if

notmore,segregatedcharterschools.

Tothisday,thispolicycontinuestounderminetheaccessofallstudentstohigh‐qualityeducationalopportunities.Ifracialjusticeadvocatesdonotatoncereframethemanyframesthatpitintegrationagainstschoolchoice(oftenatthetotalexpenseofintegration),itwillcontinuetodoso.Thereisan

urgentneedtoofferanewframewheretheconceptsofchoiceandintegrationcancoexist.Manyparticipantsinthefocusgroupsexpressedtheurgencyofthisneedinsophisticatedandelegantterms.

Canwehavechoiceandintegration?Oneparticipantsuggestedvoluntaryintegrationthroughmagnetschoolsasapossiblewayout.Anotheronedisagreedbyclaimingthatvoluntaryintegrationthroughmagnetschoolsisoftenconceivedas

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“movingchairsonTitanic’sdeck”ifitcannoteliminateexistingstructuralbarrierstoopportunity.Manyothersexpressedtheneedtomakesurethatmagnetschoolsarenotsimplyputtingstudentsof

differentcolorsnexttoeachotherwithouttrulyintegratingthem.

Participantsemphasizedtheimportanceofadditionalpoliciestoachievetrueintegration.Noteworthyamongthesesuggestionswere:diversifyingtheteachingforce;offeringeffectiveprofessionaldevelopmenttoteacherstoenhancetheirculturalcompetence;providingatrulyintegratedcurriculum

thatcanengagestudentsfromawidevarietyofbackgrounds;andcreatingopportunitiesthatcouldpromotesocialinteractionsamongstudentsfromdifferentracialandethnicbackgroundsoutsideofschools.

Shouldwediscussintegrationin“moral”or“economic”terms?Whichoneismoreeffective?Anotherinterestingthemethatcameupduringthefocusgroupdiscussionsconcernedtheuseof

“economic”vs.“moral”framesindiscussingintegration.Participantsdisagreedaboutwhichoftheseframeswasmoreeffective.Oneparticipantarguedthatintegrationisprimarilyamoralissueandshouldbeframedassuch.Incontrast,anotherparticipantnotedthatitwasimpossibleinhisexperienceto

changepeople’smindsoneducationpolicysimplybasedonmoralarguments.Quitethecontrary,hestatedtheneedtoframeintegrationexclusivelyfromaneconomicpointofviewtoconvinceskeptics,especiallyinthecontextofthecurrenteconomicrecession.

Basedontheirexperiencesworkingwithinreligiouscommunities,otherparticipantsemphasizedthe

usefulnessoftheconceptofintegrationinenablingwhitepeopletorootouttheirprivilegeandgivingthemanopportunitytoconfess.Alongsimilarlines,oneparticipantwhospecializedintrainingpeopleinculturalcompetencestressedthespiritualdimensionofracialjustice.Shearguedthatracialjustice

advocateswouldnotbedoinganyoneaservicebyavoidingareligiousframeonintegration.Eventually,oneparticipantexplicitlyrefusedtoformulatethetwoframesasmutuallyexclusiveones,suggestinginsteadtheneedtousebothinacomplimentaryfashion.Thesameparticipant,whooriginally

suggestedtheexclusiveuseofamoralframework,expressedthegroup’sconsensuselegantly:“Weneedtoprovidepeoplewithreasonstodothemorallyrightthing.”

Anotherimportantthreadwithinthisconversationwasthepotentialeffectivenessofthe“economicframe,”especiallywhenitwasexpressedinglobalterms.Manyparticipantsexpressedtheirskepticism

ofasimpleglobaleconomicframethatposesintegrationassomethingbeneficialtonationaleconomiesoperatinginanincreasinglyglobalmarketplace.Someparticipantsofcolorsuggestedthatwhitepeopledidnotreallybuythisframe.Otherparticipantsdoubtedthatthisglobalframewasnecessarilyeffective

fortransformingthemindsofthosewhodonotreallyunderstandtheimportanceofintegrationforahealthysociety.Theyarguedthatitwasdifficultforpeopletoimaginethecomplexglobalsystemofthe21stcentury.

Canavisuallyoriented,specific“regionaleconomicframe”bemorepersuasivethananabstractandgeneric“globaleconomicframe?”Itmightbeusefultofurtherexploretheeffectivenessofthisglobalframeworkinfutureframingresearch.Whiletheeffectivenessofaglobaleconomicframeworkmightbelimitedduetothedifficulty

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ofimaginingacomplexglobalsystem,framingtheeconomicimportanceofintegrationfromametropolitanperspectivecouldbeeasiertocomprehend.Byusingregionalrealestatevaluemapsthat

showerodingrealestatevaluesinraciallysegregatedcommunities,forinstance,advocatescanvisuallydemonstratetherealeconomicharmsracialsegregationimposesoninner‐ringsuburbsandurbancoresofmetropolitanareas.Byvisuallydemonstratingthegrowingeconomiccostsofracialsegregationfor

metropolitanareas,advocatesofracialjusticecouldthendiscusshowthesecostsunderminemetropolitangrowth.

Theycancarefullyinterpretthesemapsfortheiraudience,makingsuretoclarifythatitisnotthepresenceofpeopleofcolorbuttheprevalenceofstructuralracisminaregionthatsuppressesreal

estatevaluesinthesecommunities.Theycanattributetheseeconomiccostsspecificallytotheraciallymotivatedexclusivezoningpoliciesofsuburbancommunitiesandtothefederalpublichousingpoliciesthatleadtoadisproportionateconcentrationoflow‐incomehousinginraciallysegregatedcommunities.

Theycanshowthattheseveryrealcostsresultfromcontinuingracialsegregationinaregion’sschoolsthatconcentratepovertyinraciallysegregatedschoolsandneighborhoods.

Advocatescantalkspecificallyabouttheraciallybiasedlendingpracticesthatdeprivecommunitiesofcolorfromacquiringtheirfairshareofloansintheregion—loansthattheyneedtofixtheirhomes,to

buildtheirbusiness,andtoimprovetheircommunities.Theycanestablishtheindisputableresponsibilityofrealestateagentsinimposingthesecostsontheregionbyhighlightingtheirsteeringpractices.

Nationalfairhousingstudiessuggestthatrealestateagentsinnumerouscommunitiesstillcontinueto

steerwhitefamiliesawayfromraciallydiverseneighborhoodswhilesteeringfamiliesofcolorintotheseverysameneighborhoods.Theserealestatepracticesmakeitinevitablethatraciallydiverse

communitieseventuallybecomeraciallysegregated.Racialjusticeadvocatescandiscussspecificsteeringinstancesfromtheirownregionstodemonstratethecontinuingpresenceofthesedestructivepractices.Leadingwiththeseinstances,theycanadvocatefortheneedtoestablishregionalinstitutions

thatcouldmonitorthesesteeringpracticesthroughpairedtestingstudies.

VIII. TheWayForwardTrueintegrationisfarfrombeingtherealityofthe21stcenturyAmerica.Muchworkremainstobedonetomakeitareality.TheFordFoundationcouldplayasignificantroleinlayingthefoundationofthisworkbysponsoringthreetypesofactivities:

NeedforFurtherFramingResearchFraminghelpsusnavigatetheflowofinformationandsatisfiesourneedtomakesenseoftheworld,

particularlywhenweareconflictedoverissueslikeintegration.Racialjusticeadvocatesstillhavealongwaytogoinfiguringouthowtotalkaboutraceintransformativeways.

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Forinstance,thefindingsofthefocusgroupsconfirmedtheurgentneedtochallengetheachievementgapdiscourse,whichinappropriatelyportraysintegrationandachievementasmutuallyexclusivegoals.

Weneedtotalkaboutacademicexcellenceandintegrationinnewways,reframingintegrationasameanstoacademicachievement.Thismightbeaveryeffectivewaytointroduceexistingevidenceontheacademicandsocietalbenefitsofintegration.Butwecannotbesureuntilfutureframingstudies

confirmthis.

Infutureresearch,itmightbeusefultofurtherexploretheeffectivenessofaglobalvs.regionaleconomicframeworkinframingintegration.Expandingtherepertoireofracialjusticeadvocates,especiallybyexploringnewframessuchasreligiousones,couldalsobeausefulstrategy.Afterall,the

CivilRightsMovementwasborninfaithorganizationsanditismostlikelytoflourishintheseorganizationsinthenearfuture.Futureframingresearchcould,forinstance,exploretheeffectivenessofaredemptionframeintalkingaboutintegration.

Futureframingresearchshouldalsospecificallyfocusonthefollowingquestions:

• Howdoesthe“equity”frameinteractwiththe“opportunityforall”frameinpeople’sminds?

• Doesthe“equity”frameundermineorreinforce“theopportunityforall”frame?

• Inwhatformmightthe“equity”framerunintotheriskoftriggeringazero‐summindset?Howcouldtheconceptof“equity”beframedtoavoidsuchamindset?

• Howcanweframetheconversationeffectivelywhenthevaluesof“choice”and“integration”clashinpeople’smindstomakesurethatschoolchoicedoesnottrumpintegrationasavalue?

TheNeedforaSpecificAgendaFramingmustgohandinhandwithmanyothersocialinvestmentstobringabouttheinstitutional

changesnecessarytoachievetrueintegration.

• Weneedtostartoutbydefiningwhatatrulyintegratedcurriculum,classroom,school,district,region,state,andnationlooklikeandthenworktomaketheseareality.

• Weneedtocreatechallenging,engaging,andculturallyrelevantcurriculums.

• Weneedtoequipteacherswiththeskillsandknowledgetocreatesafe,supportive,andinclusiveclassroomsandschools.

• Weneedtotrainteachers,administratorsandstafftobeculturallycompetentinordertomake

themmoreresponsivetotheneedsofanincreasinglydiversestudentbody.

• Weneedtoharnessthegenuinebenefitsofdiversitywithinandacrossschools.

• Weneedtorealizemeaningfuldiversitygoalsinalleducationalinstitutionsbyaggressively

recruitingteachers/administrators/staffofcolorandbyworkingwithteachers’unionstoeliminateunionrulesthatdiscouragethehiringofteachersofcolor.

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• Weneedtocontinuetoclarify,inthepost‐ParentsInvolvedera,theoptionsthatarelegallyavailabletoschooldistrictsinpursuingtrulyintegratedschools;andweneedtodisseminatethis

informationwidely.Post‐ParentsInvolved,schooldistrictsarestillfreetopursuesocioeconomicintegration,usingindicatorssuchasincome,wealth,andanyindicatorofparentaleducationlevels.AccordingtotheSupremeCourt,schooldistrictscanalsoberaceconsciouswhenthey

drawschoolboundaries,choosesitesfornewschools,anddirectmoneytoparticularprograms.Buttheyarelimitedtotakingintoaccounttheracialcompositionofaneighborhoodratherthantheraceofanindividualstudent.Post‐ParentsInvolved,schooldistrictsstillhaveaccessto

numerousrace‐consciouspoliciesandpracticesincluding:theuseofrace‐consciousprograms(suchasmagnetschools)orattendancezones;thetargetedrecruitingofstudentsandfaculty;thetrackingofenrollmentandperformancebyrace;andtheoptionoftyingintegrationplans

closelytoeducationalgoals.Theycanalsouseinter‐districttransferprogramsordevelopinter‐districtmagnetschoolstoalleviateracialisolationandincreaseeducationalperformance.

ThankstoagenerousgrantbytheFordFoundation,theKirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceand

Ethnicityalreadysurveyedinstitutions/individualstoidentifythosewhoareworkingonintegrationinschooldistricts.Ithasalsobeguntakingstockofthenumerouswaysintegrationhasbeenusedbydifferentconstituencies.Inthisproject,theInstituteranfocusgroupsinmultiplecommunitiestobetter

articulatetheunderstandingofdesegregationandthemessagingandframingoftrueintegration.Amongthesecommunities,wehaveachievedmanyindicatorsofsuccess;theworkintheTwinCitiesmetropolitanareahasbeenespeciallypromising.

TheNeedforanExemplaryCaseToDemonstratePossibilitiesInordertocapitalizeontheextensiveworkithasdoneintheTwinCities,theKirwanInstituteisproposingtorunapilotprojectinthisregion.Thispilotprojectwouldinvolvethefollowingactivities:

1. TrainingregionalracialjusticeadvocatesonframingandmessagingbasedontheresultsofthefocusgroupsheldintheTwinCities.

2. Assistingracialjusticeadvocatesinconstructivelycreatingavenuestousethistrainingineducatingparents,electedcommunityleaders,andotheractiviststopromotetrueintegrationinupcomingschoolboardandgeneralelections.

3. Keepingtheimportantlinksbetweenhousingandschoolsinthefrontendofcurrentpoliticaldiscussions.Afterall,eliminatingsegregationfromcommunitieswillremainachallengeunlessweaddressitsimultaneouslyinschoolsandneighborhoods.

4. Assistingracialjusticeadvocatesinstubbornlyreiteratingaregionalframethatclearlystatesthataslongashousingandjobmarketsremainregional,weneedtokeepseekingsolutionstosegregationthatareappropriatelyregionalinscope.TheKirwanInstitutewillalsoprovidethem

withassistanceinmakingthecasethatsolutionsthatfallshortofthisscopetendtotriggerthere‐segregationofneighborhoodsandschools,wipingoutanysignificantgainstowardtrueintegration.

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TheTwinCitiesMetropolitanArea:“TheRightPlaceattheRightTime”toFacilitateCollectiveActionaroundIntegrationTheTwinCitiesmetropolitanareaisaparticularlyappropriateregionforapilotproject.Theregionalreadyhasthreeuniqueinter‐districtintegrationdistrictsthatcontinuetomakeeffortstopromote

integrationintheurbancoreandtheincreasinglydiverseinner‐ringsuburbs.Moreover,theStateofMinnesotahasauniqueIntegrationRevenueProgram,whichallocatesstateaidtoschooldistrictsandthethreeinter‐districtintegrationdistrictstoassistthemintheirvoluntaryintegrationefforts.The

program,whichdistributesmorethan$80millionineducationdollarsstatewide,providessignificantresourcestotheseschooldistricts.

Inaddition,thepilotcouldyieldpositiveresultsimmediatelyduetothespecificcircumstancesintheStateofMinnesota.Recently,theveryexistenceoftheIntegrationRevenueProgramisjeopardizedand

thisprovidesuniqueopportunitiesfortheregion’sracialjusticeadvocatestobringupandreframetheissueofintegrationinatransformativefashion.Inthelastlegislativesession,staterepresentativestookontheprograminresponsetoastateauditoftheprogrambytheOfficeoftheLegislativeAuditor

(OLA).TheOLAnotedthepersistenceofsomesignificantconceptualandimplementationproblemsassociatedwiththeprogramandurgedthelegislaturetorestructuretheprogram.

Giventherecentsevererecessionandtheaccompanyingstatebudgetcuts,manyintheCapitolmoved

tokillthisprogram.Racialjusticeadvocatesmanagedtostallthesemovesbyrequesting,instead,theformationofataskforcethatcouldimprovetheexistingprogram.Butsofar,theformationofthistaskforcehasbeendelayed,anditisnotcertaintohappen.Manyconsultantsandadvocacyorganizations

workingwiththeKirwanInstitute(includingCatyRoyceandmembersofISAIAH—aregionalfaith‐basedorganizationthatworksforsocialjustice)andvariousKirwanstaffmembersarecollectivelyworkingtomakesurethatthetaskforceisconvened.49

Inaddition,theyarealsocurrentlyarrangingmeetingswithmanyofthefocusgroupparticipantsin

ordertoensurethatthemakeupofthetaskforcereflectstheopinionsoftheregion’sraciallydiversecommunity.Thebuy‐inofthesefocusgroupparticipants(importantmembersofthecommunity)willalsohelptheKirwanInstituteimpacttheframingofthemessagethatwillcomeoutofthistaskforce.

TheKirwanInstitutealsohasclosetieswiththeInstituteonRaceandPovertyinMinneapolis—anotherinstitutionalallyintheregionwhichrecentlyproposedacomprehensiveregional,incentive‐basedplantointegratetheregion’sschools.

FundingfromtheFordFoundationtosupporttheseactivitiescouldmakeacrucialdifferenceinbuilding

cruicialmomentumandmovingtheregiontoward‘trueintegration’.TheTwinCitiesmetropolitanareacanbecomeanexemplaryregiontodemonstratethepossibilityofrealizing‘trueintegration’atthenation’smetropolitanareaswithgeneroushelpfromtheFordFoundation.Thenationurgentlyneeds

suchanexampletoreallyturnAmericaintoa‘post‐racial’society.

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1TomRudd,AnnetteJohnson,CherylStaats,johna.powell,AndrewGrant‐Thomas,“TowardaTransformativeAgenda:ResourceNotebook,”KirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceandEthnicity,WorkingPaper,August2009,pp.7‐8.2DrewWesten,ThePoliticalBrain:TheRoleofEmotioninDecidingtheFateoftheNation.(NewYork,NY:PublicAffairs,2007).3Fordetailsof‘color‐blindracism’,seeEduardoBonilla‐Silva,RacismWithoutRacists:Color‐BlindRacismandthePersistenceofRacialInequalityintheUnitedStates.(Lanham,MD:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,2003).4Forastudythatshowsthat‘color‐blindracism’wasanextremelypowerfulpredictorofoppositiontoprogramssuchasaffirmativeaction,seePhilipJ.MazoccoandD.W.Newhart,“Color‐BlindRacismandOppositiontoProgressiveRacialPolicy:ANewScaleandSupportiveFindings,”2006(unpublishedmanuscriptavailableuponrequestfromtheKirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceandEthnicity).Forastudythatshowsthatrace‐consciousmessageswillberesistedbysome,especiallyconservativegroups,butonlyifthesemessagesarenotcarefullyconstructed,seePhilipMazzocco,“TheDangersofNotSpeakingAboutRace:ASummaryofResearchAffirmingtheMeritsofaColor‐ConsciousApproachtoRacialCommunicationandEquity,”(Columbus,Ohio:KirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceandEthnicity,May2006).Thestudyshowsthatmerelytalkingaboutracialdisparitiesactuallyreducessupportforprogressivepolicyamongconservatives.However,whenallthecolor‐blindframesareaddressedsimultaneously,oppositiondeclinesappreciably.5Formoreresearchontheineffectivenessofrace‐neutralstrategiesandexamplesofactualpoliticalcampaignsthatsucceededwithrace‐consciousmessages,seeTheCenterforSocialInclusion,ThinkingChange:Race,FramingandthePublicConversationonDiversity.WhatSocialScienceTellsAdvocatesAboutWinningSupportforRacialJusticePolicies.(NewYork,NY):2005.6PhilipMazzocco,“TheDangersofNotSpeakingAboutRace:ASummaryofResearchAffirmingtheMeritsofaColor‐ConsciousApproachtoRacialCommunicationandEquity,”(Columbus,Ohio:KirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceandEthnicity,May2006),p.3.7PhilipMazzocco,“TheDangersofNotSpeakingAboutRace:ASummaryofResearchAffirmingtheMeritsofaColor‐ConsciousApproachtoRacialCommunicationandEquity,”(Columbus,Ohio:KirwanInstitutefortheStudyofRaceandEthnicity,May2006),p.3.8‘High‐levelframes,’whicharedeepervaluesinanindividual’scognitivesystem,tendtomattermoretopeople.GeorgeLakoffarguesthat“inpolitics,thehigh‐levelframesarethemoralsystemsthatdefinewhatis‘right’foraconservativeorprogressive.”Formoreon‘high‐levelmoralframes’and‘framesystems,’seeGeorgeLakoff,“DisasterMessaging,”HuffingtonPost,July8,2010,availableathttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/george‐lakoff/disaster‐messaging_b_639040.html(accessed07/23/2010).9GeorgeLakoff,“DisasterMessaging,”HuffingtonPost,July8,2010,availableathttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/george‐lakoff/disaster‐messaging_b_639040.html(accessed07/23/2010).10GeorgeLakoff,“DisasterMessaging,”HuffingtonPost,July8,2010,availableathttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/george‐lakoff/disaster‐messaging_b_639040.html(accessed07/23/2010).11GeorgeLakoff,“DisasterMessaging,”HuffingtonPost,July8,2010,availableathttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/george‐lakoff/disaster‐messaging_b_639040.html(accessed07/23/2010).

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12Foradiscussionofwhatthissuccessfulconservativemessagingsystementails,seeGeorgeLakoff,“DisasterMessaging,”HuffingtonPost,July8,2010,availableathttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/george‐lakoff/disaster‐messaging_b_639040.html(accessed07/23/2010).13RobertM.Entman.HowtheMediaAffectWhatPeopleThink:AnInformationProcessingApproach.TheJournalofPolitics(1989),51:347‐370CambridgeUniversityPress.14RobertM.Entman.2007.Framingbias:Mediainthedistributionofpower.JournalofCommunication,57(1):163–173.15RobertM.Entman.2007.Framingbias:Mediainthedistributionofpower.JournalofCommunication,57(1):163–173.16Seeforexample:Hacker,HollyK.,Hobbs,TawnellD.(2010,June6).BlackflightchangingDISDmakeup.TheDallasMorningNews.http://www.dallasnews.com.17Oneplacethisdidappearwasinareviewofanacademicreportat:Chang,C.(2010,June8).MinnesotareportblastsracialsegregationinNewOrleanspublicschools.TheTimes‐Picayune.http://www.nola.com/education/index.ssf/2010/06/minnesota_report_finds_racism.html18Seeforexample:Poulou,P.(2010,June10).DiverseHighSchoolBattlesLowTestScores,HighDrop‐outRate.VoiceofAmerica.http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/education/Diverse‐High‐School‐Battles‐Low‐Test‐Scores‐High‐Drop‐out‐Rate‐95789904.html19Seeforexample:LawsuitchallengesJCPSstudentassignmentplan.June16,2010.www.fox41.com.20Seethiswellrepresentedbytwohighschoolstudentsat:Durrani,Haris,Manely,Cole.(2010,June14).Bubble‐Wrapped:BeyondStaples,StudentsFaceHigherLevelsofDiversity.InklingNews.Retrievedfrom:http://inklingnews.com/archives/678621Foranexampleofanarticledocumentingschooldisparitiesmorecomprehensivelysee:Palka,MaryKelli.(2010,June18).OneDuvalschoolgetsleftbehind,whileanotherthrives.TheFloridaTimesUnion.Retrievedfrom:http://jacksonville.com/news/metro/2010‐06‐04/story/one‐school‐gets‐left‐behind‐while‐another‐one‐thrives.22Seeforexamplethisarticlewhichsuggestsraceisafactorbutneverdirectlyaddressesit:Buist,Steve.(2010,June17).Incomeintegrationneedstobeaddressed.TheSpec.com.Retrievedfrom:http://www.thespec.com/printArticle/790583.23TheKirwanInstitute.FinalReportonDiversityStrategiestotheOhioStateBoardofEducation.Draftinprogress.24Seeafulldiscussionofthisat:TheKirwanInstitute.(2010,March10).MontclairPublicSchools:FocusGroupsFinalReport.Onlineat:http://kirwaninstitute.org/publicationspresentations/publications/.25DeLuca,Stefanie,Dayton,Elizabeth.(2009).SwitchingSocialContexts:TheEffectsofHousingMobilityandSchoolChoiceProgramsonYouthOutcomes.AnnualReviewofSociology,35,457‐491.26Kurlaender,Michal,Yun,JohnT.Measuring.(February2007).MeasuringSchoolRacialCompositionandStudentOutcomesinaMultiracialSociety.AmericanJournalofEducation,113,213‐242.27BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.414.28BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.419.

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29BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.420.30BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.420.31BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.416.32FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.8.33FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.8.34JonHansonandKathleenHanson,“TheBlameFrame:Justifying(Racial)InjusticeinAmerica,”HarvardCivilRights‐CivilLibertiesLawReview,vol.41(2006),especiallypp.413,416‐417,427‐428.35BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.414.36BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.414.37FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.38FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.39FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.40FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.41ForadefinitionofsimplifyingmodelsandanexplanationofFrameWorks’researchmethods,seehttp://www.frameworksinstitute.org/methods.html.42FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.43FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.44FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.10.45BillKennedy,EmilyFisherandColinBailey,“FraminginRace‐Conscious,AntipovertyAdvocacy:AScience‐BasedGuidetoDeliveringYourMostPersuasiveMessage,”ClearinghouseReviewJournalofPovertyLawandPolicy(Jan/Feb2010):408‐421,p.415.46FrameWorksInstitute,“TalkingAboutDisparities:TheEffectofFrameChoicesonSupportforRace‐BasedPolicies:AFrameWorksInstituteMessageBrief,”p.8.47johnpowell,“ANewTheoryofIntegratedEducation:TrueIntegration,”inJohnCharlesBogerandGaryOrfield(eds.)SchoolResegregation:MusttheSouthTurnBack?(ChapelHill,NC:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2005),pp.281‐304.

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48johnpowell,“ANewTheoryofIntegratedEducation:TrueIntegration,”inJohnCharlesBogerandGaryOrfield(eds.)SchoolResegregation:MusttheSouthTurnBack?(ChapelHill,NC:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2005),pp.281‐304.

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School Integration Framing & Messagingkirwaninstitute.osu.edu/reports/2010/08_2010... · Newspapers and blogs across the country are daily addressing the achievement gap, schools’